CHAPTERONE.

MEANI
NG,
NATUREANDCLASSI
FICATI
ONOFLAW.

Meani
ngandI
mpor
tanceofLegalMet
hod.

Legalmet
hodr
efer
stot
hesubj
ectt
hatt
eaches,
student
stechni
quesofhowt
ofi
ndt
he
l
aw,wher
etof
indi
t,how t
oappl
ythel
aw.I
tisasubj
ectt
hatcut
sacr
ossal
llegal
subj
ectbecauset
heski
l
lst
hatar
elear
ntoutofl
egalmet
hodwi
l
lbeappl
i
cabl
einal
l
aspect
sofl
aw.

TheI
mpor
tanceofLegalMet
hod.

i
) Legalmet
hodt
eachesst
udent
sonhow t
oappl
yabst
ractl
egalconcept
sto
f
act
ual
sit
uat
ion.

i
i
)Legalmet
hodal
sot
eachesst
udent
showt
ofi
ndaut
hor
it
ati
vel
egalmat
eri
aland
howt
oappl
ythem i
nagi
vensi
tuat
ion.

i
i
i)Legal
met
hodcov
ersabr
oadt
askt
hroughst
atut
oryi
nter
pret
ati
on.

NB:I
nast
ateasmal
l
estuni
tofast
atei
saf
ami
l
y.So,i
nfami
l
ynor
mal
l
ygov
ernedby
t
her
ules,whenf
ami
l
iescomet
oget
herwi
thdi
ff
erentr
ules,t
heyshar
ecommonr
ules
neut
ral
i
zei
ntocust
omswi
thpassageoft
imet
oti
mesomeoft
hesecust
omscr
yst
all
i
ze
t
olaw whi
chi
srecogni
zedandpassedbyt
hest
ate.Nor
mal
l
yther
emustbeusage
consi
der
abl
eper
iodoft
imebecomel
aw.

Whenaper
sont
alksaboutt
het
erm“
law”i
snor
mal
l
yusedbypeopl
ebutnotsomuchi
n
t
ermsofpar
ti
cul
arl
awsbuti
nter
msofsy
stem.Whenaper
sont
alksofl
awasasy
stem
i
tisnor
mal
l
yequat
edt
otheGov
ernmentandl
egalsy
stem,
lawi
nter
msofl
egalsy
stem
consi
stsofpar
li
ament
,cour
ts,l
egalpr
ofessi
on,apol
i
ceandbur
eaucr
acyt
hatser
vices
i
nsi
sts.

Lawmayal
soequat
edt
olegalpr
ocess,whensomeonet
alksofl
awasal
egalpr
ocess
onepr
imar
il
yref
erst
othel
egi
slat
ivepr
ocess,j
udi
cialpr
ocess.Whenl
awi
sref
err
edt
o
asal
egalpr
ocess,oner
efer
stohow t
heJudgesdeci
descasesorwhati
sknownas

1
adj
udi
cat
ionorhowt
hel
awsar
emade.

Meani
ngofl
aw.

Lawhasbeenapar
adoxofl
egalsci
enceov
erages.JohnAust
indef
inesl
awasabody
ofcommandsofsov
erei
gnaut
hor
it
ywi
thsanct
ions.Howev
er,t
hisdef
ini
ti
onhasbeen
chal
l
engedbecausecommandi
snoti
ntegr
alf
eat
uref
oral
llawsapar
tfr
om t
hepenal
l
aws.Law nor
mal
l
yexi
stsi
napol
i
tical
l
yor
gani
zessoci
etyast
ohow manshoul
d
conductt
hemsel
ves.Hol
l
andont
heot
herhand,def
inesl
aw asr
ulesofhumanact
ion
setbyadet
ermi
nat
ehumanaut
hor
it
y.Al
so,ThomasAqui
nasat
tempt
edt
odef
inel
aw
asar
ati
onal
orderf
orcommongoodenact
edbyl
egi
ti
mat
epower
.

I
ngener
al,l
awent
ail
saf
ramewor
kofpr
inci
plest
hatspel
l
soutwhatcanbedoneand
whatcannotbedonei
nasoci
ety
.

I
nbr
oadersense,l
aw ent
ail
sei
therl
egalor
derort
hewhol
ebodyofl
egalper
cept
s
agr
eementofmeni
napol
i
tical
l
yor
gani
zedsoci
ety
.Basi
cal
l
ylaw ent
ail
sabodyof
agr
eementofmeni
napol
i
tical
l
yor
gani
zedsoci
etyast
othei
rrel
ati
onswi
thoneanot
her
.
I
tisphi
l
osophi
cal
l
ydi
scov
eredsy
stem ofpr
inci
pleswhi
chexpr
esst
henat
ureoft
hings
t
owhi
chman’
sconductoughtt
oabi
deby
.

Nat
ureofLaw.

Nor
mat
ivi
tyi
samong t
hebasi
cfeat
uresdi
sti
ngui
shi
ng sev
eralr
ulesorst
andar
ds
gov
erni
ng t
he soci
ety f
orm t
he l
aw. Whi
l
e mor
al st
andar
ds ar
e mer
ely
r
ecommendat
ions,l
awont
heot
herhandi
snor
mat
ivei
nthesenset
hati
tisobl
i
gat
ory
hencet
hesubj
ect
sdonotabi
debyi
tasamat
terofchoi
ce.Howev
er,
compl
i
ancet
olaw
i
snotnecessar
il
ypr
ompt
edbysanct
ionsbecauseatt
imescompl
i
ancei
samat
terof
i
nter
nalconv
ict
ions.Gener
all
y,t
hel
aw at
tract
slegalsanct
ionsi
nthef
orm off
ine,
i
mpr
isonmentorcust
omar
il
yrecogni
zedsanct
ionsamongot
her
swhi
char
egear
ed
ensur
ingcompl
i
ance.Forexampl
eacommoncust
omar
ysanct
ionamongt
heSukuma
Peopl
eint
hel
akezone,Tanzani
aisknownasKut
uli
j
ainwhi
chamemberofsoci
ety

2
may be decl
ared out
castf
orsoci
aldi
sobedi
ence.Howev
er,cust
omar
y orsoci
al
sanct
ionsar
enotnecessar
yendor
sedi
nthest
atel
egal
syst
em.

LawandMor
ali
ty.

Al
thoughl
aw pl
aysani
mpor
tantr
olei
nthesoci
ali
nter
cour
se,mostofsoci
alact
ions
ar
egov
ernedbymor
ali
tyandatsomepoi
ntsl
aw andmor
ali
tyi
nter
secteachot
her
.
Mor
ali
ty and l
aw r
egul
ate soci
ali
nter
cour
se atdi
ff
erentangl
es.Mor
ali
ti
es ar
e
sanct
ionedbyt
hecommuni
tyasawhol
eandnott
hroughdet
ermi
nat
emachi
ner
yast
he
caseoft
hel
aw.Al
sol
aw concer
nswi
tht
hephy
sicalor
derasopposedt
oabst
ract
phenomenon.Compl
i
ancet
omor
ali
tyi
snor
mal
l
yappeal
edt
osuper
nat
ural
,thusr
esul
ts
f
rom consci
enceori
nter
nalconv
ict
ion.Conv
ersel
ythel
awact
sext
ernal
l
yandnor
mal
l
y
enf
orcedt
hroughext
ernal
for
cet
hroughsanct
ion.

FUNCTI
ONOFLAW.

Regul
ator
yfunct
ion.

Lawi
sar
egul
ator
yfr
amewor
koft
hesoci
etyal
bei
titi
snott
heonl
yoneasnot
edbef
ore.
Ot
herv
alues t
hatr
egul
atet
he soci
etyi
ncl
ude mor
als,r
eli
gious r
it
es and et
hics.
Essent
ial
l
y,i
tregul
atest
hesoci
ali
nter
cour
seamongt
hei
ndi
vi
dual
subj
ect
sint
erseand
t
her
elat
ionshi
prespect
ivel
y.Thel
aw t
iesupst
ateaut
hor
it
ieswi
thi
nthepr
opor
ti
onal
andl
egi
ti
mat
elegal
bounds.Thusi
tconf
inespower
swi
thi
nthedi
ctat
esoft
hel
aw.

Pr
event
ivef
unct
ion.

Lawi
nhi
bit
sorf
orbi
dvar
iouswr
ongshencei
tisal
soknownaspr
ohi
bit
ivef
unct
ion.I
t
essent
ial
l
ypr
ohi
bit
sdef
iantbehav
ioroft
hesubj
ect
sandt
hest
atemachi
ner
ies.

Di
rect
ivef
unct
ion.

Thel
awpr
ovi
desbot
hsubst
ant
iveandpr
ocedur
aldi
rect
ivesonhowr
esponsi
bil
i
tiescan
beper
for
med.Fori
nst
anceundert
heConst
it
uti
oni
fthepr
esi
dentf
indsi
tnecessar
yto
decl
are st
ate ofemer
gence t
her
e ar
e setofdi
rect
ives such as submi
ssi
on of

3
 1
pr
ocl
amat
iont
othespeakerwhi
chi
sbasi
cal
l
yanexampl
eofpr
ocedur
aldi
rect
ive.

SOURCEOFLAW.

Thel
egalsy
stem ofanycount
ryr
ecogni
zesdi
ver
sesour
cesofl
aw.Amongt
hebasi
c
sour
cesofl
awi
nTanzani
aincl
udesconst
it
uti
on,st
atut
es,cust
omar
ylaw,I
slami
claw,
casel
awandr
ecei
vedl
aws.

a)Const
it
uti
on.

Aconst
it
uti
oni
sal
soasour
ceofl
awi
nTanzani
aandal
llawspassedbyt
hel
egi
slat
ure
mustconf
ormt
otheconst
it
uti
on,al
aw whi
chi
srepugnantt
otheconst
it
uti
onor
i
nconsi
stentt
otheconst
it
uti
oni
snul
landv
oidt
othatext
entasperAr
ti
cle64(
5)oft
he
Const
it
uti
onofUni
tedRepubl
i
cofTanzani
a.Al
llawsmustconf
ormt
otheconst
it
uti
on
ofUni
tedRepubl
i
cofTanzani
a.Ther
efor
e,t
hel
egi
slat
urecanonl
ypassedl
aw whi
ch
cannotcont
radi
ctorcont
rav
enet
heconst
it
uti
onandt
hati
swhysomeaut
hor
sar
gued
t
hati
nTanzani
a,t
her
eisnopar
li
ament
arysupr
emacybutconst
it
uti
onal
supr
emacy
.

b)St
atut
es.

St
atut
esar
eal
llawspassedbypar
li
amenti
nit
slegi
slat
urecapaci
ty.St
atut
escanbe
pr
inci
palandsubsi
diar
ylegi
slat
ion.Howev
er,pr
inci
pall
egi
slat
ional
llawspassedby
par
li
amentandsubsi
diar
ylegi
slat
ionar
enor
mal
l
ynotpassedbypar
li
amentbutbyt
he
Mi
nist
erconcer
nedbutsomet
imesar
ecal
l
edDel
egat
edLegi
slat
ion.

c)Recei
vedLaw.

Apar
tfr
om l
egi
sl
ati
ons,Tanzani
aappl
i
esr
ecei
vedl
aws.Justf
rom t
hecol
oni
aler
a,
di
ver
seEngl
i
shl
awswer
erecei
vedcov
eri
ngt
hegapoft
heexi
sti
ngl
egalf
ramewor
k.
Thecol
oni
alst
atei
mpor
tedt
heCommonl
aw,
doct
ri
neofequi
tyandSt
atut
esofGener
al
Appl
i
cat
ionwhi
chwer
einf
orcei
nEngl
andbef
oret
her
ecept
iondat
e,22ndJul
y,1920.Of
t
odat
ethecour
tshav
ebeenr
esor
ti
ngbackt
orecei
vedl
awswher
eagapi
sspot
tedi
n

1
Ar
t.32(
3),
CURT

4
t
heexi
sti
ngl
aws.

d)Cust
omar
ylaw.

Cust
omsar
econsi
stentl
ongst
andi
ngusagesandpr
act
icesoft
hesoci
etywi
thi
nher
ent
l
egalf
orce.Cust
omswer
eappl
i
cabl
einTangany
ikabef
oreanddur
ingcol
oni
alper
iod
andoft
odat
e.I
nthepr
e-col
oni
aler
aitext
endedt
oci
vi
landcr
imi
nalmat
ter
s;howev
er
t
hecol
oni
alst
atel
i
mit
ed i
tto ci
vi
lmat
ter
s.Cur
rent
ly,t
hecust
omar
ylaw gov
erns
per
sonalmat
ter
ssuchasmar
ri
age,l
egi
ti
mizat
ionofchi
l
drenandsuccessi
onamong
2
ot
her
spr
ovi
dedt
hatpar
ti
est
othesamecommuni
ty. Howev
er,notal
lcust
omar
yrul
e
wi
l
lbeaccept
edasasour
ceofl
aw unl
essi
tisnotr
epugnantt
otheConst
it
uti
onor
r
ulesofnat
ural
just
ice.

e)I
slami
claw.

I
tisar
eli
gious l
aw appl
i
cabl
ein mat
ter
s ofper
sonalnat
ure such as mar
ri
age,
successi
onanddi
vor
cewher
ebot
hpar
ti
esconf
essI
slami
crel
i
gion.I
nthecoastofEast
Af
ri
ca,
theappl
i
cat
ionoft
hesel
awscanbet
racedf
rom t
heear
lycont
actwi
tht
heAr
abs
he7th Cent
byt uryhav
ingdomi
nat
edt
hecoast
alar
easandt
hel
ongdi
stancer
out
esi
n
Cent
ral
andNor
thWestTangany
ika.

f
)Int
ernat
ionall
aw.

I
nter
nat
ionall
egali
nst
rument
sandcust
omsar
eot
hersour
cesofl
aw i
nTanzani
a.
St
atesar
eboundbyi
nter
nat
ionali
nst
rument
sandi
ndeed,
der
ivev
ari
ousl
egalpr
inci
ples
f
rom i
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Oncebecomeasour
ceofl
aw,t
hecount
ryhast
orat
if
yat
reat
y
andbecomeappl
i
cabl
eindomest
icl
egal
syst
em.

Forexampl
e,t
hel
aw gov
erni
ng expl
oit
ati
on ofmar
iner
esour
cesi
n Tanzani
ahas
si
gni
fi
cant
lybor
rowedi
tspr
inci
plesf
rom t
heUN Conv
ent
ionont
heLaw oft
heSea,

2
Sect
ion11(
1),
TheJudi
cat
ureandAppl
i
cat
ionofLawsAct[
CAP358R.
E2002]
.

5
1982.Si
mil
arl
y,mostoft
heconst
it
uti
onsext
ractt
hef
undament
alhumanr
ight
sfr
om
di
ver
sei
nter
nat
ional
legal
inst
rument
s.

g)Pr
ecedent
s.

Ar
edeci
dedcaseorpr
ecedent
sfor
m abedr
ockoft
heCommonl
awl
egalsy
stem.Case
l
aw amongot
hert
hingsr
educest
hegapi
ntheexi
sti
ngl
awsbesi
desdev
elopi
ngt
he
l
egal
pri
nci
ples.

CLASSI
FICATI
ONOFLAW.

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofl
awmayhar
dlybeexhaust
ive.Gener
all
yitmaydependonf
act
orssuch
asscopeofappl
i
cat
ion,r
ole,f
orm andot
herf
act
ors.Amongstt
hecommoncat
egor
ies
ofl
awi
ncl
udet
hef
oll
owi
ng;

1.Commonl
aw.

I
tisabodyofnor
ms,doct
ri
nesandr
ulesr
oot
ingf
rom t
hecommonv
aluesorcust
oms
oft
he Engl
i
sh peopl
e whi
ch wer
e whi
ch dev
eloped byt
he cour
tgov
erni
ng t
hei
r
i
nter
cour
se.Thedev
elopmentofcommonl
aw owesmuchf
rom t
heNor
man(
French)
Conquestby1066.Fol
l
owi
ngt
heconquestKi
ngHenr
yIIappoi
ntedr
epr
esent
ati
vesi
nal
l
shi
res(
prov
inces)i
n1854t
ost
udyt
heconductofl
ocalcour
tsandadmi
nist
rat
ionof
j
ust
ice.Ther
ecommendat
ionsoft
her
epr
esent
ati
vesr
esul
tedi
ntof
ormat
ionofci
rcui
ts
ofcour
tspopul
aryknownasj
l ust
ici
aeer
rant
es(
wonder
ingj
ust
ice)r
epl
aci
ngt
hel
ocal
cour
ts,i
tal
soext
ract
eddi
ver
seEngl
i
shr
ules whi
chduecour
sedev
elopedabodyof
r
ulesappl
i
cabl
eint
hecour
tthr
ough outt
hest
ate namel
yCommon Law.I
twas
“
CommonLaw”becausei
tev
olv
edf
rom commonv
aluesoft
hepeopl
eandr
efi
nedf
rom
embr
yoni
cst
aget
oful
l
yfl
edgeddev
elopmentt
hroughj
udi
cial
deci
sion.

2.Equi
ty.

6
 3
Li
ter
aryequi
tymeansnat
uralj
ust
ice. I
tisabr
anchofEngl
i
shl
awwhi
chwasdev
eloped
t
ocompl
ementcommonl
awwhi
chwassohar
shandr
igi
d.I
nit
ial
l
ypeopl
eaggr
iev
edby
commonl
aw cour
tspet
it
ionedt
hei
rgr
iev
ancest
othecr
ownbei
ngt
hef
ount
ainof
j
ust
ice.I
ntheduecour
secour
tofchancer
ywasest
abl
i
shedt
oadmi
nist
erj
ust
iceon
subst
ant
ial
just
iceappl
yi
ngt
her
ulesoff
air
nessnamel
yequi
ty.

3.Subst
ant
ivel
aw.

I
tref
erst
othel
awt
hati
sconcer
nedwi
thr
ight
s,power
sanddut
iesoft
hepeopl
e.For
exampl
e,t
heLawofCont
ractcr
eat
esr
ight
sanddut
iesofpar
ti
esandFami
l
yLawdeal
s
wi
thmat
ri
moni
alr
ight
sandobl
i
gat
ions.

4.Pr
ocedur
alLaw.

Thi
slay
sdownaf
ramewor
kforr
eal
i
zat
ionofr
ight
sbyf
aci
l
itat
ingenf
orcementofr
ight
s.
Thi
scat
egor
yofl
aw i
sal
soknownasadj
ect
ivel
aw,t
hegoodexampl
ebei
ngt
heCi
vi
l
Pr
ocedur
eCode[
CAP33R.
E2002]
.

5.Publ
icLaw.

Publ
i
claw deal
swi
tht
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
hest
ateaut
hor
it
iesandt
hei
ndi
vi
dual
subj
ect
s,spel
l
ingoutt
her
eci
procalr
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
hest
atemachi
ner
iesandt
he
peopl
e.Cr
imi
nal
Law,
Const
it
uti
onandAdmi
nist
rat
ivel
awar
eamongt
hepubl
i
claw.

6.Pr
ivat
eLaw.

I
ndi
vi
dual
snor
mal
l
yfal
lint
ospont
aneousr
elat
ionsf
orwhi
chr
equi
resl
egalf
ramewor
k
t
odef
ineandpr
otectr
ight
sandobl
i
gat
ions.Theser
elat
ionshi
psar
egov
ernedbyt
he
pr
ivat
elaw.Thus,pr
ivat
elawi
sconcer
nedwi
tht
hepr
ivat
eint
erest
s,r
ight
sanddut
ies
amongt
hei
ndi
vi
dualsubj si
ect nt
erse.Pr
ivat
elawpr
inci
pal
l
yisconcer
nednotwi
tht
he
st
atebutwi
tht
hepr
ivat
edomai
noft
hei
ndi
vi
dual
ssuchascont
ract
sandt
ort
s.

NOTE.

Thedi
sti
nct
ionbet
weenpubl
i
candpr
ivat
elaw maynotbewat
ert
ightbecauset
hemoder
nst
ates

3
Wi
l
li
ams,
G,(
1982)
,Lear
ningt
heLaw;
Uni
ver
sal
lawPubl
i
shi
ngCo.Pv
tLt
d,p.
26

7
 ent
eri
ntocont
ract
ualr
elat
ionshi
pther
ebyf
all
i
ngi
ntot
hepur
view ofpr
ivat
elaw.I
nthatcase
def
ini
ngpr
ivat
elawbyf
ocusi
ngonpr
ivat
eindi
vi
dual
sandexcl
udi
ngt
hest
atemaycr
eat
edebat
e.Al
l
i
nal
lthest
atef
all
sint
opr
ivat
elawasanexcept
iont
othegener
alr
ule.Ofi
mpor
tance,
pri
vat
elawi
s
si
gni
fi
cant
lysubj
ect
edt
othewi
sh,
int
erest
sanddi
scr
eti
onoft
hei
ndi
vi
dual
swhomaysetst
andar
ds
oft
hei
rownchoi
ce.Forexampl
eincont
ract
,par
ti
eshav
efr
eedom t
osett
ermsoft
hei
rchoi
ceand
ev
enwheni
tcomest
osui
ngi
tremai
nsaquest
ionofchoi
ceasopposedt
opubl
i
clawt
hatmaynot
hav
enosuchr
oom,
thust
hest
atenor
mal
l
yint
erv
enesi
naccor
dancet
otheexi
sti
ngr
uleswhenev
er
publ
i
clawi
sdi
sobey
ed.

7.I
nter
nat
ionall
aw.

I
tisabr
anchofl
awt
hatdeal
swi
tht
hei
nter
act
ionamongt
hest
atesandi
nter
nat
ional
soci
eti
es.Basi
cal
l
yint
ernat
ionall
aw camet
oregul
ateani
nev
itabl
eint
eract
ioni
nthe
i
nter
nat
ionalcommuni
ty.Asabodyofl
aw,
int
ernat
ionall
awencompassesconv
ent
ional
andcust
omar
yrul
es.Conv
ent
ionalr
ulesr
esul
tfr
om agr
eementwhi
l
ecust
omar
yrul
es
ent
ail
usagesandpr
act
icesoft
hei
nter
nat
ional
communi
ty.

8.Muni
cipalLaw.

Thi
sent
ail
sthel
egalf
ramewor
korl
awsgov
erni
ngt
hedomest
icori
nter
nalaf
fai
rsof
t
hest
atewi
tht
err
it
ori
ali
mpl
i
cat
ioni
nthesensei
tbi
ndsev
erysubj
ecti
nthest
ate.
Al
thought
hemuni
cipall
awdoesnotgener
all
yext
endbey
ondt
het
err
it
ori
alboundar
ies,
f
orci
ti
zens i
thas nat
ional
i
tyi
mpl
i
cat
ions.Thus i
tbi
nds a ci
ti
zen i
rr
espect
ive of
r
esi
denceort
err
it
ori
alconsi
der
ati
on.

8
 CHAPTERTWO.

LEGALLANGUAGE,
LANGUAGEOFTHECOURTANDLEGALRESEARCH&WRI
TING.

LegalLanguage.

Thi
sref
erst
othel
anguaget
othel
anguagecust
omar
il
yusedbyl
awy
ersi
nthecour
seof
di
schar
gingpr
ofessi
onalr
esponsi
bil
i
ties.Legall
anguageorl
anguageofl
aw doesnot
r
efert
oapar
ti
cul
arl
anguage;i
tent
ail
saspeci
esofl
anguagewi
thdi
sti
nct
ivef
eat
ures
nor
mal
l
yusedbyl
awy
ersorl
egalper
sonnel
.Indeedi
tispecul
i
arbecausei
tsf
eat
ures
makei
tdi
ff
icul
tforl
ayment
ounder
standev
enwhenusedi
nacommonl
i
nguaf
ranca.
Basi
ngoni
tssal
i
entf
eat
uresal
egaldocumentmayhar
dlybeunder
stoodev
enbya
speci
ali
sti
nlanguage.

Hi
stor
ical
backgr
oundt
othel
egall
anguage.

Legall
anguageev
olv
esi
nahi
stor
icaldi
scour
seandbasi
cal
l
yitowesmuchf
rom t
he
l
ati
n speaki
ng mi
ssi
onar
ies,Nor
mans,and Ger
mans si
nce i
ts dev
elopmentwas
i
nvar
iabl
yassoci
atedt
oEur
opeanexpansi
oni
sm.Theexpansi
oni
sm l
eftasi
gni
fi
cant
l
egacyi
ntheBr
it
ishl
egalsy
stem wher
eassev
eralFr
enchwor
dssuchasat
tor
ney
,
def
endant
,indi
ctment
,jur
y,demur
reraswel
lasLat
inwor
dsl
i
kev
ersus,cav
eatempt
or,
oweswer
eimpor
ted.

Feat
uresofl
egall
anguage.

a)Useofcommonwor
dswi
thuncommonmeani
ng.

9
Nor
mal
l
ylawy
ersusecommonwor
dswi
tht
echni
calmeani
ng.Al
thought
hewor
dsmay
hav
ecommonuse,
mayhar
dlybeunder
stoodbyl
ayper
sonswhenusedi
nlegal
cont
ext
.
Forexampl
e,awor
dsui
twhi
chi
ntheor
dinar
ysenser
efer
stoat
ti
reorcl
othes,i
nlegal
cont
exti
tmeansacaseorl
egal
act
ioncont
rar
ytot
heor
dinar
ymeani
ngoft
hewor
ds.

b)Useofol
dlanguage.

I
nlegaldocumenti
tiscommont
ocomeacr
ossar
chai
cort
ofi
ndwor
dswhi
char
eno
l
ongercommonl
yused.Cur
rent
lyar
chai dssuchasbequeat
cwor h,wi
tneset
h,t
hyand
dot
har
est
il
ll
argel
yusedappar
ent
lyf
ort
hesakepr
est
ige.

OLDENGLI
SH:Idot
hwi
tneset
hthet
est
amentont
his15thDayofJanuar
y,
2016

MODERNENGLSI
H:Idowi
tnesst
het
est
amentont
his15thDayofJanuar
y,
2016

c)Lat
inwor
dsar
efr
equent
lyused.

Asnot
edbef
oret
hel
egalsci
enceowesmuchf
rom t
heCont
inent
alEur
opeespeci
all
y
f
rom t
heLat
inspeaki
ngst
ates.Banki
ngf
rom t
hehi
stor
yofl
egalsci
encei
tisnot
sur
pri
si
ngt
ofi
ndl
egall
anguagef
eat
uredwi
thmanyLat
i dssuchasal
nwor ibi
,locus
st
andi
andmanyot
her
s.Thesewor
dsser
vet
hepur
poseofuni
for
mit
y,br
evi
tyand
r
etent
ionoft
heor
igi
nal
impr
essi
onormeani
ngofwor
ds.

d)Fr
equentuseoff
ormatwor
ds.

Legall
anguagei
snor
mal
l
yver
yfor
mal
,indeedf
rozenst
yle,f
ori
nst
anceaj
udgei
s
nor
mal
l
yaddr
essedasLor
dorLor
dshi
p,myLor
dwhi
l
eaMagi
str
ateasy
ourhonouror
honour
abl
e.

10
 e)Useofappeal
ingwor
dsorphr
ases.

Al
awy
ernor
mal
l
yuseanar
tofl
anguaget
o conv
incet
hebench,f
ori
nst
ancean
At
tor i
neymaysay“fi
tpl
easesy
ourl
ordshi
p,Ipr
ayf
orat
empor
aryi
njuct
ion.
”

f
) Pol
it
eexpr
essi
onofdi
sagr
eement
.

Pr
inci
pal
l
ythel
awy
ersusepol
i
teway
sinexpr
essi
ngdi
sagr
eementwi
tht
hebench.For
exampl
e,whenaj
udgehasmadeadeci
sioni
nignor
anceofl
aworcont
rar
ytot
hel
aw,
a
l
awy
ercannotsayt
heJudgewaswr
ongbutwi
l
lnor
mal
l
ysayhi
slor
dshi
per
redi
nlawor
mi
sleadhi
msel
f.

g)Useofphr
asesandcompl
exsent
enced.

I
nlegall
anguagecompl
exsent
encesar
ecommonl
yused.Ther
ati
onal
ebehi
ndt
his
appr
oachi
stoat
tai
ncl
ari
tybyaccommodat
ingsev
eralcondi
ti
ons,f
ori
nst
ancei
nthe
Cr
imi
nal
Procedur
eActt
her
ear
esev
eral
compl
exsent
enceasdemonst
rat
edbel
ow.

S.
9(1)I
nanycr
imi
nalcaseandatanyst
aget
her
eofbef
orev
erdi
ctorj
udgment
,ast
hecasemaybe,t
he
Di
rect
orofPubl
i
cPr
osecut
ionsmayent
eranol
l
epr
oseque,ei
therbyst
ati
ngi
ncour
torbyf
ormi
ngt
he
cour
tconcer
nedi
nwr
it
ingonbehal
foft
heRepubl
i
cthatt
hepr
oceedi
ngshal
lnotcont
inue.
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
.

h)Cl
ust
eri
ngofdi
ff
erentwor
dswi
thsi
mil
armeani
ng.

Lawy
ersmaysayt
hesamet
hingi
ndi
ff
erentway
s.Al
thought
hel
ayper
sonsmay
per
cei
vesi
tasadel
i
ber
ateabuseofl
anguagecal
cul
atedt
oconf
uset
hem,t
hepr
act
ice
i
sgear
edt
owar
dsr
eal
i
zingemphasi
zeandcl
ari
ty.

I
,ALLENKAMI
NDA,oft
het
ownofKi
nondonii
nDaresSal
aam Ci
ty,doher
ebyandunr
eser
vedl
ymake,
publ
i
shanddecl
aret
hisasmyl landTest
astWi
l ament
,her
ebyr
evoki
ngal
lsubsi
sti
ngwi
l
lsandcodi
cil
s
her
etoImadepr
iort
othi
swi
l
l.

Forexampl
e,decl
areandpubl
i
shorwi
l
ltest
amentbearsi
mil
armeani
ngbutt
heymay
be used t
oget
heras por
tray
ed abov
e.Undernor
malci
rcumst
ances i
tmakes no

11
di
ff
erence i
fthe t
est
ator si
mpl
y sai
d I decl
are t
his my wi
l
lto r
evoke al
l
subsi
sti
ng/
prev
iouswi
l
ls.

Al
so i
nthe Law ofCont
ractl
awy
ers nor
mal
l
ysay“
thi
s cont
racti
snul
land v
oid
abi
nit
ioandofnol
egalef
fectwhat
soev
ert
her
ebyconf
err
ingnor
ight
sanddut
iest
othe
par
ti
es”i
nst
eadofsi
mpl
ysay
ingt
hiscont
racti
sv d abi
oi nit
io orsi yv
mpl oi
d.I
tis
howev
er;
impor
tantt
onot
ethatt
hispat
ter
nai
msatat
tai
ningemphasi
s.

Wor
dsmaybesi
mil
ary
etwi
thdi
ff
erenti
mpr
essi
onshencebycl
ust
eri
ngwor
dst
oget
her
t
hemessagebecomesmor
eef
fect
iveandt
hechancesf
ormi
sconcept
ionmaybe
r
educed.

LANGUAGEOFTHECOURT.

I
tref
erst
othel
anguage(
s)aut
hor
izedbyt
hel
awt
obeappl
i
cabl
einl
egalpr
oceedi
ngs
andr
ecor
dsoft
hecour
t.

I
nTanzani
a,t
hel
anguageofcour
tispr
ovi
dedf
orundert
heMagi
str
ateCour
tsAct[
CAP
4
11Rev
isedEdi
ti
on,2002]wher
easi
nthePr
imar
yCour
tKi
swahi
l
i i
sappl
i
cabl
eint
he
l
egalpr
oceedi
ngsandr
ecor
dsbuti
ntheResi
dentMagi
str
ateandDi
str
ictCour
tbot
h
Ki
swahi
l
iandEngl
i
shi
susedexceptt
hatal
lrecor
dsar
erequi
redt
obei
nEngl
i
sh.

TheHi
ghCour
tandCour
tofAppealusebot
hEngl
i
shandKi
swahi
l
iinl
egalpr
oceedi
ngs
whi
l
erecor
dsar
ekepti
nEngl
i
sh.TheuseofEngl
i
shi
ncour
tisnotf
reef
rom cr
it
ism;
the
st
akehol
der
sfi
ndi
tasani
mpedi
mentt
omanypeopl
ewhoar
enotconv
ersantwi
th
Engl
i
shl
anguage.

I
ntheear
lyy
ear
sofi
ndependencet
heuseofEngl
i
shwasj
ust
if
iedbyt
heci
rcumst
ances
si
ncet
hecour
twasl
argel
ydomi
nat
edbyWhi
teJudgesal
sot
her
ewasoneCour
tof
4
Sect
ion13(
2)

12
Appealcut
ti
ngacr
osst
hewhol
eEastAf
ri
cai
nwhi
chEngl
i
shLanguagewasi
nev
itabl
y
used.

I
tisal
soi
mpor
tantr
ecapi
tul
atet
hatmostoft
hepr
ecedent
sref
err
edar
einEngl
i
sh
whi
chmi
ghthav
efuel
l
eduseofEngl
i
shLanguagel
eav
eal
onet
hef
actt
hatl
awy
ersar
e
t
rai
nedi
nEngl
i
shandt
heRegi
onal
andGl
obal
inf
luenceoft
hisl
anguage.

Engl
i
shi
sthel
i
nguaf
rancaoft
hewor
ldest
imat
edt
ohav
evocabul
aryof1mi
l
li
onwor
ds
i
ncl
udi
ngsci
ent
if
icandt
echni
calt
ermsandi
ndeedi
tsv
ocabul
aryi
sext
ensi
vet
hanany
ot
herl
anguagei
nthewor
ldsav
eonl
yt nese5
heChi

LEGALWRI
TINGANDRESEARCH.

Forl
awy
ersl
egal
draf
ti
ng,
draf
ti
ngandr
esear
chi
sinev
itabl
e.

Legalwr
it
ing.

Legalwr
it
ingi
sanar
trequi
redoft
hel
egalpr
ofessi
onwhi
chhasbeenl
abel
edasar
are
pr
ofessi
onf
ormanycent
uri
est
hisar
tandal
way
slawy
ershav
ethei
rownst
yleofwr
it
ing
j
ustf
rom t
hedi
cti
ont
othef
ormul
ati
onofsent
encest
ruct
uresgear
edt
oinf
luencet
he
r
eci
pient
s.

I
nlegal
wri
ti
ngonemustav
oidambi
gui
tyandensur
ethatev
erykeyaspecti
scl
ear
lyand
compr
ehensi
vel
yel
abor
atedwhi
l
eobser
vingpr
operci
tat
ionofaut
hor
it
ies.

Pr
epar
ati
onofdocument
s.

I
tisi
mpor
tantt
omakesur
ethatal
egaldocumentcont
ainsr
elev
antaut
hor
it
ies.For
i
nst
ancewheny
oupr
epar
epl
eadi
ngorchar
gesheet
sther
emustbeasuppor
ti
ng

5
Jundu,
F(2010)
,Hotubay
aKi
ongoziwaTanzanianaMgeniRasmiKat
ikaMahaf
ali
yaTat
uyaAzani
aCol
l
ege
ofManagement,Di
amondJubi
lee,Tar6thNov
ember,2010,p.10.

13
pr
ovi
si
onofl
aw.Fai
l
uret
oci
tepr
operpr
ovi
sionorat
otalomi
ssi
onmaybedet
ri
ment
al
t
oyourcase.Youmayendupl
osi
ngy
ourpot
ent
ialcasesi
mpl
yforwr
ongf
ulci
tat
ionor
nonci
tat
ionofl
aw.

Ther
ear
ecer
tai
ndocument
swhi
char
erequi
redt
ohav
emi
nimum cont
ent
swhi
chaar
ty
orl
egalr
epr
esent
ati
veshav
etoobser
ve.Thusasmuchaspossi
bleadr
aft
ershoul
d
r
emembert
hebasi
ccont
ent
sandobser
vef
orm orst
yler
equi
redofadocument
.

Li
kewi
seonehast
ofol
l
ow sev
eralst
agesbef
oreadocumenti
sfi
nal
l
ydonest
art
ing
f
rom t
hepr
eli
minar
yst
ageswhi
ch mayi
nvol
vesear
ch ofr
elev
antaut
hor
it
iesand
br
ainst
ormi
ngoft
hei
ssues.

Af
tergat
her
ingi
mpor
tanti
nfor
mat
ionaf
ir
stdr
aftorar
oughwor
kmaybepr
epar
edand
subsequent
lyr
efi
nedasof
tenaspossi
bleunt
ilt
hepr
erequi
sit
est
andar
dsar
esat
isf
ied.

LEGALRESEARCH.

Resear
chseekst
oinf
ormt
hesoci
etyofv
ari
ousdev
elopment
sint
hef
iel
dsf
orwhi
ch
t
her
esear
chi
sunder
takenort
ouncov
erhi
ddenorobscur
etr
uthi
nlegalj
uri
spr
udence.
Theot
herpur
posesofl
egalr
esear
char
etoacqui
reandi
mpar
tknowl
edgef
orpur
poses
ofpr
ovi
ngordi
spr
ovi
ngal
egali
ssueordev
elopnew i
deas.Lawy
ersdonor
mal
l
y
under
taker
esear
cher
stoaddr
essper
ti
nentl
egali
ssuesi
nthef
iel
dbutr
esear
chmay
si
mpl
yent
ailsear
chofcasesbear
ingf
undament
alpr
inci
pleswhi
chcanbeachi
eved
t
hroughl
i
brar
ysur
vey
.

BASI
C STAGES OFRESEARCH.

a)Pr
obl
em i
dent
if
icat
ion.

Apr
obl
em i
sanysi
tuat
ionorf
actwi
thhi
ddent
rut
handnor
mal
l
yar
esear
chpr
obl
em
emanat
esf
rom aphenomenonencount
eredbyt
hesoci
etysuchascaracci
dent
s,
di
seasesorhabi
tual
rape.

14
 b)Hy
pot
hesi
s/r
esear
chquest
ion.

I
tisl
i
ter
aryat
ent
ati
veconcl
usi
onorpr
edi
cti
onont
hef
act
ualcor
rel
ati
onbet
ween
exi
sti
ng phenomenon and t
he under
lyi
ng f
orces whi
ch may f
inal
l
y be pr
oved or
di
spr
oved.Forexampl
e,wher
emostofsecondar
yschoolst
udent
sencount
ert
eenage
pr
egnanci
es,
onemaypr
edi
ctt
hatt
hesi
tuat
ioni
sfuel
l
edbypov
ert
y.

c)Li
ter
atur
erev
iew.

Nor
mal
l
y a pr
obl
em may be new t
o one per
son and nott
o ot
her
s hence i
tis
r
ecommendabl
etogot
hroughwhatot
her
shav
est
udi
edt
ofi
ndoutwhet
hert
her
eisany
gapi
ntheexi
sti
ngl
i
ter
atur
esi
nregar
dst
opur
por
tedr
esear
chpr
obl
em.Resear
ch
shoul
donl
ybeconduct
edi
ftheexi
sti
ngl
i
ter
atur
esdonotcov
ersuchpr
obl
em orpar
t
f
orwhi
chr
esear
chi
sgear
edt
o.

d)Dat
acol
lect
ion.

Af
terest
abl
i
shi
ngagapi
ntheexi
sti
ngdat
aonemayr
esor
ttodat
acol
l
ect
ionusi
ng
r
elev
antort
ool
ssuchasi
nter
view,
obser
vat
ionandquest
ionnai
re.

e)Dat
apr
esent
ati
on.

I
nthi
sst
ageal
lther
elev
antdat
aar
epr
esent
ed,t
hisst
agemayi
nvol
vet
abl
esand
gr
aphs.

f
) Dat
aanal
ysi
sandi
nter
pret
ati
on.

Thi
sisat
echni
calst
ageoft
her
esear
chbecauset
her
esear
cheri
sexpect
edt
omake
t
hedat
atospeak.Ther
esear
chmustbeabl
etot
ellt
hecor
rel
ati
onbet
weent
hedat
ato
speak.Ther
esear
chmustbeabl
etot
ellt
hecor
rel
ati
onbet
weent
hedat
aandt
he
exi
sti
ngphenomenon.Forexampl
e,whent
hedat
ashow hi
ghr
ateofgenderv
iol
ence
maycr
eat
eimpr
essi
ont
hatt
hesoci
etyi
slacki
ngci
vi
ceducat
ion.

15
 g)For
mul
ati
onoft
heor
y/concl
usi
on.

Att
heendoft
hedayar
esear
chi
sexpect
edt
oof
ferananswerorsol
uti
ont
othe
r
esear
ch pr
obl
em oratl
eastt
ellaboutt
he under
lyi
ng f
act
ors behi
nd t
he soci
al
phenomenon.

ANSWERI
NGPROBLEM TYPEQUESTI
ON.

Tomostoft
hest
udent
sanswer
ingpr
obl
em t
ypequest
ionsuf
fer
sheadacheandamong
t
her
easonsf
orf
ear
ingpr
obl
em t
ypequest
ionsi
sthel
ackofknowl
edgeonhowt
odo
t
hesequest
ionssi
nceanswer
ingsuchquest
ionsi
sanar
t.

Pr
ocedur
esofat
tempt
ingpr
obl
em t
ypequest
ion.

Ther
ear
efourbasi
caspect
sinat
tempt
ingapr
obl
em t
ypequest
ionnamel
y,i
ssues,
r
ules,appl
i
cat
ionofr
ulesandconcl
usi
onwhi
cht
oget
herf
orm t
hesocal
l
edI
RAC
6
model
.

1.I
dent
if
icat
ionofi
ssues.

Af
tercomi
ngacr
ossapr
obl
em t
ypequest
ionacandi
dat
eshoul
dreadi
tcar
eful
l
yto
uncov
erv
ari
ouscont
ent
iousi
ssuest
aki
ngi
ntoaccountt
hati
nascenar
iot
her
emaybe
sev
eralf
act
s.Youshoul
dbeari
nmi
ndt
hatsomei
ssuesmayonl
yai
mtot
hei
ssues
f
rom abundl
eoff
act
sot
her
wiset
heymayendupwast
ingt
imeoni
rr
elev
antf
act
s.
Focusshoul
dal
way
sbaseonf
act
swhi
chhav
esomel
egali
mpl
i
cat
ions.I
nthescenar
io
bel
owv
ali
dit
yofmar
ri
agei
sthekeyi
ssuehi
ngedonconsummat
ionandpr
egnancybya
t
hir
dpar
ty(
pregnancyperal
i
um)
.

Scenar
io

Moni
caandDav
id,aged17and21r
espect
ivel
y,mar
ri
edi
nKi
bahaDi
str
ictOf
fi
cei
nJune2015.The
mar
ri
agef
oll
owedat
woweekscol
orf
ulhoneymoonatPar
adi
seHot
el.Moni
cadi
dnott
ellherpar
ent
s

6
Namesuggest
edbyPr
ofessor
.Hussai
nSahebMohamed(
UDSM)
.

16
t
hatshewasget
ti
ngmar
ri
ed.Themar
ri
agewasnotconsummat
edbecauseMoni
cawasaf
rai
dof
i
nter
cour
se despi
tet
he f
actt
hatherf
ri
ends had been nar
rat
ing aboutt
he enj
oymentofsexual
i
nter
cour
se.I
nDecember2015Dav
idbeganseei
ngapsy
chi
atr
istsoast
oresol
vet
hisdi
ff
icul
ty.Dav
id
whowasr
epeat
edl
yur
gedMoni
cat
oconsummat
ethemar
ri
agehasdi
scov
eredt
hatshei
shav
ingal
ong
st
andi
ngsexualr
elat
ionshi
pwi
thherPsy
chi
atr
istandshei
sfourmont
hspr
egnant
.Adv
iceaDav
idonany
cour
seav
ail
abl
eint
hiscenar
io.

2.Pr
operr
ules.

Al
awy
eri
str
ainedonhowt
ofi
ndar
ightr
uleandappl
yinar
ightscenar
io.Rul
escanbe
obt
ained f
rom r
elev
antaut
hor
it
ies such as st
atut
es,case l
aw,r
ecei
ved l
aw and
cust
omar
ylawandnor
mal
l
yacandi
dat
ehav
ingi
dent
if
iedt
hekeyi
ssuesi
nthescenar
io
f
indsapr
operl
awf
rom amongt
heknownsour
ces.Att
hispoi
ntonehast
olocat
ethe
gener
alr
uleandanyav
ail
abl
eexcept
ions.

3.Appl
icat
ionofr
ules.

Essent
ial
l
ythi
saspect
sent
ail
sdi
scussi
onoft
her
ulesi
ntheappl
i
cat
ionofl
aw a
candi
dat
eshoul
dbeabl
etosy
nthesi
zel
awandt
hef
act
slogi
cal
l
yandconf
idi
ngl
yand
nor
mal
l
yanexami
nerexpect
stoseesuf
fi
cientar
tcr
afti
nthedi
scussi
onofr
uleswi
th
duer
efer
encest
orel
evantaut
hor
it
ies.

4.Concl
usi
on.

Asamat
terofpr
inci
pleconcl
usi
onsumsupt
hemai
ndi
scussi
onhenceoneshoul
dnot
comeupwi
thnew i
ssuesatt
hisst
age.Concl
usi
onshoul
dref
lectl
ogi
calsequenceof
t
hepr
emi
seswhi
l
eav
oidi
ngdev
iat
ingf
rom t
hemi
norpr
emi
ses.Forexampl
einone
j
udgmenti
nconsi
stencebet
weent
hemi
norpr
emi
sesandconcl
usi
onwer
eal
armi
ngl
y
spot
tedwher
east
heMagi
str
atedi
scussedi
ndet
ail
sindet
ail
sthest
andar
dsofpr
oofi
n
cr
imi
nalcasesappar
ent
lysuggest
edappar
ent
lysuggest
edt
oagr
eet
hatpar
ti
cul
arcase
t
hest
andar
dsofpr
oofwasnotat
tai
ned butatt
heend oft
hedayaccused was
conv
ict
edl
eav
ingal
ott
obedesi
red.

17
 LAW REPORTS

I
nal
egalsy
stem whi
chi
sbasedonpr
ecedentar
ereposi
tor
iesofcasesdeci
dedbyt
he
cour
tsespeci
all
yAppel
l
ateCour
tsorwhatar
eknownasCour
tsofr
ecor
ds.

I
nTanzani
amostoft
hecasesr
epor
tedi
ntheLaw r
epor
tsar
ethoseoforf
rom Hi
gh
Cour
tandCour
tofAppeal
.

Thel
awr
epor
tsar
ereposi
tor
iesofcasesandpr
ovi
dei
nfor
mat
ionr
elat
ingt
ocasesand
r
uleofl
awl
aiddownbyt
hecour
tsandt
heyal
socont
aini
nfor
mat
ionr
elat
edt
ost
atut
ory
pr
ovi
si
ons.

WHI
CHCASESAREREPORTEDI
NLAW REPORTS?

I
tisnotpossi
blet
orepor
tal
lcasesdeci
dedi
ncour
ts,t
her
efor
ecasest
ober
epor
ted
mustbesel
ect
ed.I
nsel
ect
ionofcasest
ober
epor
ted,t
hisi
samat
terofedi
tor
ial
di
scr
eti
oni
ndeci
dingwhatcasesar
etober
epor
tedi
ntheLawRepor
ts.

TheEdi
tor
ial
bodyconsi
der
edt
hef
oll
owi
ngmat
ter
s;

 Whet
hert
hecasesmakeanewr
uleofl
aworr
e-st
ateanexi
sti
ngr
uleofl
aw.

 Whet
hert
hecasecl
ari
fi
esconf
li
cti
ngdeci
si
onsofl
owercour
ts.

 Whet
heracasei
nter
pret
sast
atut
ewhi
chi
sli
kel
ytobeofwi
deappl
i
cat
ion

 Whet
hert
hecasei
nter
pret
sacommoncl
ausei
ndocument
ssuchaswi
l
ls,
cont
ract
.

 Whet
hert
hecasecl
ari
fi
esani
mpor
tantpoi
ntofpr
act
iceorpr
ocedur
e.

CI
TATI
ONOFCASESONLAW REPORTS.

Ci
tat
ioni
sapr
ocesst
hatr
equi
ressuf
fi
cientknowl
edgeandi
nfacti
tisadv
isabl
etor
ead
t
hei
nst
ruct
ional
not
eoft
hest
atut
ebef
oreadopt
inganappr
opr
iat
est
yle.

a)Ci
ti
ngusi
ngpage.

18
I
nthi
spat
ter
nacasei
sref
err
edbyt
hey
eari
nwhi
chi
twasr
epor
tedf
oll
owedbypage
number
.Forexampl
einTanzani
aLawRepor
tsf
oll
owt
hispat
ter
nisusedsuchasRv
.
Rwey
emamus/
oMukandar
a[1985]TLRX,
wher
eXst
andsf
orpagenumber
.

b)Ci
tat
ionusi
ngv
olumeandpage.

Thi
spat
ter
nindi
cat
esv
olumenumberoft
heLawRepor
t.Vol
umei
snecessar
ywher
ein
oney
earsev
eral
repor
tsar
eaut
hor
izedbyt
hesameper
sonf
ort
hesakeofconv
eni
ence.
I
fsi
mpl
yref
erssayt
oWeekl
yLawRepor
tof1985wi
thoutspeci
fyi
ngv
olumemaycause
t
roubl
etot
heuser
s.

Thi
spat
ter
niscommoni
ntheWeekl
yLaw Repor
tsKi
ngsBenchandQueensBench
r
epor
tsi
nEngl
andaswel
lassomer
epor
tsi
nEastAf
ri
ca.Exampl
eoft
hispat
ter
n:X
r
epr
esentpagenumberwher
easYst
andsf
orv
olumenumber
.

c)Ci
tat
ionusi
ngcasenumber
.

Thi
spat
ter
nmakesnouseofpagenumber
s,t
hei
mpor
tantt
hingi
sthecasenumber
.
TheHi
ghCour
tDi
gesti
samongt
heLaw Repor
tsofTanzani
awher
enor
mal
l
yacase
numberi
sindi
cat
edbyl
ett
er“
n”.Forexampl
e,JamesShay
ov.JumaI
ssa(
1970)HCDn.
x.wher
eXst
andsf
orcasenumber
.

CI
TATI
ONOFREFERENCEANDBI
BLI
OGRAPHY.

Bi
bli
ogr
aphyandr
efer
encear
eof
tenusedi
nter
changeabl
ybutt
het
wowor
dsdonot
mean t
he same t
hing,whi
l
e bi
obl
i
ogr
aphy ent
ail
s any r
elev
antaut
hor
it
ies not
necessar
il
yci
tedi
nthel
i
ter
arywor
kbutr
efer
enceconf
inesi
tsel
ftol
i
ter
atur
eswhi
char
e
usedi
nthewor
k.

Sy
stem ofr
efer
enceandbi
bli
ogr
aphy(
A.P.
A).

19
Ther
ear
edi
ver
sest
ylesofci
ti
ngbooksbuti
nTanzani
amostoft
hei
nst
it
uti
onsuset
he
Amer
icanPsy
chol
ogyAssoci
ati
on(
A.P.
A) sy
stem t
hat commences wi
th t
he
sur
nameoft
heaut
horf
oll
owedbyt
hey
earofpubl
i
cat
ion,
tit
le,
placeofpubl
i
cat
ionand
publ
i
sher
.Mi
ndy
ouwhent
heaut
hori
sunani
mous,
theci
tat
ionwi
l
lcommencewi
tht
he
t
it
leorsubj
ectcov
ered.

Wher
eabooki
saut
hor
izedbyt
woper
sonsi
nst
eadofment
ioni
ngbot
haut
hor
sonemay
si
mpl
yment
iononeaut
horf
oll
owedbyt
hewor
danot
herandwher
etheaut
hor
sar
e
nor
ethant
wot
henameoft
hef
ir
staut
horwi
l
lbef
oll
owedbyt
hephr
ase“
andot
her
s”or
etal
.

I
not
herst
ylet
hey
eardoesnotcomeaf
tert
henameoft
heaut
horbuti
tisputatt
heend.
Remembert
obol
dori
tal
i
cizet
het
it
leandwher
ethet
it
lehasasubt
it
let
het
womustbe
separ
atedbycol
oni
esf
orexampl
e:

 Mzav
a,John(
2016)
,Mer
uCust
omar
yLawandPr
act
ice,
VugaPr
ess,
Arusha/

Foot
not
eandEndnot
e.

Thet
wot
ermsser
vest
hesamepur
poseexceptt
hatt
hef
oot
not
esappearatt
hef
ootor
bot
tom ofeachwher
easendnot
ear
eappendedatt
heendoft
hechapt
er.Basi
cal
l
y
t
hesenot
esf
aci
l
itat
equi
ckr
efer
ence,
ensur
ecr
edi
bil
i
tyoft
hel
i
ter
arywor
kandser
veas
anacknowl
edgementoft
hesour
ceoft
hei
nfor
mat
ionorconcept
s.

Nor
mal
l
ywhent
hesamer
efer
encei
srepeat
edt
hewr
it
ershoul
dnotr
epr
oducet
he
not
esv
erbat
imi
nst
eadonemayuset di
hewor bi
d,l
oc.
cit
,orop.
citdependi
ngon
whet
hert
her
efer
encesar
econsecut
iveorsamepagei
sref
err
ed.

I
bidem (
ibi
d)means“
att
hesamepl
ace”andi
tisof
tenusedwher
eref
erencei
smadet
o
t
hesamepubl
i
cat
ionwi
thouti
nter
rupt
ionhencei
nst
eadofr
epeat
ingt
oci
tet
hesame
publ
i
cat
ion,
thewr
it
erwoul
dinst
eaduset
hephr
asei
bidf
oll
owedwi
tht
hepagenumber
.
Forexampl
eint
hef
ir
stci
tat
iononemaywr
it
e:

 Ruhangi
sa,
J(2013)
,Juv
eni
l
eSy
stem i
nTanzani
a:LawandPr
act
ice,
p.33.

20
  I
bid,
p.35

Op.
citi
sanabbr
evi
ati
onoft
hel
ati
nphr Oper
ase“ eci
tat
e”whi
chl
i
ter
arymeansi
nthe
wor
k(s)al
readyci
ted.I
tispr
inci
pal
l
yusedwher
eanaut
hormakesr
efer
encet
hesame
publ
i
cat
ionmor
ethanoncepr
ovi
dedt
her
efer
encesar
enotconsecut
ive.

 Mwakaj
e,R,
(2013)
,Womendi
scr
imi
nat
ioni
nTanzani
a,p.
33.

 Ngambi
l
o,M (
2000)
,Cust
omar
yMar
ri
ageamongt
heBenaPeopl
e:Acasest
udy
ofI
nher
it
anceofWi
dows,
p.20.

 Mwakaj
e,R,
(2013)
:op.
cit
,p.
25

Lococi
tat
i(l
oc.
cit
)al
ati
nwor
dwhi
chmeanst
hepl
aceci
ted,whi
chi
sal
way
susedt
o
r
efert
othesameaut
hor
,ti
tl
eandpageofanear
li
erf
oot
not
eorendnot
ebuti
tisnot
v
erycommonper
hapsbecausei
tismor
eorl
esscompl
ement
aryt
oibi
d.

I
nresear
chr
epor
tst
heuseofi
ntextr
efer
encei
sver
ycommonwher
easi
nst
eadof
put
ti
ngf
oot
not
eonemayputt
henameoft
heaut
hori
nthebr
acket
sbesi
det
heconcept
bor
rowedf
rom t
heaut
hor
(s)
.

Scenar
io

I
n1985Doct
orChr
isPet
erMai
nai
dent
if
iedwhathesawast
hemaj
orr
easonswhyt
heexecut
ivewasnot
bei
ngchal
l
engedi
nthecour
t,mostpr
omi
nentwast
he“
ti
midi
tyandmedi
ocr
it
yont
hepar
tofJudges
accompani
edbyl
oyal
tybor
noutofpr
essur
esandexpect
ati
onsoff
avourf
rom t
heexecut
ive”(
Mai
na
1985:
7)…….
Thi
scar
tooncamei
nthewaket
hegr
oundbr
eaki
ngoff
avourear
ly1990’
sJudgment
sof
Just
icesMwal
usany
aandLugaki
ngi
ra.Jwani
Mwai
kusa(
1996:245)ar
guest
hatahei
ght
enedper
cept
ion
t
hatt
hej
udi
ciar
ywasorcoul
dbecomi
ngan al
l
yoft
heemer
gingopposi
ti
ondur
ingt
hist
imemayhav
e
beenshar
penedbyt
heAt
tor
neyGener
alr
equestt
oremov
ethev
ocalgov
ernmentcr
it
icandact
ivi
st
JudgeMwal
usany
afr
om hear
ingapet
it
ionf
il
edbyopposi
ti
onact
ivi
stRev
erendChr
ist
opherMt
iki
l
a.

HOW TOREADACASE.

Thewayofr
eadi
ngacasewi
l
ldependonpur
poseofwhi
chcase.Howev
er,t
her
ear
e
t
womaj
ormet
hodsofr
eadi
ngacasenamel
y,
21
 a)Or
thodoxmet
hod.

Thi
sref
erst
oamet
hodofbr
ief
ingorsummar
izi
ngacasebyr
eadi
ngasi
ngl
ecase.The
out
li
nef
orm ofpr
eci
sei
ncl
udes;

 Nameoft
hecour
t

 Ti
tl
eoft
heCour
t

 I
dent
it
yoft
hepar
ti
esi
.enat
ural
orl
egal
per
son

 Fact
soft
hecase

 I
ssues

 Deci
sion

b)Unor
thodoxMet
hod.

Thi
sdoesnoti
nvol
ver
eadi
ngasi
ngl
ecasebuti
nvol
ver
eadi
nggr
oupofcases.I
nfaci
ng
apr
obl
em onemaydeci
det
oresear
chonpar
ti
cul
arsubj
ect
,now i
nconduct
inga
r
esear
chi
tisi
nsuf
fi
cientt
oreadasi
ngl
ecasebutr
atheroneshoul
dreadagr
oupof
casessoast
ocomeupwi
thconcr
eteaut
hor
it
ies.

WHYREADAGROUPOFCASES?

Readi
ngagr
oupofcasesi
tser
vesdi
ff
erentpur
poses;

 Tor
esol
vedoubtaboutt
hel
aw.

 Agr
oupofcasesmayber
eadt
oshow t
hei
rsequenceonpar
ti
cul
art
opi
c.For
exampl
e,t
hedev
elopmentoft
hel
awofnegl
i
gencet
hroughasequenceofcases
i
thel
pst
hecour
ttodev
elopnewr
ulesappl
yi
ngexi
sti
ngr
ules.

 Toanal
ysest
yleofr
easoni
ngj
udi
cialopi
nionwher
ebyJudgesuseddi
ff
erent
t
ypeofr
easoni
ngl
i
keFor
mal
Sty
leandGr
andst
yle.

 Those f
oll
owi
ng t
he f
ormalst
yle ofr
easoni
ng ar
ever
yrel
uct
antt
o

22
 adv
ancet
hel
awandappl
ythel
awasi
tis,
areknownasTi
mor
oussoul
s.

 Thosef
oll
owi
nggr
antst
ylet
heyar
enotaf
rai
dofadv
anci
ngt
hel
aw and
i
nter
prett
hel
aw t
omeett
hepr
evai
l
ingsoci
aleconomi
ccondi
ti
onsand
eknownasBol
Judgesar dSpi
ri
t.

 A gr
oupofcasesmaybest
udi
edi
nor
dert
omakeacr
it
icalanal
ysi
soft
he
cor
pusoft
heopi
nionofasi
ngl
ejudgeormaki
ngacr
it
icalanal
ysi
sofal
l
eged
pol
i
tical
biasesofoneormor
ecour
ts.

THEARTORSTYLEOFLEGALWRI
TING.

I
nbei
ngal
awy
erconst
ant
lyi
tisr
equi
redt
owr
it
efort
hei
rcl
i
ent
s.I
nlawl
anguagei
sa
t
ool
oft
rade,
lawy
ermayei
therwr
it
einapr
edi
cti
veorper
suasi
vemanner
.

1.Pr
edi
cti
vewr
it
ing.

Thi
sref
erst
oawr
it
t edOf
endocumentcal
l fi
ceMemor
andum whi
chi
saconf
ident
ial
documentbet
weenl
awy
erandcl
i
ent
.

I
npr
edi
cti
vewr
it
ingal
awy
erwi
l
lfor
etel
lthecour
thowt
oresol
vepar
ti
cul
ardi
sput
eand
nor
mal
l
yempl
oypr
edi
cti
vewr
it
ingwhengi
vi
ngl
egalopi
niont
oacl
i
ent
.Howev
er,such
pr
edi
cti
ongi
venmustbaseonsoundl
egal
reasoni
ng.

2.Per
suasi
vewr
it
ing.

Thi
sref
erst
oadocumentwhi
chi
srequi
redt
obei
nwr
it
tensubmi
ssi
onnamel
y,Mot
ion
Memor
andum.

I
nper
suasi
vewr
it
ing,t
hel
awy
erhasadut
ytoconv
incet
hecour
ttomakeaf
avour
abl
e
deci
si
oni
nor
dert
oinf
luencet
hecour
ttohav
etheski
l
lsi
nar
rangi
ngpoi
ntsand
ar
gument
sinal
ogi
calmanner
.Howev
er,
inourl
egalsy
stem wenor
mal
l
yhav
eawr
it
ten
submi
ssi
onwhi
char
ebot
hinTr
ialCour
tandAppel
l
ateCour
twhi
char
emor
egener
al
andnor
mal
l
yusedi
nai
nter
locut
orypr
oceedi
ngs.

23
 CHAPTERTHREE.

COMMONLAW CASETECHNI
QUE.

1.Rat
iodeci
dendi
.

Thepar
tofacasewhi
chi
sbi
ndi
ngi
scal
l
edRat
ioDeci
dendioft
hecase.I
tisonl
ythe
r
ati
odeci
dendi
oft
hecaset
hathasbi
ndi
ngaut
hor
it
y.

Thef
indi
ng ofr
ati
o deci
dendii
sanar
twhi
chneedst
o bel
ear
ntand i
tisnota
mechani
calpr
ocess.Howev
er,f
indi
ngofr
ati
odeci
dendii
sani
mpor
tantpar
toft
he
l
awy
erst
rai
ning becauset
hei
rar
gumentand i
n ci
ti
ng pr
ecedentl
awy
ersonl
yci
te
aut
hor
it
ati
vepar
tofapr
ecedentwhi
chcont
aint
hel
egal
rul
e.

For
mul
ati
ngt
her
ati
odeci
dendiofacasei
sacr
eat
ivepr
ocessandonewi
l
lhav
eto
choosebet
weent
hev
ari
ouspossi
bil
i
ty.Ther
ati
odeci
dendii
sapar
tofaj
udgementor
deci
si
on.

Gr
anv
il
leWi
l
li
amsi
nhi Lear
sbook“ ningt
heLaw”st
atest
hat
,“t
hef
indi
ngofr
ati
o
deci
dendii
snotamechani
calpr
ocessbutanar
tonegr
adual
l
yacqui
rest
hrough
pr
act
iceandst
udy
ing.
”

Whati
sther
ati
odeci
dendiofacase?

Ther
ear
evar
iousconf
li
cti
ngt
heor
istshow how ext
ractr
ati
odeci
dendii
s.So,v
ari
ous
Jur
istexposedi
ff
erentv
iewsonr
ati
odeci
dendisuchPr
off
esor
GoodHar
t,Pr
ofessor
Jul
i
usSt
oneandOl
i
phant
.

1.Pr
ofessorGoodHar
tsai
dthat
;

 Themat
eri
alf
act
soft
hecase.

 Thedeci
sionoft
heJudgebasedont
hemat
eri
alf
act
s.

 Judgemakeconcl
usi
onupont
hef
act
sasheseest
hem.

Howev
er,f
urt
herPr
ofessorGoodHar
tsai
dthat
,theJudger
eachesaconcl
usi
onupon

24
t
hef
act
sasheseest
hem.I
tisbyt
heJudgechoi
ceofmat
eri
alf
act
sthatcr
eat
esl
aw
andt
her
easongi
venbyJudgei
nhi
sopi
nionorst
atement
.

Ther
efor
e,onei
snott
ost
atet
hef
act
sandconcl
usi
onbutr
atherst
atet
hemat
eri
al
f
act
sasseenbyt
heJudgeandhi
sconcl
usi
onbasedupont
hem.

Whatf
act
sar
elegal
lymat
eri
al?

I
tisgener
all
yagr
eedf
act
sast
opl
aceper
sonandt
imear
eimmat
eri
al,
inext
ract
ingt
he
Rat
ioDeci
dendi
oneshoul
dpayat
tent
iont
othef
oll
owi
ngmat
ter
s:

 Mat
eri
alf
act
s.

 I
ssuesar
edr
awnbyt
hepar
ti
est
othedi
sput
esorbyt
hecour
ts.

 Deci
sionoft
hecour
t.

TheessenceofPr
of.GoodHar
tar
gumenti
sthatt
her
ati
odeci
dendicanbedi
scov
ered
byt
aki
ngi
ntoaccountt
hemat
eri
alf
act
sandt
hedeci
sionbasedont
hosef
act
s.

2.Pr
ofessorJul
iusSt
one,hecr
it
ici
zedonGoodHar
ttheor
yonf
indi
ngoft
her
ati
o
deci
dendibysay
ingt
hatGoodHar
tat
tempt
ingt
opr
ovi
depr
escr
ipt
iver
athera
descr
ipt
ive.
Prof
essorJul
i
us St
one ar
gues t
hat
,“t
he pr
ocess off
indi
ng t
he
r
ati
odeci
dendii
sbasi
cal
l
yoneofchoosi
nganappr
opr
iat
elev
elofgener
ali
ty.
”

Pr
ofessorJul
i
usSt
onehi
sconv
incedt
hat
,GoodHar
tnegl
ectofal
evelofgener
ali
tyand
concent
rat
eonmat
eri
alf
act
swhi
chl
edhi
mint
oer
ror
.So,pr
ofessorJul
i
usSt
one
cont
inuesayt
hat
,iti
snotaquest
ionofmat
eri
alf
act
stot
hedeci
sioni
ntheear
li
ercase
butr
atherwhathe consi
dermosti
slev
elofgener
ali
ty(
anal
ogi
calr
elev
ance)
or
obst
ract
ion.

NB:Anal
ogi
calr
elev
ancer
efer
stot
hepr
iorhol
dingt
othel
att
ercaser
equi
ri
ngt
hel
att
er
cour
ttochoosebet
weenpossi
bil
i
tiespr
esent
edbyt
heear
li
ercase.

3.Ol
iphant
.

Ol
i
phantsai
dthat
,ther
ati
odeci
dendi
oft
hecasecanbei
dent
if
iedbyst
udy
ingf
act
sand

25
t
heconcl
usi
on.Hear
guedt
hat
,onemayi
gnor
etheopi
nionent
ir
elyandwor
koutt
othe
pr
inci
plef
rom t
hef
act
sandt
hej
udgmentmer
gedont
hosef
act
s.Accor
dingt
oOl
i
phant
i
“ti
swhatt
heJudgedoesandnotwhathesay
sthatmat
ter
s.”Howev
er,Ol
i
phant
suggest
ioni
sfaul
tedont
hegr
oundt
hatf
act
sar
enotconst
antbutr
elat
ivel
y(f
act
spl
ay
ani
mpor
tantr
olei
ndeci
dingt
hecase)
.Howev
er,
theJudgef
oundsi
tsconcl
usi
onupon
agr
oupoff
act
ssel
ect
edbyhi
m andmat
eri
als.

Ther
efor
e,i
nanal
yzi
ngacasei
tisnotamat
tersi
mpl
yst
ati
ngt
hef
act
sassuggest
edby
Ol
i
phantandconcl
usi
on,butamat
terofst
ati
ngamat
eri
alf
actasseenbyt
heJudge
andhi
sconcl
usi
onbasedont
hem,
ont
hosef
act
s.

TYPESOFRATI
OS.

a)Descr
ipt
iveRat
io.

Thi
sref
erst
othewayi
nwhi
cht
heear
li
erJudger
eachedhi
sdeci
sion.Howev
er,i
n
descr
ipt
ivesenseal
aterJudgemustacknowl
edget
hemat
eri
alf
actoft
hecase.

b)Pr
escr
ipt
iveRat
io.

Thi
sref
erst
otheear
li
ercasebi
ndsont
hel
aterJudge.Howev
er,i
tist
hei
nter
pret
ati
on
whi
chal
aterJudgepl
acesonanear
li
erJudgmentwhendeci
dingwhet
heri
tisbi
ndi
ng
ornot
.

Accor
dingt
ooneJur
ist
scal
l
edKar
lLl
wel
l
yni
nhi
sbookcal
l
ed“
TheBr
ambl
eBush”he
cont
endst
hat
,“TheI
mpor
tanceofpr
escr
ipt
iver
ati
odeci
dendi
cannotbeunder
scor
edas
noonecasehasameani
ngbyi
tsel
fandt
hisi
sbecauseot
hercasesgi
vey
oua
backgr
oundandgi
vey
ougui
danceandassur
ance.
”

OBI
TERDI
CTUM.

Thi
sref
erst
omer
esaybyt
heway
,iti
snotbi
ndi
ngbecausei
tmaybemadewi
thoutf
ull
consi
der
ati
onoft
hecaseont
hepoi
nt.I
t’
smer
elyar
uleofl
aw st
atedbyt
hewayof
anal
ogyori
l
lust
rat
ion.
i.
e.hy
pot
het
ical
.Iti
ssuggest
edt
hatr
ulef
rom whi
cht
hedeci
sion
i
snotf
inal
l
yrest
edunl
i
ket
her
ati
odeci
dendi
.Someaut
hordi
vi
dedt
hiscat
egor
iesi
nto

26
t
wo;

a)Gr
ati
sdi
cta.

Thesear
emer
esay
ingt
hatar
egi
venawayasi
ftheywer
efr
ee,t
hiscont
ainv
eryl
i
ttl
e
v
alue.Theyar
econsi
der
edt
obeapr
oductwhi
chhasnotbeenmucht
hought
.

b)Judi
cialdi
cta.

Anor
mal
l
ypi
ecedbycar
efult
houghtandext
ensi
vear
gumentont
hepoi
nti
nquest
ions.
Howev
er,
ajudi
ci
aldi
ctacar
ri
esmor
ewei
ghtt
hangr
ati
sdi
cta.

CHAPTERFOUR.

DI
SPUTESETTLEMENTMETHODSANDPROCEDURES.

Meani
ngandr
ati
onal
e.

Di
sput
eset
tl
ementi
sapr
ocesst
hatai
msatr
esol
vi
ngmi
sunder
standi
ngsaf
fect
ing
mut
ualr
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
heopposi
ngsi
des.Di
sput
esar
enor
mal
l
ypr
ompt
edby
conf
li
cti
ngi
nter
estov
eramat
ter
,bel
i
ef,
orsomet
hingofi
nter
est
.Theyar
espont
aneous
out
comeofpol
i
tical
,economi
c,soci
al,cul
tur
alorr
eli
giousdi
ver
gence.Ther
ati
onal
e
behi
nddi
sput
esset
tl
ementi
stoat
tai
nsoci
alhar
monyasabasi
csoci
o-economi
cfabr
ic.

I
ndeedsoci
all
i
fehasnev
erbeenwi
thoutdi
sput
esi
nfactt
hehi
stor
yofmanki
ndhas
beengr
eat
lyshapedbydi
sput
es.Justf
rom t
hepr
e-col
oni
alsoci
ety
,thesoci
etyhas
soci
almachi
ner
ies such as el
der
’s counci
l
stor
esol
ve di
sput
es.Ev
ery soci
ety
est
abl
i
shesaf
ramewor
kfordeal
i
ngwi
tht
ransgr
essi
onoft
hel
aw andbasi
cal
l
yev
en
t
hedev
elopment
soft
hemoder
nst
ateshav
ebeeni
nfl
uencedbydi
sput
es.

HI
STORYOFDI
SPUTESSETTLEMENTI
NTANZANI
A.

Di
sput
esset
tl
ementi
sasoci
aldi
mensi
ont
hatv
ari
esov
ert
imeandf
rom onesoci
etyt
o
anot
herdependi
ngont
hemat
eri
alset
ti
ng.I
nthepr
e-col
oni
alsoci
etyt
her
ewer
emodes
sui
tedt
othemat
eri
alset
ti
ngknownaspr
e-capi
tal
i
stmodesofdi
sput
esset
tl
ementor
t
radi
ti
onalmodesofdi
sput
esset
tl
ementwhi
chwer
egr
eat
lyaf
fect
edi
nthesecondhal
f

27
of19thcent
uryf
oll
owi
ngcol
oni
ali
sm.

West
erndi
sput
esset
tl
ementsy
stem wasadopt
edi
nthecol
oni
esal
bei
t,t
het
radi
ti
onal
sy
stem wassi
mil
arl
yret
ained.I
ntheGer
manyEastAf
ri
cat
err
it
oryandsubsequent
ly
dur
ingt
heBr
it
isher
a,t
het
radi
ti
onaldi
sput
esset
tl
ementexi
stedsi
debysi
dewi
tht
he
West
ernsy
stem wher
east
hedi
sput
esbet
weent
hei
ndi
genouspeopl
epersewer
e
r
egul
atedbyt
hecust
omar
ylawsandt
heWest
ernl
awswer
eappl
i
cabl
ewhent
he
Eur
opeanwer
einv
olv
ed whi
chwasknownasdoubl
eti
ersy
stem.Thedoubl
eti
er
sy
stem wasr
etai
nedunt
il1963whenTangany
ikawentt
hroughsi
gni
fi
cantl
egalr
efor
m
gear
edt
owar
dshar
moni
zat
ionofl
awswher
east
heappl
i
cat
ionoft
hecust
omar
ylaws
hadt
obel
i
mit
edt
oper
sonal
mat
ter
ssuchasmar
ri
age,
cont
ractandsuccessi
on.

BASI
SFORCLASSI
FICATI
ONOFMODESOFDI
SPUTESRESOLUTI
ON.

Di
sput
esset
tl
ementmaybecl
assi
fi
edi
nvar
iousway
sbasi
nganunder
lyi
ngf
act
ors
behi
ndeachmodesuchast
hemachi
ner
iesi
nvol
ved,
procedur
es,
out
come,
bel
i
efs,
and
r
oleoft
echnol
ogyi
ndi
sput
eresol
uti
on,i
nvol
vementornon-
inv
olv
ementoft
het
hir
d
par
ti
esandt
hei
rrol
eint
hedi
sput
eresol
uti
on.Forexampl
ewhenadi
sput
eisr
efer
redt
o
t
hecour
tofl
awi
sknownasJudi
cialDi
sput
eSet
tl
ementbecausej
udi
cialmachi
ner
yis
i
nvol
vedbutwheni
tisset
tl
edwi
thoutassi
stanceoft
hecour
titamount
stoext
ra
j
udi
cialdi
sput
eset
tl
ement
.Modesofdi
sput
esset
tl
ementcant
her
efor
ebecl
assi
fi
edi
n
t
hef
oll
owi
ngcat
egor
ies;

Judi
cialSet
tl
ementandExt
raJudi
cialSet
tl
ement
.

Judi
ci
alset
tl
ementent
ail
sdi
sput
eresol
uti
ont
hrought
heai
doft
hecour
tofl
aw.Thi
sis
al
sor
efer
redt
oasl
i
tigat
ion.I
nthi
smodeanaggr
iev
edper
sonr
efer
sthemat
tert
othe
cour
tofcompet
entj
uri
sdi
cti
onasopposedt
oext
raj
udi
cialset
tl
ementasnot
edbef
ore.
Judi
ci
alset
tl
ementi
ssubj
ectt
osomel
egaldet
ail
sthatonehast
ogot
hrought
oreal
i
ze
t
her
emedyorr
emedi
esseeki
ngt
o.

MODESOFDI
SPUTESSETTLEMENT.

1.TRADI
TIONALDI
SPUTESSETTLEMENT.

28
Tr
adi
ti
onaldi
sput
es set
tl
ementbasi
cal
l
y ent
ail
s cust
omar
y appr
oach ofdi
sput
es
set
tl
ement
.Itcompr
isesofanci
entmodesofdi
sput
esset
tl
ementwhi
chdonotabi
deby
st
ri
ctr
ule ofpr
ocedur
e.Tr
adi
ti
onaldi
sput
esset
tl
ementwasf
ocused atami
cabl
e
set
tl
ementhenceatt
heendoft
hedaynoonewasal
oserorwi
nnerast
omoder
n
sy
stem wher
especi
ali
zedmachi
ner
iesar
eest
abl
i
shedandt
hewi
nneral
way
stakesal
l
.
Amongstt
het
radi
ti
onalmet
hodsofdi
sput
esset
tl
ementi
ncl
udet
ri
albyor
deal
,tr
ialby
dr
ummi
ngt
hescandal
,tr
ialbyoat
h,medi
ati
on,conci
l
iat
ion,t
ri
albybat
tl
eandt
ri
alby
j
ury
.

a)Tr
ialbyOr
deal
.

Or
dealmaybet
racedf
rom anol
dEngl
i or
sh“ dl
.”I
nGer
manyi
ti ur
s“ t
eil
”ordut
ch
oor
“ deel
.”I
tisoneoft
heuni
ver
salcl
assi
calj
udi
cialpr
act
icesbyexposi
ngper
sonst
o
danger
ousoff
ear
someci
rcumst
ancesorsi
tuat
ionsuchashotobj
ect
.Int
hispr
act
ice
pr
oofofi
nnocencewasbet
weendeat
hori
njur
iesandsur
viv
al.Thi
smodewasal
so
r
efer
redt
oasj
udgmentbyv
erdi
ct.

Themet
hodwasnothi
ngedt
oidealpr
ocedur
ebuti
thadspi
ri
tualormagi
cormy
thi
cal
connect
ions.I
nthi
s met
hod t
he j
udgmentwas bel
i
eved t
o be made byGod or
super
nat
ural
,thusj
udi
ciumdeionassumpt
iont
hatGodst
andsf
ori
nnocentper
son
hencedeat
hori
njur
iessust
ainedbyt
heaccusedper
sonsy
mbol
i
zedgui
l
tinessand
conv
ersel
y,t
hesur
viv
ali
mpl
i
esi
nnocence.Thi
swasev
idencedi
nthecaseofRexv
.
Pal
ambas/
oFundi
kir
a14E.
A.C.
A96,t
hiswasat
ri
albyor
dealt
odi
scov
erwhohadby
wi
tchcr
aftcauseddeat
hoft
hei
nnocentchi
l
drenandt
heappel
l
ant
stakesat
radi
ti
onal
medi
cineusedbywi
t Mwav
chesknownas“ i”.I
faper
sont
akesi
tandhehasdone
somet
hingwr
onghewi
l
ldi
e,wher
easi
faper
sont
akesi
t,andheorshehasnotdone
any
thi
ngwr
ong,
he/
shewi
l
lnotdi
ebutonl
yvomi
ts.Thecour
thel
dthat
,Waml
undawas
i
nnocentofwi
tchcr
aftf
ori
tdoesnotexi
st.Ont
hisbasi
s,Mwav
imedi
cinedoesnot
wor
konani
nnocentper
sonbecausehasnotcausedeat
hhencet
hisnav
igat
edmal
i
ce
af
oret
houghtaspersect
ion200oft
hePenalCodef
ori
ntentt
ocausedeat
hort
he
knowl
edget
hatt
heactwi
l
lpr
obabl
ycausedeat
hwer
eabsent
.Theappealwasal
l
owed
andconv
ict
ionandsent
enceswer
equashed.

29
 b)Tr
ialbydr
ummi
ngt
hescandal
.

Thi
smet
hodi
nvol
vesexchangeofwor
dsbet
weent
hepar
ti
est
othedi
sput
esbuta
mor
ecr
eat
iveappr
oachmaybeel
ect
edbyt
hepar
ti
eswher
ebyonemayr
eci
teasonor
poem t
oconv
eymessage.Att
heendoft
hedayadef
eat
edper
soni
sbel
i
evedt
obe
gui
l
ty si
nce t
he met
hod was bui
l
d on bel
i
efst
hat t
he super
nat
uralhav
e no
champi
onshi
pwi
tht
heev
ildoer
s.Ther
ewasadi
sput weenTor
ebet gindiv.Mt
swen,
the
par
ti
esquar
rel
edeachpar
tyl
i
vei
ndi
ff
erentv
il
lage,eachpar
tywenthomeandsunga
song,
eachpar
tysungasl
oudast
heycoul
d,sot
hatt
hewhol
evi
l
lagewoul
dhear
d.Now
t
hedr
ummi
ngcont
estwentonmor
ethr
eeweeksnowt
hev
il
lageel
dert
ooknot
eoft
his
andhewasoft
hev
iewt
hat
,ift
hecont
estpr
oceededanyf
avouri
twoul
dendi
nthef
ight
.
Thev
il
lageel
dercal
l
edTor
gindi
,Mt
swen,
andt
hei
rpeopl
etocomet
ohi
scompound,
he
or
der
edeachsi
det
osi
nganddr
um,andhewoul
ddeci
det
hewi
nner
,af
terbot
hsi
des
hav
ingsundanddr
um t
hev
il
lageel
der
sannouncedt
hatTor
gindiwont
hecasebut
Mt
swenhadt
hebet
tersong,
sobot
hpar
ti
eswonandl
ostal
i
ttl
e.

c)Tr
ialbybat
tl
e.

Thi
sisamet
hodi
nwhi
chdi
sput
ingpar
ti
esgeti
nvol
vedi
nact
ualphy
sicalf
ight
.Thi
s
met
hodoper
atesundersi
mil
arassumpt
iont
hatGodst
andsonl
yfori
nnocentper
sons.
Thei
mpor
tantpoi
ntt
onot
eist
hatapar
tymayhi
reanot
herper
sont
ost
andhi
m orher
f
orr
easonofi
l
lnessundert
hesameassumpt
ion.

d)Tr
ialbyoat
h.

Thi
smet
hodr
equi
redapar
tyt
otakeanoat
haguar
ant
eeoft
het
rut
hoft
het
est
imony
.

30
Themet
hodwasj
ust
if
iedbyabel
i
eft
hathav
ingt
akenanoat
honehadt
otel
lnol
i
esf
or
f
earofsuper
nat
uralpuni
shment
.Af
terswear
ing t
he counci
lbel
i
eved t
he st
ori
es
nar
rat
edbyapar
tyt
obenot
hingbutt
het
rut
h.Howev
er,t
hismet
hodmaynotbe
ef
fect
ivewher
eapar
tycar
esnotaboutt
heconsequencesofoat
h.

e)Tr
ialbyJur
y.

Thi
sisoneoft
heol
destf
ormsofl
egalpr
oceedi
ngsi
ntheanci
ent
sGr
eeksoci
ety
.Aj
ury
i
sapanelofadj
udi
cat
orsandi
nthecommonpr
act
icei
ntheGr
eeksoci
etyt
hej
ury
consi
stedofel
der
s.Forexampl
ethet
ri
aloft
hegr
eatphi
l
osopher
,Socr
atesconsi
sted
of500men.I
nthemoder
nsy
stem j
uryent
ail
sbyJudgesorl
aymenassi
sti
ngaJudge
onpoi
ntsoff
acthenceaj
urymaymakef
indi
ngsoff
actl
eav
ingt
hej
udget
omake
deci
si
ononpoi
ntofl
aw.TheJur
ywasi
mpanel
edt
oassi
stdet
ermi
nat
ionoff
act
ual
i
ssuesandnotl
egal
issues.

Theopi
nionoft
hej
uryi
snotdi
sposi
vebutr
atheradv
isor
ytot
heJudgewhomadef
inal
7
det
ermi
nat
ionoff
act
s. Int
heCommonLawJur
yisnor
mal
l
yinv
olv
edi
nser
iouscr
imi
nal
caseswher
easi
nCi
vi
lLaw Sy
stem t
heuseofJur
yiscommoni
nal
lcasesal
though
f
ocusi
sincr
imi
nalcases.Thecommonpr
act
icei
nTanzani
aist
oimpanelt
hecour
t
assessor
swhoadv
iset
heJudgeorMagi
str
ateonf
act
uali
ssuesandt
hei
ropi
niondoes
notbi
ndt
heJudgeorMagi
str
ate.

Thedangeri
sthatt
hej
uror
smaydel
i
verv
erdi
ctpr
ompt
edbypopul
arper
cept
ionor
emot
ion.Thust
heyar
esuscept
ibl
etot
hei
nfl
uenceofmedi
aandgener
alpubl
i
copi
nion.
Al
soj
uri
esmaybebi
asedespeci
all
ywhent
hemat
terhasi
nfl
uencei
nthei
deol
ogi
cal
,
cul
tur
alormor
alor
ient
ati
onofaj
uror
.

Ther
uleofpr
act
icedi
dnotr
equi
ret
hem t
ogi
ver
easonsf
ordeci
sionhencei
twas
abol
i
shedi
nsomecount
ri
essuchasMal
aysi
a,1995andI
ndi
a1960basi
ngonanumber

7
Bur
net
t,W,
(1975)
,Int
roduct
iont
oLegal
Syst
em ofEastAf
ri
ca,
Keny
aLi
ter
atur
eBur
eau,
Nai
robi
,p.
128.

31
off
act
ors.Tr
ialbyJur
yov
eremphasi
zedont
henumberofwi
tnessesf
oronet
owi
nthe
case.Thati
stosayonewi
thmanywi
tnesseshadgr
eatl
i
kel
i
hoodt
owi
nthecaseas
opposedt
ocommonl
awpr
act
ice.

f
) Medi
ati
on.

I
nthi
smode,par
ti
esr
efert
hei
rdi
sput
etoani
mpar
ti
alt
hir
dpar
tyknownasamedi
ator
whohaspot
ent
ial
stocr
eat
eidealat
mospher
eforr
esol
uti
onofdi
sput
e.Amedi
ator
doesnotadj
udi
cat
ethedi
sput
ebutsi
mpl
yfaci
l
itat
esdi
sput
eset
tl
ementhencea
medi
atori
sal
soknownasaf
aci
l
itat
or.Set
tl
ementoft
hedi
sput
efal
l
ssquar
elyont
he
par
ti
es.Thekeyr
oleofmedi
atori
stoexpl
orev
ari
ouscour
sesav
ail
abl
ebypoi
nti
ngout
t
headv
ant
agesanddi
sadv
ant
agesofeachcour
se.

Amedi
atormayconductsepar
ateandj
ointsessi
onsdependi
ngont
heat
ti
tudeandt
he
r
eact
ionofeachpar
tyt
owar
dsoneanot
herbutwher
ethesi
tuat
ioni
ssohar
d,i
tis
adv
isabl
etocommencewi
thsepar
atesessi
onandpr
oceedt
ojoi
ntsessi
onev
enwher
e
t
hesi
tuat
iont
enset
oaccor
dar
oom f
orpar
ti
est
oescapeoutgr
iev
ancesespeci
all
ywi
th
apar
tywhof
eel
sweakagai
nstt
heot
her
.Iti
snotst
ranget
ofi
ndapar
tyt
oshadi
ng
t
ear
sandai
ri
ngoutabusi
vewor
dsagai
nstt
hem asameansofv
ent
ingoutgr
iev
ances
whi
chi
sli
kel
ytobeachi
evedt
hroughj
ointsessi
on.

2.MODERNDI
SPUTESSETTLEMENT.

Moder
ndi
sput
esr
esol
uti
oncanbecat
egor
izedi
ntoLi
ti
gat
ionandAl
ter
nat
iveDi
sput
e
Resol
uti
on(
A.D.
R).Li
ti
gat
ionmayf
allundersy
stemsnamel
yCommonLaw Sy
stems
andCi
vi
lLawSy
stem.

a)Li
ti
gat
ion.

32
Li
ti
gat
ioni
sinv
olunt
ary
,for
malandst
ruct
uredandpubl
i
cpr
ocessi
nwhi
chonehast
o
obser
vef
act
orssuchasl
i
mit
ati
ont
imeandj
uri
sdi
cti
on.I
tinv
olv
esasetofl
egal
pr
ocedur
esf
orchannel
i
ngcl
aims,
forci
vi
lsui
tsonehast
ocommencewi
thpr
oceedi
ngs
f
oll
owedbyot
herst
agessuchasment
ion,
prel
i
minar
yhear
ing,
hear
ingandot
her
swhi
l
e
cr
imi
nalcasesdo nor
mal
l
ycommencewi
th char
gesheetbuti
n ei
thercasei
tis
i
ncumbentf
orpar
ti
est
oobser
veeachst
ageorpr
ocedur
einv
olv
edsi
nceabuseor
f
ail
ureofpr
ocedur
esmayat
tractadv
erseconsequences.

b)Al
ter
nat
iveDi
sput
esResol
uti
on.

ADRi
sanacr
ony
mthatent
ail
sanal
ter
nat
ivecour
seofdi
sput
esset
tl
ementwhi
chhas
been adopt
ed i
nrecenty
ear
stor
emedyt
he weaknessesofl
i
tigat
ion whi
ch was
expensi
vewi
thr
esul
tsf
requent
lyunpr
edi
ctabl
eandnor
mal
l
yoccasi
oni
ngunduedel
ays.
ADRconsi
stsofv
ari
ousmet
hodssuchasmedi
ati
on,
Arbi
tr
ati
onandnegot
iat
ion.

 Medi
ati
on.

Medi
ati
onent
ail
sdi
sput
eset
tl
ementi
nwhi
chaneut
ralt
hir
dpar
tyi
sinv
olv
ed.Basi
cal
l
y
i
tisat
radi
ti
onalmodeofdi
sput
esset
tl
ementai
mingatr
esol
uti
onofdi
sput
esas
di
scussedabov
e.

 Ar
bit
rat
ion.

I
tisasubmi
ssi
ont
oani
mpar
ti
alt
hir
dpar
tynamel
yar
bit
rat
or,nor
mal
l
ybei
ngaper
son
wi
thexper
ti
sei
nthesubj
ectmat
terf
ordeci
sion.Ar
bit
rat
ioni
snotqui
tedi
ff
erentf
rom
l
i
tigat
ioni
nthesenset
hatanar
bit
rat
orconduct
shear
ing,admi
texhi
bit
sandmor
e
i
mpor
tantmakesdeci
sionaf
terhear
ingpar
ti
esunl
i
keamedi
atorwhoi
smer
elya
f
aci
l
itat
or.Howev
er,i
fdi
ff
erswi
thl
i
tigat
ionsi
ncei
tadmi
tssomepr
ocedur
alf
lexi
bil
i
ty
andbasi
cal
l
ylessf
ormalandst
ruct
ured.Al
sot
hispr
ocessmayaccor
dsr
ightt
othe
par
ti
est
ochooseanAr
bit
rat
orunl
i
kel
i
tigat
ion.

c)Negot
iat
ion.

33
Nor
mal
l
yat
tor
ney
’smayadv
isecl
i
ent
stor
esor
ttonegot
iat
ionwhent
her
eisl
i
kel
i
hood
ofl
osi
ngt
hecaseorunduedel
ayi
sant
ici
pat
ed.Negot
iat
ioni
sabackandf
ort
h
communi
cat
ionbet
weent
hepar
ti
est
otheconf
li
ctgear
edt
owar
dsr
esol
uti
onoft
he
di
sput
e.Successf
ulnegot
iat
ionr
equi
rescal
mness,
openmi
nd,
capaci
tyandgoodf
ait
h.
Howev
er,bei
ngi
nat
eam oneshoul
dhav
eabenchmar
kofnegot
iat
iont
oav
oidbei
ng
sway
edawaybyt
headv
ersepar
ty,
youshoul
dnotgobey
ondy
ourdet
ermi
nat
ionpoi
ntof
r
efer
encei
nsuchawayt
ocompl
etel
ycompr
omi
sey
ouri
nter
est
.

Negot
iat
iondoesnoti
nvol
veat
hir
dpar
tyi
nther
ealsense.Howev
er,t
hepr
ocessmay
ei
therbedi
recti
nthesenset
hatpar
ti
eshav
eadi
rectcommuni
cat
ionori
ndi
rect
wher
easanAt
tor
neyoragenti
sinv
olv
ednotasaf
aci
l
itat
orbutasasubst
it
uteoft
he
par
ty.

 Facet
oFaceandOnl
ineDi
sput
eResol
uti
on.

Wi
tht
echnol
ogi
calt
ransf
ormat
ion,di
sput
esset
tl
ementmaynotnecessar
il
yinv
olv
ea
phy
sicalcont
actbet
weenpar
ti
esandt
hef
aci
l
itat
or.Thepr
ocessmaybecar
ri
edout
onl
i
ne,ei
thert
hrough t
eleconf
erence,Cel
l
ularphones orSky
pe.Onl
i
ne Di
sput
e
Resol
uti
on (
O.D.
R)i
sver
y usef
ulwher
eface t
oface meet
ing l
eads t
o undue
i
nconv
eni
ences.Howev
er,t
hebi
gchal
l
engei
sthatODRmaynotgi
veoppor
tuni
tyf
ora
f
aci
l
itat
ort
ospott
hedemeanorandat
ti
tudeoft
hepar
ti
es.I
nfact
,itdepar
tsf
rom
t
radi
ti
onal
appr
oachwher
epar
ti
esgett
imet
oshakehands.

34
 CHAPTERFI
VE.

LOGI
CANDLEGALREASONI
NG.

Logi
cReasoni
ng.

Thi
sisasci
enceofr
easoni
ng,pr
oof
,thi
nki
ngorr
efer
ence.Logi
creasoni
ngi
spr
imar
il
y
concer
nwi
thi
nter
nal
thoughtandsecondar
il
ywi
thl
anguagewhi
chexpr
esst
het
hought
.

 Logi
creasoni
ngal
sohel
psi
nanal
yzi
nganar
gumentorapi
eceofr
easoni
ngi
n
or
dert
odet
ermi
newhet
heri
tisl
i
kel
ytobecor
rectornot
.

 Logi
creasoni
ngdeal
swi
thpr
inci
plesandcr
it
eri
aofgoodr
easoni
ng,i
tisal
so
pl
ays an i
mpor
tantpar
tinl
egalr
easoni
ng.Logi
creasoni
ng i
s nor
mal
l
y
associ
atedwi
thdeduct
ivef
orm ofar
gumentwhi
chi
sal
soknownasSy
ll
ogi
sm.

Sy
ll
ogi
sm i
sanar
gumentwhi
chcont
ainst
wot
hings;

 Pr
emi
ses

 Concl
usi
on.

i
) Pr
emi
sesar
enor
mal
l
ytheassumpt
ionsuponwhi
chaper
sonseekst
odr
am
concl
usi
on.Thear
gumentwi
l
lnor
mal
l
ycont
ainwhati
sknownasmaj
or
pr
emi
ses,mi
norpr
emi
sesandconcl
usi
on.Thepr
emi
sesnor
mal
l
ypr
ovi
de
r
easonsf
orascer
tai
ningconcl
usi
onast
rue.

i
i
) Concl
usi
ont
ri
est
oest
abl
i
short
opr
ooft
het
rut
h.I
nadv
isi
ngacl
i
ental
awy
er

35
 wi
l
lempl
oyt
hist
ypeofr
easoni
ngandsuchcaseasast
atut
ewi
l
lactasa
maj
orpr
emi
seandt
hel
awy
erwi
l
lindent
if
yhi
scasehasf
allwi
thi
nast
atut
e
andt
hen,hewi
l
lreducehast
heconcl
usi
ont
hewayi
twi
l
lappl
ytoi
tscl
i
ent
case.

METHODSOFLOGI
CREASONI
NG.

a)Deduct
ivel
ogi
c.

Thi
sisonl
yappl
i
cabl
eonceamaj
orpr
emi
sehasbeenest
abl
i
shed.Wher
ethemaj
or
pr
emi
sei
snott
hest
atut
ebutcasel
aw,nomaj
orpr
emi
sei
sli
kel
ytobecl
earf
rom j
ust
onecasei
nor
dert
ofor
mul
atet
hemaj
orpr
emi
sef
rom pr
ecedentonehast
oread
sev
eralcaseswhi
char
esi
mil
ar,i
nor
dert
ofi
ndt
hemaj
orpr
emi
sewhi
chunder
li
esal
l
t
hecases.Whatt
her
eaderwi
l
lbedoi
ngi
nit
sef
fecti
sascer
tai
ningt
her
ati
odeci
dendi
oft
hedi
ff
erentcasesi
nor
dert
ocomeupwi
thpr
eposi
ti
onwhi
chwi
l
lthenactast
he
maj
orpr
emi
se.

b)I
nduct
ivel
ogi
c.

Thi
sist
hepr
ocessofr
easoni
ngf
rom apar
ti
cul
arcasedeci
siont
oagener
alpr
eposi
ti
on
asopposedt
odeduct
ivel
ogi
cwher
ether
easoni
ngi
sfr
om gener
alpr
eposi
ti
ont
othe
par
ti
cul
arconcl
usi
oni
nthecasei
tsel
f.

36
Al
awy
eri
nadv
isi
ngont
heappl
i
cat
ionofcasel
aw t
hepar
ti
cul
arsi
tuat
ionwi
l
lfi
rst
empl
oyi
nduct
iver
easoni
ngi
nor
dert
ofi
ndt
hegener
alpr
eposi
ti
onofl
awandt
hen,t
he
l
awy
erwi
l
lappl
ydeduct
iver
easoni
ngi
ndet
ermi
ninghow i
tappl
i
est
othef
act
soft
he
par
ti
cul
arcase.

NB:I
nInduct
iver
easoni
ngt
heanal
ystmustknowwhati
slooki
ngf
or,t
heanal
ystmust
hav
einmi
ndt
hegener
alconcept
ionwhi
chcanbest
atedi
ngener
alpr
eposi
ti
on.The
anal
ystmustcat
egor
izet
hei
ssueanddeci
dewhi
chpr
evi
ousdeci
sionar
esocl
osel
y
anal
ogousorsi
mil
art
othei
ssuei
nquest
iont
hatt
heycanbeused ast
hebasi
sfor
i
nduci
ngt
her
elev
antpr
eposi
ti
onofl
aw.

Ty
pesofl
ogi
creasoni
ng.

i
) Sy
ll
ogi
sti
creasoni
ng.

Thi
sisat
ypeofr
easoni
ngwhi
chwasdev
elopedbySocr
atesandAr
ist
otl
e,andi
tisa
t
ypeofr
easoni
ngwhi
chmustal
way
scont
aint
hreepr
emi
sessuchasmaj
orpr
emi
se,
mi
norpr
emi
se and concl
usi
on.I
n act
ual
l
ya f
orm ofdeduct
iver
easoni
ng.I
tis
cat
egor
izedasr
easoni
ngf
rom t
hewhol
epar
ttot
hepar
torf
rom t
hegener
alt
othe
par
ti
cul
ar.

Forexampl
e,onemayhav
eamaj
orpr
emi
sest
ati
ngt
hat
;

Maj
orpr
emi al
se: lf
ishar
ever
tebr
ates.
Mi
norpr
emi Ti
se: l
api
aisaf
ish.
Concl
usi Ti
on: l
api
aar
ever
tebr
ate.
I
nsy
ll
ogi
sm,t
heyhav
eadv
ant
ageofcer
tai
nty
(assur
anceofconcl
usi
on)wher
ethe
pr
emi
sesar
etr
uth,t
hen t
he concl
usi
on cannotbe f
alse and t
hisi
sbecause t
he
concl
usi
oni
scont
ainedi
nthepr
emi
se,
andi
tisamer
erest
atementoft
hepr
emi
ses.

NB:I
tisi
mpor
tantt
odi
sti
ngui
shbet
weent
hev
ali
dit
yoff
orm andt
rut
hoft
hecont
ent
,
becausei
tispossi
blef
orasy
ll
ogi
sm l
ogi
cal
l
yval
i
dbutf
alse.

Forexampl
e

37
 Maj
orpr
emi al
se: lmenar
epi
gs.
Mi
norpr
emi Socr
se: atesi
saman.
Concl
usi Socr
on: atesi
sapi
g.
Answer
;thel
ogi
calcont
entoft
hear
gumenti
tisv
ali
dbutt
heconcl
usi
oni
tisnot
t
rue(
fal
se)
,becauset
hemaj
orpr
emi
sesi
sfal
se,
becauseal
lmenar
enotpi
gs.I
tisal
so
possi
blef
orasy
ll
ogi
sm t
obet
rut
handv
ali
dyetbasedonf
alseapr
emi
se.

Forexampl
e,Maj
orpr
emi
ses: al
lmenar
eGr
eek.

Mi
norpr
emi
se: Socr
atesi
saman.
Concl
usi
on: Socr
atesi
sGr
eek.
Al
ogi
calf
ormi
scor
rectbutt
hemaj
orpr
emi
sei
swr
ong,howev
ert
heconcl
usi
oni
s
cor
rect
.Thesy
ll
ogi
sti
cfor
m ofr
easoni
ngi
fthepr
emi
sesar
etr
ue,t
hent
heconcl
usi
on
cannotbef
alsei
nit
sel
ffori
tst
atesnot
hingt
othet
rut
hoft
hepr
emi
ses ort
het
rut
hof
aconcl
usi
onder
ivedf
rom t
hem.

NB:
Mostoft
het
imesl
egal
argumenti
saboutat
rut
hofapar
ti
cul
arpr
emi
ser
athert
han
av
ali
dit
yoft
hel
ogi
cal
for
m bei
ngoper
ated.

i
i) Deduct
iveReasoni
ng.

Thi
sisapr
ocessofdr
awi
ngoutt
heconcl
usi
onf
rom al
readyexi
sti
ngpr
emi
se.I
tis
ar
gui
ngf
rom agener
alpr
eposi
ti
ont
oapar
ti
cul
arcase,onear
guesf
rom est
abl
i
shed
r
ulet
oapar
ti
cul
arcase.Forexampl
e,anyper
sonwhodr
ivesamot
orv
ehi
cler
eckl
essl
y
i
sli
abl
etopayaf
ineort
obesent
encedt
oat
erm ofi
mpr
isonment
,thi
spr
ovi
sionActas
agener
alpr
eposi
ti
onofl
aw,
orwher
eXwhoi
sinsanedr
ivesamot
orv
ehi
cle,
Xwi
l
lnot
hav
ecommi
tt
edanof
fencesi
ncehei
sinsaneandt
her
efor
eXcannotbegui
l
tyoft
he
of
fenceofdr
ivi
ngr
eckl
essl
y.

NB:Wher
ether
eisanest
abl
i
shedpr
inci
plededuct
ioni
susedt
osol
veapr
obl
em.The
pr
inci
plemayei
therbecont
ainedi
nast
atut
orypr
ovi
sionori
tmaybededucedf
rom
pr
ecedent
.
38
 i
ii
) I
nduct
iveReasoni
ng.

Thi
sisanopensy
stem ofr
easoni
ngandi
tisapr
ocessofr
easoni
ngf
rom apar
ti
cul
ar
caset
oagener
alpr
inci
ple,andi
nthi
sty
peofr
easoni
ngonear
guesf
rom exper
ience
wher
ebyagener
alr
ulei
sfor
medf
rom par
ti
cul
arcase.

Mostpr
ogr
essi
ve Judges use t
hisr
easoni
ng unl
i
ke Ti
mol
ous soul
s who pr
efer
deduct
iver
easoni
ng.One weakness ofi
nduct
iver
easoni
ng i
tlacks cer
tai
nty of
concl
usi
onwhi
char
enor
mal
l
yreachedbydeduct
ional
thoughi
tmayhav
eahi
ghdegr
ee
ofpr
obabi
l
ity
.Readcase:
Heav
env
.Pender
.

I
ninduct
iver
easoni
ngdi
ff
ersf
rom deduct
iver
easoni
ngi
ntot
womaj
orr
espect
s:

 The concl
usi
on r
eached i
s notsi
mpl
ya r
e-st
atementofwhati
s al
ready
cont
ainedi
nabasi
cpr
emi
se.

 I
tisl
esscer
tai
nini
tsconcl
usi
onst
handeduct
ivel
ogi
c.

i
v) Reasoni
ngbyanal
ogy
.

Accor
dingt
oEdwar
dLev
iinhi AnI
sbook“ ntr
oduct
iont
oLegalReasoni
ng”hest
ates
t
hat
:“abasi
cpat
ter
nofl
egalr
easoni
ngi
sreasoni
ngbyexampl
e”.Thi
smet
hodi
nvol
ves
maki
ngconcl
usi
onbasi
ngont
hepr
evi
oussi
mil
arexampl
e.Thi
sisat
ypeofr
easoni
ng
f
rom caset
ocaseandi
tist
hreest
eppr
ocessdescr
ibet
hedoct
ri
neofpr
ecedenti
n
whi
chapr
oposi
ti
ondescr
ipt
iveofaf
ir
stcasei
smadei
nther
uleofl
aw andt
hen
appl
i
edt
oanextsi
mil
arsi
tuat
ion.

NB:
Thel
aterJudgemaymani
pul
ater
ati
odeci
dendi
suchas;

 AJudgehast
olookf
orsi
mil
ari
ti
esbet
weent
hependi
ngcaseandt
hedeci
ded
caset
hati
saboutt
obej
udi
ciar
yconsi
der
ed.

39
  Pr
onouncet
her
ulei
nfer
ri
ngf
rom t
hepr
iorcase.

 Useofpr
ecedenti
sagoodexampl
eofr
easoni
ngbyanal
ogy
.

Thef
indi
ngofsi
mil
ari
tyordi
ff
erencei
sakeyst
epi
nthel
egalpr
ocess.I
tisaj
udge
f
unct
iont
odet
ermi
nesi
mil
ari
tyordi
ff
erence.

v
) Judi
cialHunch.

Thi
sinv
olv
esuseofext
ral
egalexampl
est
osuppor
tjudi
cialdeci
sions.I
nfor
mul
ati
onof
r
ulesandanal
yzi
ngf
act
sofcaseaj
udgemaymakeuseofsl
ogans,maxi
msandext
ra
l
egalst
andar
dst
ojust
if
ytheconcl
usi
on.Hav
ingdeci
dedwhati
sgoodorbad,acl
ever
j
udgewi
l
linv
okeev
eryf
acul
tyt
ojust
if
yhi
sconcl
usi
on(
allmeansofhi
sdi
sposal
).The
j
udgewi
l
lexami
neal
lcasesseet
hepr
inci
plesandsel
ectwhati
smostusef
ult
ohi
m
anddi
scar
dal
lrul
esandpr
inci
plest
hatbl
ockhi
m onhi
swayt
ohi
sconcl
usi
on.
One
j
udgecal
l
edJust
iceFr
ankl
i
ninhi
sbookcal
l Lawandt
ed“ heModer
nMi
nd”ar
guest
hat
:
“
usual
l
ythecour
tsbegi
nther
esul
tst
heydesi
ret
oaccompl
i
shandt
hen,
theyj
ust
if
yiti
.e,
t
heknowwhoi
sli
abl
e”.

NB:I
njudi
cialr
easoni
ng pr
inci
ples ar
e al
way
s pr
imar
y and pr
ecedent
s ar
e onl
y
secondar
y.

STYLEOFJUDI
CIALOPI
NION.

Ther
ear
ethr
eet
ypesofj
udi
cial
opi
nion:

 Gr
andst
yle.

 For
mal
sty
le.

 Real
i
sti
cst
yle.

a)Gr
andst
yle.

I
nthi
sst
ylet
hej
udgei
smuchconcer
nedwi
thpr
ovi
dinggui
dancef
ort
hef
utur
e.

40
Ther
efor
e,agener
alpr
eposi
ti
onembody
ingapol
i
cy,onl
ygui
desbutdoesnotcont
rol
i
nter
pret
ati
on.
nor
mal
l
y used by j
udges who per
cei
vel
egalpr
inci
ples as gener
al
pr
eposi
ti
onwhi
chcont
ainpol
i
cy.

Accor
dingt
oonej
uri
stcal
l
edKar
lLl
ewel
l
ynar
guest
hat
:“t
hegr
andst
ylei
sbased
essent
ial
l
yonanappealt
oreasonandi
tdoesnoti
nvol
veadher
encet
opr
ecedent(
not
f
oll
owst
ri
ct)
.Undert
hisst
ylepol
i
cycomesi
nforexpl
i
cit
lyexami
nat
ion.Bef
orepassi
ng
al
awt
hepar
li
amentcomeswi
thapol
i
cy,t
her
emustbesomepr
obl
em i
nor
derf
ort
he
par
li
amentt
oenactt
hel
aw.

Undert
hegr
andst
yle,
ajudgei
snotamer
eposi
ti
vei
nter
pret
eroft
hel
awbutbecomes
anact
ivei
nter
pret
ermeani
ngt
hati
nappl
yi
ngl
awundert
hegr
andst
ylet
hej
udgedoes
notonl
yappl
ythebl
ackl
ett
eroft
hel
awbutal
sot
akesi
ntoaccountt
heexi
sti
ngsoci
al
economi
cci
rcumst
ancesov
ert
hesoci
etyandi
tal
sol
ookst
hei
ntent
ionofpar
li
ament
i
nenact
ingt
hel
aw.MostBol
dspi
ri
tspr
efert
hegr
andst
yleandmi
s-chi
efr
uleof
i
nter
pret
ati
on.

b)For
malst
yle.

Undert
hef
ormalst
yle,j
udgesf
ocusonpr
inci
ples,aut
hor
it
iesandcase,andt
her
uleof
l
awdeci
det
hecase,andnoat
tent
ioni
spai
dforapol
i
cywhi
chi
slef
tforal
egi
slat
ure,
andf
ormal
sty
lei
snotconcer
nedwi
thsoci
alf
act
.

Themai
nchar
act
eri
sti
coff
ormalst
ylei
sthat
,judgewi
l
lnor
mal
l
ypr
eferpl
ainmeani
ng
appr
oachofst
atut
oryi
nter
pret
ati
on(
appl
yi
ngal
aw asi
tis)
.Undert
hef
ormalst
yle,
j
udgesconsi
dert
hemsel
vesasboundbypr
inci
pleest
abl
i
shedi
npr
evi
ouscases.

Thecour
tundert
hef
ormal
sty
lei
sonl
yther
etodi
scov
eranddecl
aret
heappl
i
cabl
erul
e,
andappl
ytot
hef
act
soft
hepar
ti
cul
arcase.

c)Real
ist
icst
yle.

I
tismostappl
i
edi
nScandi
nav
iancount
ri
es,
wher
ethej
udgeusespr
ecedentbymaki
ng
di
sti
nct
ion,t
hej
udgeusespr
ecedentwhi
chwi
l
lassi
sthi
mtoj
ust
if
yit
sconcl
usi
onand
casest
hatseem t
ocont
radi
cti
tdesi
redr
esul
tar
edi
sti
ngui
shedonf
act
ual
dif
fer
ences.

41
Ther
efor
e,pr
ecedentunderr
eal
i
sti
cst
yleonl
ypl
aysasecondar
yrol
e,andt
heydonot
necessar
ydi
ctat
etheout
comeofcase.

STYLEOFJUDI
CIALOPI
NIONSI
NEASTAFRI
CA.

Oneaut
horRober
tSei
dmani
dent
if
iest
hreephasesi
nev
olut
ionofj
udi
cialopi
nioni
n
EastAf
ri
ca.

 Fr
om 0t
o1920.

TheTangany
ikaOr
deri
nCounci
lwaspassedi
n1920;
it’
sdur
ingt
hist
imet
hathest
art
s
l
ooki
ngont
hisper
iod.Hesai
dthatt
heopi
nionoft
hecour
tdur
ingt
hist
imewasv
ery
shor
tandj
udgmentandj
udgesr
ealci
tedr
earaut
hor
it
y,t
her
oleoft
hecour
tdur
ingt
his
t
imewasj
ustt
oappl
ywhi
chl
aw.I
ncaseofdi
sput
eissuet
hecour
tjust
if
ieddeci
sions
byf
ormalst
yle.Reasongi
vent
othi
sshor
topi
nionwast
hat
,ther
ewer
enoenough
mat
eri
ali
.e.CasesandText
books(
ref
erencebooksy
stem di
dnotr
equi
ret
hej
udget
o
j
ust
if
ythedeci
si
ont
hisi
sbecauset
hel
owercour
twer
enotmannedbyt
rai
nedper
son
andt
her
oleoft
hecour
twasj
ustt
oannouncel
aw.

 Fr
om 1930t
oonwar
ds.

Fr
om t
his per
iod t
he cour
t opi
nion became mor
e sophi
sti
cat
ed because of
i
ncr
easementofl
awy
ersandt
rai
nedpeopl
e.Lawy
ersst
art
edci
ti
ngaut
hor
it
yext
ensi
vel
y.
Thecour
twer
ebei
ngmannedbyt
rai
nedper
sonnel
andav
ail
abi
l
ityofmat
eri
al.

 Fr
om 1961t
otheabol
it
ionofappeal
stot
hepr
ivycounci
l.

Dur
ingt
hisper
iodwhi
chdeci
sionsoft
hecour
thadt
obemeetexpect
ati
onsofnewl
y
i
ndependentst
ate,Engl
i
shdeci
sionswer
enol
ongerbi
ndi
ngEngl
i
shaut
hor
it
iesand
r
ecei
vedl
awsonl
yappl
i
cabl
ewhi
chwer
econf
ormi
tywi
thl
ocalcondi
ti
on,t
heywer
e
mer
elyper
suasi
veaspersect
ion2(
2)oft
heJudi
cialandAppl
i
cat
ionofLawsAct[
CAP
358Rev
isedEdi
ti
on,
2002]
.

42
 LEGALREASONI
NG

Thet
erm“
legal
reasoni
ng”i
snoteasi
l
ydef
inedbutcoul
dmeant
hreet
hings;

 Reasoni
ngt
oest
abl
i
sht
heexi
sti
ngcont
entoft
hel
awonagi
veni
ssue.

 I
tcoul
dber
easoni
ngoft
heexi
sti
ngcont
entofal
aw t
ododeci
sionwhi
cht
he
cour
tshoul
dreachi
nacasei
ninv
olv
ingt
hati
ssuewhi
chi
sinacour
t.

 Reasoni
ngonexi
sti
ngdeci
sionwhi
cht
hecour
tshoul
dreachi
nacaseal
lthi
ngs
consi
der
ed(
ext
ra-
legal
consi
der
ati
on)
.

Theconceptofl
egalr
easoni
ngi
sli
nkedt
oint
erpr
etat
ionandcoher
ence.I
nter
pret
ati
on
ai
msatbot
hconser
vingandcr
eat
ionandi
tisnotmer
elyandat
temptatpr
oduci
ngbut
al
so t
o make somet
hing orbr
ing somet
hing outofan or
igi
nal
.The el
ementof
i
nter
pret
ati
on i
nlegalr
easoni
ng i
s concer
n atst
ri
ki
ng t
he hi
gh bal
ance bet
ween
conser
vingandcr
eat
ingandt
heconst
rai
nt,
thatshoul
dbeoper
ati
ngupont
hej
udgesas
t
heyunder
taket
hebal
anci
ngacti
nint
erpr
eti
ngt
hel
aw,t
hej
udgesappl
yi
ngt
hel
awas
cur
r conser
ent( ve)i
sandt
heysuppl
ement
,modi
fyorbr
ingsomet
hi cr
ngnew ( eat
e)i
n
t
hel
awi
nthecour
seofr
easoni
ngf
rom t
hecont
entofl
awt
oadeci
siont
oapar
ti
cul
ar
case.I
nter
pret
ati
onandl
egal
reasoni
ngpl
ayt
womaj
orr
oles;

 Reasoni
ngt
oest
abl
i
sht
heexi
sti
ngcont
entofal
awongi
veni
ssue.

 I
tisr
easoni
ngf
rom t
heexi
sti
ngcont
entofl
awt
odeci
siont
hatcour
twi
l
lreachi
n
agi
vencasei
nvol
vi
ngani
ssue.

Legalr
easoni
ngandj
ust
if
icat
ion.

I
nreachi
ngaconcl
usi
onaj
udgewi
l
lhav
etoj
ust
if
yhi
sdeci
sion,meani
ngt
hatt
he
deci
si
onr
eachedmustbewel
lreasoned.

I
njust
if
yingadeci
sionaj
udgewi
l
lappeal
tot
hef
oll
owi
ng:

 Aut
hor
it
ies.

43
  Sour
cesofl
aw.

 Pr
ecedent
.

 St
atut
orywor
ding.

I
njust
if
ydeci
si
ons,
twof
act
orsmustbeconsi
der
edbyj
udgeasf
oll
ows;

 Theext
entt
owhi
chapr
oposeddeci
sionwi
l
lcoher
ewi
thexi
sti
ngpr
inci
plesand
aut
hor
it
ies.Thegr
eat
ert
heyar
econsi
stentwi
l
lexi
stpr
inci
plesandaut
hor
it
ies
t
hel
essl
i
kel
yiti
stobe.

 I
njust
if
yingadeci
sionaj
udgemustconsi
dert
hebr
oaderconsequencesoft
he
deci
sionf
orpot
ent
ial
li
ti
gant
s.

Theconsequencesonl
egalsy
stem andt
hegener
alr
uleofl
awi
nsoci
etyorputsi
mpl
y
wi
tht
hedeci
si
onbei
nli
newi
thcommonsenseandj
ust
ice.

Onej
uri
sts,pr
ofessorJohnWi
sdom hesum upt
henat
ureofl
egalr
easoni
ngbysay
ing
t
he f
oll
owi
ng:
“i
tis nota chai
n ofdemonst
rat
iver
easoni
ng….
.a pr
esent
ing and
r
epr
esent
ingoft
hosef
eat
ureoft
hecaseswhi
chsev
eral
l
yco-
oper
atei
nfav
oroft
he
concl
usi
on….
ther
easonsar
eli
ket
hel
egsofachai
rnott
hel
i
nksofachai
n”.

Ther
efor
e,l
egalr
easoni
ngempl
oyspr
act
icalr
easoni
ngweal
luse i
nev
ery
dayl
i
fewe
t
endt
owayacol
l
ect
ionofr
easonsf
ororagai
nstt
oapar
ti
cul
arr
easonr
athert
han
deduct
ivel
ogi
c.

TYPESOFCASESANDSTYLEOFJUDI
CIALOPI
NIONS.

Ther
ear
esev
eral
typesofcaseswhi
chmayar
ise;

 Casesoff
ir
sti
mpr
essi
on.

 Cl
earcases.

 Tr
oubl
ecases.

a)Casesoff
ir
sti
mpr
essi
on.

44
Ther
eisusual
l
ynopr
ecedentandi
nsuchci
rcumst
ancet
hej
udgewi
l
lbei
nter
est
edi
n
pr
ovi
dinggui
dancef
ort
hef
utur
eandwi
l
lbeari
nmi
ndpol
i
cyconsi
der
ati
onswi
l
llay
downt
her
ulegui
dedbygr
andst
yleofj
udi
cial
opi
nion.

b)Cl
earcases.

Acl
earcasei
sacasewhi
chusual
l
yhasapr
ecedentcov
eri
ngt
hemat
teri
nissue.I
n
suchci
rcumst
ancest
her
eisnotcont
rov
ersyast
other
ule.Theagr
eedr
uleoft
he
deci
si
oni
sder
ivedf
rom apr
evi
ousdeci
sion.Whatt
hecour
tdoesi
sjustt
odi
scov
erand
di
scl
aimedt
hel
aw.I
ncl
earcaset
hef
ormal
sty
lei
spr
efer
red.

c)Tr
oubl
ecases.

I
twi
l
lnor
mal
l
yar
isewher
ether
ulei
snotcl
earandagr
eedupon.Thel
ackofcl
ari
tymay
beduet
otwor
easons;

 Conf
li
cti
ngpr
inci
plesi
ndi
ff
erentcases.

 Conf
li
cti
ngi
nter
pret
ati
onoft
heaut
hor
it
iesi
nsuchsi
tuat
ions,t
her
e’sdoubtas
t
owhi
choft
heconf
li
cti
ngcov
enantt
hesi
tuat
ion.

Forexampl
e,t
hecour
tofco-
ordi
nat
ejur
isdi
cti
onsuchast
heHi
ghCour
tofTanzani
a,
wher
etheHi
ghCour
tandnone,i
ssuper
iort
otheot
her
,andsuchcour
tmayi
ssue
conf
li
cti
ngdeci
si
onwhi
chwi
l
lremai
ntobeconf
li
cti
ngunt
ilbyt
hecour
tinj
udi
cial
hi
erar
chysuchast
heCour
tofAppealofTanz a.Bi
ani .HawaMohammedv.Republ
ic
(
1983)TLR,
concer
nthei
nter
pret
ati
onofs.
114oft
heL.
M.A,
197

CHAPTERSI
X.

STAREDECI
SIS.

Thecommonl
awdoct
ri
neofpr
ecedenti
stot
heef
fectt
hateachcour
tisboundt
othei
r
pr
iordeci
sions.Pr
iordeci
sionofcour
tabov
eiti
nthehi
erar
chyandsomecour
tsatl
east
t
o some ext
entbi
nd t
hemsel
ves.Hi
gh Cour
tofTanzani
a and Zanzi
barbi
ndi
ng
t
hemsel
ves.Thedoct
ri
neofpr
ecedenti
sal
socal
l
edst
aredeci
sis.I
tmeanskeept
othe

45
deci
si
onsofpastcasesi
.eal
ati
nmaxi
m.

Thedoct
ri
neofst
aredeci
sisorst
arer
ati
oni
busdeci
dendii
tmeanskeept
odeci
sionsof
pastcases,
thi
sdoct
ri
nepl
aysav
italr
olei
ncommonl
awl
egalsy
stem.Howev
er,
inci
vi
l
l
awscount
ri
esbasedonRomanl
aw,pr
ecedentmaybef
oll
owedbutt
her
eisnost
ri
ctl
y
r
equi
rementorst
ri
ctr
ulet
hatmaybef
oll
owed.

NB:Theear
li
erdeci
si
oni
ssuper
iornotbecausei
tcomesf
rom ahi
ghercour
trat
her
,the
ear
li
erdeci
sionbecomessuper
iorj
ustbecausei
tisear
li
er.Thi
sobl
i
gat
ionofacour
tto
f
oll
owi
tsownpr
evi
ousdeci
sionsi
sty
pi yknownasst
cal
l aredeci
sisl
ati
nfor“
standby
t
het
hingdeci
ded”
.

Subor
dinat
ecour
tsar
erequi
redt
ofol
l
ow super
iorcour
tsr
egar
dlesst
ocor
rect
ness.
Fr
om t
hedef
ini
ti
onofcommonl
awaboutdoct
ri
neofst
aredeci
sis,
theappl
i
cat
iont
obe
boundwhi
chpr
ecedenti
soft
wot
ypessuchv
ert
ical
obl
i
gat
ionandhor
izont
alobl
i
gat
ion.

 Ver
ti
calobl
igat
ion.

I
nthej
udi
ci
alhi
erar
chydeci
sionsoft
hesuper
iorcour
tbi
ndsal
llowercour
ts,under
v
ert
icalobl
i
gat
ion,t
hej
udgei
sboundt
oappl
ypr
inci
plel
aiddownbywhi
chsuper
ior
cour
t,ev
eni
fhet
hinki
t’
snotcor
rect
.Theaut
hor
it
ywhi
chpr
ecedentdependsonwhi
ch
cour
titpr
oceedandcour
tinwhi
chi
t’
sre-
cit
ed(
concur
rentj
uri
sdi
cti
on)
.Inaddi
ti
on,
the
cour
tsf
oll
owi
ngt
hedeci
sionsofahi
ghercour
t.

 Hor
izont
alobl
igat
ion.

I
tref
erst
ohow somecour
tsandcour
tsofco-
ordi
nat
ebi
ndst
hemsel
ves,nor
mal
l
y
Appel
l
ateCour
tsar
eboundbyt
hei
rownpr
evi
ousdeci
sions.I
toccur
smost
lyf
rom Hi
gh
Cour
tsorCour
tofAppeal
.Inaddi
ti
ont
obei
ngobl
i
gedt
ofol
l
owt
hedeci
sionsofcour
ts
abov
ethem i
nthej
udi
cialhi
erar
chy
,cour
tsar
eal
so,al
thoughl
essobv
iousl
yand
somet
imesmor
econt
rov
ersi
all
y,expect
edt
ofol
l
owt
hei
rownear
li
erdeci
sions.

PRECEDENT.

Thecor
epr
inci
pleofdeci
sionmaki
ngaccor
dingt
opr
ecedenti
sthatcour
tsshoul
d

46
f
oll
ow pr
evi
ousdeci
si
onst
hatt
heyshoul
dgi
vet
hesameanswer
stol
egalquest
ions
t
hathi
gherorear
li
ercour
tshav
egi
veni
nthepast
.

I
nit
ial
l
y,under
standi
ng t
he i
dea ofpr
ecedentr
equi
res appr
eci
ati
ng t
he di
ff
erence
weenl
bet ear
ningf
rom t
hepast
,ont andf
heonehand, oll
owi
ngt
hepastj
ustbecauseof
t
hef
actofapastdeci
si
on,ont
heot
her
.Wi
thr
espectt
othef
ormer
,whi
chi
snotr
eal
l
y
pr
ecedent
ialr
easoni
ngatal
l
,thei
nst tmayl
antcour ear
nfr
om apr
eci
ouscase,orbe
per
suadedbysomedeci
sioni
nthepast
,butt
hedeci
siont
odowhatanot
hercour
thas
doneonanear
li
eroccasi
oni
snotbasedont
hepr
evi
ouscasesst
atusasapr
ecedent
.
I
nst
eadt
hedeci
sionexempl
i
fiest
hef
undament
alhumancapaci
tyt
olear
nfr
om ot
her
s
andf
rom t
hepast
.Ther
ear
emanyi
nst
ancesi
nwhi
cht
hecour
twi
l
lbeper
suadedbyt
he
r
easoni
ngofanot
hercour
t,buti
fthei
nst
antcour
tisgenui
nel
yper
suaded,
theni
tisnot
r
ely
ingonobey
ingpr
ecedentatal
l
.Forexampl
e,supposeIam boi
l
inganegg.Iboi
li
tfor
si
xmi
nut
es,andam pl
easedt
odi
scov
ert
hati
tiscookedt
opr
eci
sel
ymypr
efer
red
har
dness.Consequent
ly,t
henextt
imeIboi
laneggIdoso,notsur
pri
singl
y,f
orsi
x
mi
nut
es,Iam notboi
l
ingi
tforsi
xmi
nut
esbecauseIboi
l
edi
tforsi
xmi
nut
esont
he
pr
evi
ousoccasi
on.Iam boi
l
ingi
tforsi
xmi
nut
esbecausesi
xmi
nut
esi
sther
ightt
ime.I
know t
his because Ihav
elear
ned f
rom t
he pr
evi
ous act
ion,buton subsequent
occasi
onsImaket
hedeci
sionbecauseofwhatIt
henknow.

Rat
ional
etot
hedoct
ri
neofpr
ecedent
.

Oneoft
hegr
eatv
irt
uesofl
aw i
scer
tai
nty
.Thedoct
ri
neensur
est
heel
ementof
pr
edi
ctabi
l
ityand uni
for
mit
ywhi
ch i
sessent
iali
nlegalsy
stem.Thedoct
ri
neal
so
pr esconsi
omot stency
,st
abi
l
ityand ef
fi
ciency
.Ital
soser
vest
hecour
tti
meshoul
d
si
mil
ardi
sput
ear
iset
heconsequenceswi
l
lbeknownandal
sodesi
rabl
e,t
hatsi
mil
ar
casesshoul
dbedeci
dedi
namanner
.

Ty
pesofpr
ecedent
s.

 Decl
arat
orypr
ecedent
,isanappl
i
cat
ionofanal
readyexi
sti
ngr
uleofl
aw and
usedi
ncl
earcases.

 Cr
eat
ivepr
ecedent
,thi
scr
eat
eandappl
ynew r
ulei
nappl
yi
ngar
uleofl
aw i
t

47
 i
nvol
vemaki
ngofchoi
cesbet
weenal
ter
nat
ive,nonei
sconcl
usi
veont
heot
her
,
t
hisal
ter
nat
ivemayconsi
stofconf
li
cti
ngpr
inci
plecont
ainedi
ndi
ff
erentcases
orconf
li
cti
ngi
nter
pret
ersofoneamongaut
hor
it
ati
vecases.Thi
srel
atet
othe
f
ail
uret
orecogni
zeandaccommodat
etr
oubl
ecase.Thi
scr
eat
ivepr
ocessi
s
nor
mal
l
yout
comeoft
hecour
texer
ciseofdev
elopi
ngandappl
yi
ngwhi
chl
aw.

Thebi
ndi
ngnat
ureofpr
ecedent
s.

Deci
sionsofsuper
iorcour
tsbi
ndi
ngl
owercour
tint
hehi
erar
chy
.Thi
sdeci
sionmay
ei
therbebi
ndi
ngorper
suasi
ve.

 Bi
ndi
ngdeci
sions.

Thi
sref
ert
othepr
onouncebyt
heHi
ghCour
tinj
udi
cialhi
erar
chyi
nagi
venl
egal
sy
stem.Adeci
si
oni
sbi
ndi
ngonal
atercour
twhent
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
wocour
t
undert
hedoct
ri
ner
equi
recour
ttoappl
ydeci
sion.Thebi
ndi
ngf
orcest
emsf
rom whi
ch
r
elat
iveposi
ti
onoft
het
wocour
tsonwhi
chhi
erar
chy
.Int
het
heor
yithasnot
hingt
odo
wi
tht
hemer
it
sofwhi
cht
hepr
inci
plebyt
hecour
t.

 Per
suasi
vedeci
sions.

Whenapr
ecedenti
spr
onouncedbyaf
orei
gncour
tthent
hatcour
tcannotbi
ndi
ngi
n
t
henextbecausei
snotbi
ndi
ng.Forexampl
e,Hi
ghCour
tofKeny
aisnotbi
ndi
ngon
Tanzani
aCour
tbecauset
hesear
enotcour
toft
hesamej
udi
cialhi
erar
chy
.Adeci
sion
maybebi
ndi
nguponal
att
ercour
tbecausei
tpr
onouncesout
sidet
hej
udi
cialhi
erar
chy
.
Howev
er,
thi
spr
ecedentar
enotbi
ndi
ngnev
ert
hel
esst
heymaycar
rygr
eatwei
ghtt
hisi
s
becausesuchadeci
sionmaybeadopt
edbyl
att
ercour
tandt
hisadopt
ionmaydepend
onsev
eral
fact
ors;

 I
tmaydepend on t
he j
udges’ev
idence ort
he cour
twhi
ch pr
onounce t
hat
deci
sion.

 I
tmaydependonwhi
chci
rcumst
anceanddeci
sionst
reat
edbyot
hercour
t.

 I
tmaydependonwhi
chr
elev
anceoft
hei
rdeci
sionoft
hecasequest
iononi
n

48
 hand.

Ev
asi
onTechni
ques.

TheEngl
i
shdoct
ri
neofpr
ecedenti
stobest
ri
ctl
yobser
vedbyt
hecour
twi
thi
njudi
cial
pr
onouncedal
lsubor
dinat
ecour
tsf
oll
owst
hatdeci
sionoft
hehi
ghercour
tist
obe
st
ri
ctl
yfol
l
owedbecauseoft
hatr
igi
dit
y,t
hecour
thav
ecomewi
thwhatknow as
Ev
asi
onTechni
quei
nor
dert
oci
rcumv
ent
.Duet
othi
sri
gidi
tycour
thav
edev
elopeda
pr
inci
pleoft
het
echni
que;

 Ov
err
uli
ng.

 Di
sregar
ding.

 Di
sti
ngui
shi
ng.

i
) Ov
err
uli
ng.

Thi
soccur
swhenapr
ecedenti
sdeni
edofi
tsaut
hor
it
y.Thi
sisanactofacour
tof
super
iorj
uri
sdi
cti
ont
odepr
iveapr
ecedentofal
lit
saut
hor
it
y.Thi
soccur
swhena
pr
ecedenti
snotmer
elywr
ong,butsocl
ear
lyandser
iousl
ywr
ongt
hati
tsr
ever
sali
s
demandedi
nthei
nter
estofsoundadmi
nist
rat
ionofj
ust
ice.

I
nef
fect
,acour
tdeni
est
hatt
hesupposedr
uleofl
aw hasev
erexi
sted.Theef
fectof
ov
err
uli
ngcanei
therbepr
ospect
iveorr
etr
ospect
ive.

NB:Theef
fectofov
err
uli
ngi
sret
rospect
ive,exceptt
hati
tdoesnotunset
tl
emat
ter
s
whi
chhav
eal
readybeenset
tl
edbet
weenpar
ti
es(
resj
udi
cat
a)andaccount
sst
ated.I
n
ourj
uri
sdi
cti
on,
iti
sonl
ytheCour
tofAppeal
thatmayov
err
ulei
tsownear
li
erdeci
sion.

i
i
) Di
sregar
ding.

Thi
sist
her
efusalt
ofol
l
ow adeci
sionofacour
tofcoor
dinat
ejur
isdi
cti
on.Thi
sis
becauset
het
wocour
tshav
eequalaut
hor
it
yandnonecanov
err
ulet
hedeci
sionoft
he
ot
her
.Forexampl
e,t
heHi
ghCour
tofTanzani
aandt
heHi
ghCour
tofZanzi
bar
.Each
cour
thascoor
dinat
ejur
isdi
cti
onandnonecanov
err
ulet
heot
her
sdeci
sion.I
nsucha

49
case,
eit
heroft
het
wocour
tscanr
efuset
ofol
l
owt
heot
her
sdeci
sion.

NB:I
fpr
ecedenti
snotf
oll
owed,i
tdoesnotal
toget
herdi
sappear
;itexi
stssi
debysi
de
wi
tht
hel
att
eraut
hor
it
yconf
li
cti
ngwi
theachot
herunt
ili
tissetasi
debyahi
ghercour
t.

i
i
i) Di
sti
ngui
shi
ng/
expl
aini
ng.

Thi
sist
hepr
ocessofcut
ti
ngdownt essr
heexpr ati
odeci
dendi
.Thi
spr
ocessi
nvol
ves
t
hei
dent
if
icat
ionoff
act
ualdi
ff
erencesandusi
ngi
tasaj
ust
if
icat
ionoff
ordepar
ti
ng
f
rom t
her
uli
ng i
ntheear
li
ercase.Di
sti
ngui
shi
ng canei
therber
est
ri
cti
veornon
r
est
ri
cti
ve.

I
nthi
sappr
oachaJudgeav
oidsbei
ngboundbypr
ecedentbysi
mpl
ysay
ingt
hecasei
s
i
rr
elev
antt
othe pr
esentcase.Thi
stechni
que i
s notbasi
cal
l
y concer
ned wi
th
cor
rect
nessofpr
evi
ouscaseori
tspr
inci
plebutont
her
elev
ance.Thi
shappenst
her
e
ar
esomemat
eri
aldi
sti
nct
ionbet
weent
heear
li
erdeci
sionandt
hei
nst
antdeci
sion.For
exampl
e,i
nthecaseofBr
idgev.Hawkeswor
th(
1851)QB75,
thecust
omerwashel
dto
be ent
it
led t
o keep moneywhi
ch he had f
ound on t
he f
looroft
he shop buti
n
St
aff
ordshi
re.

Ty
pesofDi
sti
ngui
shi
ng.

a)Rest
ri
cti
vedi
sti
ngui
shi
ng.

Thi
smayhappenwhent
hedi
sti
nct
ionbet
weent
het
wocasesi
sjustf
ew aspect
s.I
n
t
hisappr
oacht
hepr
evi
ouscasehasl
i
mit
edut
il
it
y.Ar
est
ri
cti
veappr
oachal
way
scut
downr
ati
odeci
dendi
oft
heear
li
erdeci
sion.

I
tmayev
en go t
othe ext
entoft
reat
ing as mat
eri
alofsome f
act
s whi
ch wer
e
di
sregar
dedi
ntheear
li
erdeci
sionf
orbei
ngi
mmat
eri
al.Forexampl
einAnnsv
.Mer
ton
LondonBor
ough(
1978)AC728,t
hecour
tmadepr
oposi
ti
ont
hatt
hemuni
cipal
i
tywas
l
i
abl
efornegl
i
gencer
esul
ti
ngf
rom f
ail
uret
opr
oper
lyi
nspectbui
l
dingpl
an.Howev
er,
in
Peabody Fund V.Si
r.
Lindsay Par
kison Lt
d(1984)2WLR 953,l
i
mit
ed l
i
abi
l
ityof
muni
cipal
i
tyt
opossi
bil
i
tyofsaf
etyorheal
thasopposedt
ogener
all
i
abi
l
ity
.

50
 b)NonRest
ri
cti
vedi
sti
ngui
shi
ng.

Mat
eri
alf
act
soft
hei
nst
antcasemayhav
eat
otaldepar
tur
efr
om t
hepr
evi
ousonei
n
whi
chhencet
hedeci
dedcasemayhav
enout
il
it
yatal
l
.Nonr
est
ri
cti
veappr
oachoccur
s
wher
ethecour
tfi
ndst
hecasedoesnotf
allwi
thi
nthepur
view oft
hei
nst
antcase
becauseofmat
eri
aldi
ver
genceoft
hef
act
s.

i
v) Doct
ri
neofChangedCi
rcumst
ances.

Thedoct
ri
neofpr
ecedenti
sfoundednotonl
yont
hesi
mil
ari
ti
esoff
act
sbutal
soon
r
ati
onal
eorr
eason.Cessat
ionofci
rcumst
anceorr
easonf
ort
her
ul cessant
e( erat
ione
Cessat
eipsal
ex)makesasubsi
sti
ngpr
ecedentdef
unct
.Forexampl
e,apr
ecedent
adopt
edbef
oret
heent
renchmentoft
heBi
l
lofr
ightdeny
ingt
her
ightofawi
fet
oret
ain
af
termar
ri
agewi
l
lcer
tai
nlyceaseaf
terent
renchi
ngt
heBi
l
lofr
ight
sont
hisaccount
.

v
) Peri
ncur
iam.

Nor
mal
l
ythecour
tisatl
i
ber
tyt
oav
oidaner
roneouspr
ecedent
.Thepr
ecedenti
ssai
d
obeperi
t ncur
iam undert
hef
oll
owi
ngci
rcumst
ances;

 Wher
ethedeci
si
oni
sgi
veni
nignor
anceorf
orget
ful
nessofr
elev
antl
aw or
bi
ndi
ngaut
hor
it
yasi
twasi
nthecaseofMor
ell
ev.Wakel
ing(
1979)QB546.

 Mi
sconst
ruct
ion ofst
atut
emayal
so r
endert
hepr
ecedentan un usef
ulf
or
exampl
einDi
xonv
.Br
it
ishBr
oadcast
ingcor
por
ati
ont
heconst
ruct
ionoft
he
st
atut
edi
dinott
akei
ntoaccountr
elev
antwor
ds.

APPLI
CATI
ONOFTHEDOCTRI
NEOFPRECEDENTI
NENGLAND.

1.TheHouseofLor
ds(
Theol
drul
e).

51
Undert
heol
drul
e,t
heHouseofLor
dswasabsol
utel
yboundbyi
tsownpr
evi
ous
deci
si
ons.Suchdeci
si
onswer
eal
sobi
ndi
ngonal
ll
owercour
ts.Thi
swasest
abl
i
shedi
n
hecaseofBeami
t shv.Beami
sh(
1861)9HLC274.Themat
terwasf
inal
l
yset
tl
edby
Lor
dHal
sbur
yi hecaseofLondonTr
nt amway
sv.LondonCount
yCounci
l[1898]AC
375wher
ehest
atedt
hat
:“t
her
emustbe af
inalCour
tofAppeal
.Fori
tisi
nthe
i
nter
est
soft
hepubl
i
cthatt
her
eshoul
dbeanendi
nli
ti
gat
ion.i
.e.af
ini
sli
ti
um.

Except
ionst
otheol
drul
e:

o Wher
eadeci
sionwasgi
venperi
ncur
iam.i
.e.i
nfor
get
ful
nessori
nadv
ert
enceof
anofast
atut
orypr
ovi
sionoranot
herear
li
erdeci
sionbi
ndi
ngont
hem.

o Wher
ether
ewer
econf
li
cti
ngdeci
sionsoft
heHouseofLor
ds,t
heni
twasnot
bound.Conf
li
cti
ngdeci
sionscoul
dei
therbeduet
o:

 I
nadv
ert
ence/
for
get
ful
nessoft
heexi
stenceofanear
li
erdeci
sion.

 Thebi
ndi
ngf
orceoft
hepr
ecedentwasnotr
ecogni
zed.

o Publ
i
cpol
i
cy.

Adeci
si
onbasedonsomepubl
i
cpol
i
cy,par
ti
cul
arl
ycommer
cialpol
i
cywasnot
bi
ndi
ng i
f soci
alcondi
ti
ons had changed.i
.e.
the changed ci
rcumst
ances
8
doct
ri
ne.

TheNewRul
e

he26th Jul
Ont y,1966,Lor
dGar
diner
,theLor
dChancel
l
orr
eadt
hef
amouspr
act
ice
9
st
atement t heHouseofLor
hatt dswoul
dregar
dit
sel
fasf
reet
odepar
tfr
om i
tsown
pr
eci
ousdeci
si
onswher
eitappear
edt
odoso.

I
naPr
essRel
easei
ssuedi
nconnect
ionwi
tht
hepr
act
icest
atementst
atedt
hat
:

o TheHouseofLor
dswoul
dbef
reet
odepar
tfr
om i
tspr
evi
ousdeci
sionswher
e

8
I
anMacleod(2005)LegalMethod,5thed,
Palgr
aveMacmil
l
anLawMast er
s:Londonp.
145.
9
Pr
act
iceStat
ement(judi
cial
Precedent )[
1966]1WLR1234/[
1966]3ALLER77

52
 t
her
ewer
echangedcondi
ti
ons.

o The new powerwoul

d enabl
ethe House ofLor
ds t
otake accountoft
he
deci
sionsofot
hersuper
iorcour
tsi
nthecommonweal
th.

o Thi
swoul
dal
l
owt
hegr
owoft
hel
aw.

NB:i
tiswor
tht
hatt
hepr
act
icest
atementmakesnoment
ionofov
err
uli
ngbutmer
ely
depar
ti
ngf
rom i
tsownpr
evi
ousdeci
sion.Thi
sposesabi
tofconf
usi
on,f
orov
err
uli
ng
and depar
ti
ng f
rom a pr
evi
oushav
e di
ff
erentordi
sti
ncti
mpl
i
cat
ion.E.
g.when a
deci
si
oni
sov
err
uled,
itsr
ati
oceasest
ohav
eanybi
ndi
ngef
fect
,andwhenadeci
sioni
s
depar
tedf
rom,t
her
eaf
tert
her
ear
etwomut
ual
l
yinconsi
stentdeci
sions.Thi
smeans
t
heor
eti
cal
l
ythataf
utur
ecour
tmaychosebet
weent
het
wodeci
sions.

ThePr
act
iceSt
atementi
nAct
ion.

Oneoft
heear
li
estcasesi
nwhi
cht
hepr
act
icest
atementwasputi
ntoef
fectwast
he
caseofBr
it
ishRai
lway
sBoar
dvHer
ri
ngt
on[
1972]1ALLER749.TheHouseofLor
ds
sof
tenedi
ts192910r
uli
ngt
hatanoccupi
erowedv
irt
ual
l
ynodut
yofcar
etoat
respasser
ev
enwhenhewasachi
l
d.Ther
easonappear
stohav
ebeenachangeofopi
nionast
o
t
heaccept
abl
edi
str
ibut
ion ofr
isksbet
ween occupi
ersand t
hosei
njur
ed on t
hei
r
pr
emi
ses.OneLaw Lor
d,Lor
dPear
sonsai
dthatt
hepr
evi
ousdeci
sionsf
ormul
ati
onof
t
hedut
yofoccupi
ert
otr
espasseri
spl
ainl
yinadequat
eformoder
ncondi
ti
ons.Anot
her
LawLor
d,Lor
dDi
plock,
expl
ainedt
hedeci
sionasr
efl
ect
ing‘
thegener
aldev
elopmentof
l
egalconcept
ssi
nce1929ast
othesour
ceofoneman’
sdut
ytot
akest
epsf
ort
hedut
y
ofanot
her
.’I
nHer
ri
ngt
on’
scase,asi
xyearol
dboywhowast
respassi
ngont
he
appel
l
ant
’sr
ail
wayl
i
newasbur
nt.I
twashel
dthatt
her
ulei
nAddi
e’
scasehadbeen
r
ender
edobsol
etebychangedphy
sical
andsoci
alcondi
ti
ons.

2.TheEngl
ishCour
tofAppeal
.

TheCour
tofAppeal
consi
stsoft
wodi
vi
sions;

10
Addl
e(Robert)andsons( Coll
i
eries)Ltdv.Dumbreck[1929]AC358,afoury
earoldboywaski ll
edbya
ter
minalwheelofahaul agesystem belongi
ngtot
hecompany .Theboywasatrespasseronthe
company’spr
emi ses.Thecompanywasnothel dli
ableasitowednodutyofcaretotrespasser
s.

53
  TheCr
imi
nal
Div
isi
on.

 TheCi
vi
lDi
vi
si
on.

I
stheCour
tofAppealboundbyt
hedeci
sionsoft
heHouseofLor
ds?(
Civ
ilDi
vi
sion)
.

Theor
eti
cal
l
y,t
heEngl
i
shCour
tofAppeali
sabsol
utel
yboundbyt
hedeci
sionsoft
he
11
HouseofLor
ds.Oneaut
hor cont
endst
hatunt
ilr
ecent
lyt
her
ehadnev
erbeenany
doubtt
hef
actt
hatt
heCour
tofAppealwasboundbyt
hedeci
sionsoft
heHouseof
Lor
ds.Howev
er,i
nthecaseofBr
oomev.Cassel
l[1971]2QB354,t
heCour
tofAppeal
hel
dthatt
heHouseofLor
dshadbeenwr
ongi
nit
svi nRookesv
ewi .Bar
nar
d[1964]AC
1129,
ont
heci
rcumst
ancesi
nwhi
chexempl
arydamagescoul
dbeawar
ded.I
nthecase
ofRookesv
.Bar
nar
d,Lor
dDev
li
nhadl
aiddownt
hatexempl
arydamagescoul
donl
ybe
awar
dedi
nthr
eet
ypesofci
rcumst
ances.Thet
ri
alJudgei
nthecaseofCassel
lv.
Br
oomer
egar
dedhi
msel
fasboundbyt
hisr
ull
i
ng.

I
stheCour
tofAppealboundbyi
tsowndeci
sion?

I
nthecaseofYoungv
.Br
ist
olAer
opl
aneCompanyLt
d[1944]2Al
lER293,
theCour
tof
Appeali
sgener
all
yboundbyi
tspr
evi
ousdeci
sionsi
nCi
vi
lcasesaswel
last
hoseof
cour
tsofcoor
dinat
ejur
isdi
cti
on.I
ntheBr
ist
olcase,t
hepl
aint
if
fcl
aimeddamagesf
or
i
njur
iesatwor
k.Thedef
endantar
guedt
hathi
scl
aim wasbadsi
nceaccor
dingt
othe
Cour
tofAppealdeci
si nPer
oni kinsv.HughSt
evensonandSonsLt
d[1940]1KB56,a
cl
aimf
orcommonl
aw damageswasbar
redwher
ethei
njur
edwor
kmanhadr
ecei
ved
compensat
ionundert
heWor
kmen’
sCompensat
ionAct
s.

Except
ions.

i
) Wher
ether
ear
etwoconf
li
cti
ngdeci
sions.

 Two conf
li
cti
ng deci
sionswer
ereached wer
ebot
hreached bef
ore
Young’
scasei
n1944est
abl
i
shedt
hatt
heCour
tofAppealwasbound
byi
tsowndeci
sions.

11
Mi
chael
Zander(
1999)
,TheLawMaki
ngPr 4thed,
ocess, But
ter
wor
ths:
London,
p.199

54
  I
swhent
heCour
tofAppealdi
scov
ersaconf
li
ctwher
epr
evi
ousl
yit
hadt
houghtt
hatnoneexi
sted.

i
i
) I
nconsi
stentHouseofLor
d’sdeci
sions.

Wher
eaCour
tofAppealdeci
sion,t
houghnotexpr
essl
yov
err
uled,coul
dnot
st
andwi
thadeci
sionoft
heHouseofLor
ds.Wher
etheHouseofLor
ds
deci
si
oni
ssubsequentt
othatoft
heCour
tofAppealt
hisexcept
ioncr
eat
es
nopr
obl
em.Thi
sissi
mpl
yacaseofi
mpl
i
edov
err
uli
ng.

i
i
i) Wher
ethedeci
sionwasr
eachedperi
ncur
iam.

Asagener
alr
ule,
adeci
siongi
veni
sini
gnor
anceori
nfor
get
ful
nessofsome
st
atut
orypr
ovi
sionorofsomebi
ndi
ngaut
hor
it
yont
hecour
tconcer
ned.I
n
hecaseofBoy
t sv.Chapl
in(
1968)2QB1,
itwashel
dthatt
heCour
tofAppeal
i
snotboundbyi
tsear
li
erdeci
sionsdeal
i
ngwi
thi
nter
locut
orymat
ter
si.
ean
appl
i
cat
iononapr
eli
minar
ypoi
nt.Agai
nint
hecaseofWor
cest
erWor
ks
Fi
nanceLt
dv.CoodenEngi
neer
ingCo.Lt
d[1972]1QBat217,
Lor
dDenni
ng
wasoft
hev
iewt
hatadeci
sionoft
heCour
tofAppealwhi
chwasdi
sappr
oved
ordoubt
edbyt
hePr
ivyCounci
lthent
heCour
tofAppealwasatl
i
ber
tyt
o
depar
tfr
om suchapr
evi
ous.

TheCour
tofAppeal
,Cr
imi
nalDi
vi
sion.

Thebasi
crul
ehasbeent
hatst
aredeci
sisi
sappl
i
edwi
thoutanyr
igi
dendor
sedand
sev
eral
exampl
eswer
eref
usedt
ofol
l
owanear
li
erdeci
sion.Asi
twasst
atedi
nthecase
ofRv
.Tay
lor[
1950]2KB368,i
nthi
scaset
heappel
l
anthadpl
eadedgui
l
tyt
oachar
ge
ofbi
gamy
.Hehadbeenadv
isedt
odosobecauset
hef
act
soft
hecasewer
evi
rt
ual
l
y
i
dent
ical
t hoseofRv
ot .Tr
eanor
,apr
evi
ousdeci
siongi
venbyt
hreeJudgesoft
heCour
t
ofCr
imi
nal
Appeal
.TheCour
twasoft
heopi
niont
hatsi
ncecr
imi
nal
casesdeal
twi
tht
he
l
i
ber
tyoft
hei
ndi
vi
dual
,andi
twasf
eltt
hatt
hel
aw hadei
therbeenmi
sappl
i
edor
mi
sunder
stoodi
nadeci
sionpr
evi
ousl
ygi
ven,andt
hatont
hest
rengt
hoft
hewr
ongl
y
deci
dedcaseanaccusedper
sonhadbeensent
encedandi
mpr
isoned,t
heni
twast
he
dut
yoft
hecour
ttor
econsi
dert
heear
li
erdeci
siont
hatwasbi
ndi
ngoni
t.I
twasf
urt
her

55
st
atedbyLor
dGoddar
dCJt
hat
:

Theexcept
ionwhi
chappl
i
esi
nci
vi
lcasesoughtnott
obet
heonl
yonesappl
i
edi
nsuch
acaseast
hepr
esent
,andi
nthi
spar
ti
cul
ari
nst
ancet
hef
ullcour
tofsev
enJudgesi
s
unani
mousl
yofopi
niont
hatt
hedeci
sioni
nRexv.Tr
eanorwaswr
ong.

Howev
er,somer
ecentdeci
sionsshow t
hatt
heCour
tofAppeal
,Cr
imi
nalDi
vi
sioni
s
boundbyi
tsowndeci
sionsi
nthesamewayast
heCi
vi
ldi
vi
sion(
andsubj
ectt
othe
sameexcept
ions)
.InSpencer[
1985]1Al
lER673,t
heCr
imi
nalDi
vi
sionoft
heCour
tof
Appealsai
dthatt
her
ewasnodi
ff
erencebet
weeni
tandt
heCi
vi
lDi
vi
sioni
nregar
dto
pr
ecedentsav
ethatwhent
hel
i
ber
tyoft
hesubj
ectwasatst
akei
tmi
ghtdecl
i
net
o
f
oll
owoneofi
tsowndeci
sions.

THEDOCTRI
NEOFPRECEDENTI
NEASTAFRI
CA.

Or
igi
noft
hedoct
ri
neofPr
ecedenti
nEastAf
ri
ca.

Thesuper
iorcour
tsofEastAf
ri
caf
oll
owedt
hedoct
ri
neofpr
ecedentasi
twasappl
i
ed
i
nEngl
and.Cour
tsofEastAf
ri
cahav
eaccor
dedaut
hor
it
ytot
hei
rear
li
erdeci
sionsand
12
especi
all
ycaseshear
dbyt
hecour
tsofEngl
and. Thi
swasduet
othr
eemaj
orf
act
ors:

a)TheCol
oni
alCont
ext
.

Thet
hreeEastAf
ri
cacount
ri
eswer
efor
merBr
it
ishcol
oni
es.I
twasnat
uralt
hatEngl
and
t
hecol
oni
zer
sshoul
dpr
ovi
del
eader
shi
pandi
nspi
rat
ionf
oral
lthecol
oni
esi
nthel
aw
andot
herspher
esofl
i
fe.

b)Pr
ofessi
onalt
rai
ningandcount
ri
esofor
igi
noft
heJudges.

Mostoft
heJudgesi
nCol
oni
alEastAf
ri
caEngl
i
shmendr
awnf
rom t
heEngl
i
shBar
.
Thei
rEngl
i
shor
igi
nandt
rai
ningi
nfl
uencedt
hem,t
husi
nfl
uencedEngl
i
shdeci
sions,
pr
act
iceanddeci
sions.

12
I
tiswort
hwhil
etonotet
hatt
hiswasbef
oremostEastAf
ri
canSt
atesgai
nedi
ndependencef
rom Br
it
ain
andabol
ishedappeal
stot
hePri
vyCounci
l
.

56
 c)TheRecept
ioncl
ause.

The doct
ri
ne ofpr
ecedentwas al
so r
ecei
ved byt
he Recept
ion Cl
ause,whi
ch i
s
cont
ainedi
nsect
ion2(
3)oft
heJudi
cat
ureandAppl
i
cat
ionofLawsAct
s[CAP358R.
E
2002]
.

APPLI
CATI
ONOFTHEDOCTRI
NEOFEASTAFRI
CA.

i
) ThePr
ivyCounci
l.

Thi
swast
heul
ti
mat
ecour
tofappealoft
heBr
it
ishCol
oni
esandt
hosecount
ri
esoft
he
CommonWeal
thwhi
chhav
enotabol
i
shedt
her
ightofappealt
othatcour
t.Dur
ingt
he
col
oni
alt
ime,i
tconst
it
utedt
heapexoft
hej
udi
cialpy
rami
dinEastAf
ri
caasi
not
her
Br
it
ishcol
oni
esanddependenci
es.Deci
sionsoft
hePr
ivyCounci
ldonotbi
ndEngl
i
sh
cour
tsorPr
ivyCounci
lit
sel
f.Howev
er,i
tsdeci
sionshav
egr
eatper
suasi
veaut
hor
it
y.
Thedeci
sionscar
ryal
otofper
suasi
veaut
hor
it
ybecausemostoft
hel
awLor
dswhoar
e
member
s oft
he House ofLor
ds deci
de cases i
nthe Pr
ivyCounci
l
.Pr
iort
othe
i
ndependenceoft
heEastAf
ri
cast
atesunderBr
it
ishr
ule,t
hePr
ivyCounci
lwast
he
hi
ghestor
gani
nEastAf
ri
caj
udi
cial
hier
archy
.ThePr
ivyCounci
lwasanadv
isor
yor
gan.

Bef
oreAbol
it
ionofAppeal
stot
hePr
ivyCounci
l.

Appeal
sfr
om t
heEastAf
ri
caCour
tofAppeal
wentt
othePr
ivyCounci
l
.Thedeci
sionsof
t
hePr
ivyCounci
lwer
ebi
ndi
ngont
heEastAf
ri
caCour
tofAppealr
egar
dlessoft
he
or
igi
noft
heappeal
.Accor
dingt
othecaseofWambur
av.R[
1950]20EACA339,t
he
deci
si
onsoft
hePr
ivyCounci
lwer
econsi
der
edasset
tl
ing:

 Gener
alpoi
ntofl
awespeci
all
ytheCommonLawandEqui
tyandi
nter
pret
ati
onof
Engl
i
shst
atut
es.

 Pr
onouncement
sonMohamedanl
aw.ThePr
ivyCounci
l
’spr
onouncement
sof
I
slami
claw,especi
all
yofI
ndi
awer
ehel
dtodet
ermi
net
heMohamedanl
aw of
East
ernAf
ri
canMusl
i
m communi
ti hecaseofShal
esaspert lov.Mar
yam [
1967
EA409.

57
  I
nter
pret
ati
onofacol
oni
alst
atut
eorot
herst
atut
e,i
tsdeci
sionwasbi
ndi
ngon
t
heEastAf
ri
cacour
tsi
nthei
nter
pret
ati
onofl
ocalst
atut
esi
npar
imat
eri
alasper
hecaseofAbdi
t ll
ahJamaAwal
ehv.R[
1958]EA20.

Af
terAbol
it
ionofAppeal
stot
hePr
ivyCounci
l
.

Af
teri
ndependencef
rom t
heBr
it
ish,mostEastAf
ri
cancount
ri
esabol
i
shedappeal
sto
t
hePr
ivyCounci
l
.Tanzani
aabol
i
shedappeal
stot
hePr
ivyCounci
lin1962.Keny
ain
1965andUgandai
n1966.TheCour
tofAppealf
orEast
ernAf
ri
cabecomest
hehi
ghest
appel
l
atecour
tinEastAf
ri
caaf
terabol
i
tionofappeal
stot
hePr
ivyCounci
l
.Howev
er,
af
tert
hei
ndependenceoft
het
hreeEastAf
ri
cacount
ri
es,
ther
ewassomeconf
usi
onas
t
otheef
fectoft
hedeci
sionsoft
hePr
ivyCounci
lont
heEastAf
ri
cancour
ts.Ther
ewer
e
t
wov
iews:

 Accor
dingt
oSpr
y,J.
Ai hecaseofRashi
nt dMol
edi
nav.Hoi
maGi
nner
ies[
1967]
E.
A 645,he was oft
he opi
nion t
hatsi
nce t
he l
egi
slat
ure had expr
essl
y
mai
ntai
ned“
exi
sti
ngl
aw”i
tal
soi
ncl
udeddeci
sionsoft
hePr
ivyCounci
landas
such,
theywer
est
il
lbi
ndi
ng.

 Howev
er,t
hemat
terwasf
inal
l
yset
tl
edbyNewbol
d,VPi
nthecaseofDodhi
av.
Nat
ionalandGr
indl
aysBank[
1970]E.
A195,wher
ehest
atedt
hatnodeci
sionof
t
hePr
ivyCounci
loranyEngl
i
shcour
toranyf
orei
gncour
twasbi
ndi
ngont
he
East
ernAf
ri
caCour
tofAppeal(
E.A.
C.A)
.TheE.
A.C.
Abei
ngt
hef
inalcour
tinEast
Af
ri
cacoul
ddepar
tfr
om i
tsownpr
evi
ousdeci
sion.

i
i
) Engl
ishDeci
sion.

EastAf
ri
cancour
tswer
enotst
ruct
ural
l
yconnect
edt
othecour
tsi
nEngl
and.Ther
efor
e,
underst
ri
ctdoct
ri
neofpr
ecedent
,Engl
i
shdeci
sionswer
enotbi
ndi
ngEastAf
ri
can
Cour
ts.Howev
er,
suchdeci
sionsi
nfl
uencedEastAf
ri
canCour
tsbecause:

 TheNat
ionalOr
igi
nandt
rai
ningoft
hej
udi
cialandl
egalper
sonneli
nEastAf
ri
ca
wasEngl
i
sh.

58
  Ther
ecept
ionofEngl
i
shCommonLawanddoct
ri
nesofequi
tyf
ormedt
hebasi
s
oft
hel
egal
syst
em i
nEastAf
ri
ca.

A.Gener
alRecept
ion.

Byv
irt
ueoft
her
ecept
ioncl
ausei
ntheor
der
sincounci
loft
het
hreeEastAf
ri
ca
count
ri
es,t
heSupr
emeCour
tsandSubor
dinat
eCour
tswer
erequi
redt
oadmi
nist
er
j
ust
iceaccor
dingt
opr
inci
plesofEngl
i
shl
aw.Byv
irt
ueoft
her
ecept
ioncl
ause,t
he
cour
tsi
nEastAf
ri
cawer
eal
l
owedt
olookt
othel
aw asdev
elopedbyt
heCour
tsof
Engl
and.

Bef
oreI
ndependence.

I
nTangany
ika,
theCommonLaw,
Doct
ri
nesofEqui
tyandSt
atut
eofGener
alAppl
i
cat
ion
asappl
i
edi
nEngl he22nd Jul
andont y,1920wer
erecei
vedi
ntot
het
err
it
ory
.Thei
ssue
waswhet
herbi
ndi
ngdoct
ri
neswer
ethosedeci
dedaf
terorbef
oret
heRecept
ionCl
ause?
I
nthecaseofKi
ri
riCot
tonCo.Lt
dv.Dawani[
1958]E.
A239,O’
Connor
,Pwasoft
he
v
iewt
hat
,est
abl
i
sheddeci
sionsont
heCommonLaworDoct
ri
nesofEqui
tyofSuper
ior
Cour
tsgi
venbef
oret
heRecept
iondat
ewer
ebi
ndi
ng.Anest
abl
i
sheddeci
sionwas:

 Asi
ngl
edeci
si
onoft
heEngl
i
shHi
ghCour
tofAppealort
heHouseofLor
ds,
st
andi
ng unr
eser
ved att
he Recept
ion Dat
e,unl
ess ov
err
uled bya deci
sion
subsequentt
othatdat
e.

 ASi
ngl
edeci
si
onoft
heEngl
i
shHi
ghCour
t,notbi
ndi
ng,unl
essappr
ovedbyan
Appel
l
ateCour
torgener
all
yaccept
edascor
rectbyEngl
i
shCour
ts.

 Apostr
ecept
iondeci
siondi
sest
abl
i
shi
ngpr
e-r
ecept
ioncases.

NB:Howev
er,i
npr
act
icet
heE.
A.C.
Anev
erpai
dat
tent
iont
otheRecept
ionDat
ewhen
appl
yi
ngEngl
i
shdeci
si
ons.

Af
terI
ndependence.

Engl
i
shdeci
sionsgi
venaf
teri
ndependencewer
enol
ongerbi
ndi
ngonEastAf
ri
can
Cour
tsperSpr
y,J.
Ai heRashi
nt dMol
edi
nacase(
supr
a).
59
 B.Speci
alRecept
ion.

Aspeci
alr
ecept
ioni
sar
ecept
ionofspeci
fi
caspect
sofEngl
i
shl
awi
npr
ovi
sionsi
na
numberofl
ocal
laws.Speci
alr
ecept
ionpr
ovi
sionsar
eoft
wot
ypes:

 Thosespeci
fyi
ngt
hel
awasi
tst
oodataSpeci
fi
cDat
e,(
subsequentoraf
tert
he
dat
e of Gener
alRecept
ion)
,e.
g.The Tangany
ika (
Law of Pr
oper
ty and
Conv
eyance)Or
dinance,Cap.114oft
heLawsofTangany
ika(
now r
epeal
ed)
whi
chpr
ovi
dedf
ort
heappl
i
cat
ionoft
hel
aw r
eact
ingt
orealandper
sonal
pr
oper
ty,mor
tgagorandmor
tgagee,Landl
ordandTenanti
nfor
cei
nEngl
andon
he1stJul
t y,1920.

NB: I
twasar
guabl
ethatpr
e1922Engl
i
shdeci
sionswer
ebi
ndi
ngandpost1922
deci
si
onswer
enotbi
ndi
ngbutmer
elyper
suasi
ve.

 Thoset
hatment
ionnodat
e,t
hecl
assi
cexampl
eof
tenquot
edi
stheUgandan
Cont
ractAct
,1964whi
chundersect
ion3(
1)pr
ovi
dedf
ort
heappl
i
cat
ionof
Engl
i
shcont
ractl
awasmodi
fi
edbydoct
ri
nesofequi
tyandGener
alSt
atut
esi
n
Engl he 11th August
and on t ,1902 and speci
fi
ed r
ecentst
atut
es.I
n ef
fect
,
Ugandan cour
tswer
ecompel
l
ed t
o keep abr
eastwi
th dev
elopment
sint
he
Engl
i
shl
aw ofcont
r hecaseof Jupi
actaspert terGener
alI
nsur
anceCo.v.
KasandaCot
tonCo.[
1966]E.
A252.

Af
terI
ndependence.

Nodeci
sionofanyEngl
i
shCour
toranyFor
eignCour
twasbi
ndi
ngont
heE.
A.C.
A
per
Newbol
d,VPDodhi
a’sCase.

Deci
sionsonSt
atut npar
esi imat
eri
a.

St
atut
esi
npar
imat
eri
awer
emodelst
atut
esi
nfor
cei
nEastAf
ri
cadur
ingt
heBr
it
ish
per
iod der
ived ei
therf
rom Engl
and ort
hrough I
ndi
a.I
nthei
nter
pret
ati
on ofsuch

60
st
atut
esi
nEastAf
ri
ca,r
egar
dwast
obehadt
othei
nter
pret
ati
ongi
venoft
hose
st
atut
esi
nthecount
ryofor
igi
norot
hercount
ri
eswi
thsi
mil
arst
atut
es.

Bef
oret
heI
ndependence.

Engl
i
shdeci
si
onsi
nthei
nter
pret
ati
onofl
ocalst
atut
esi
npar
imat
eri
a.Thef
ir
stv
iew
wast
hatsuchdeci
si
onswer
ebi
ndi
ngonEastAf
ri
ca,r
egar
dwast
obehear
dtol
ocal
condi
ti
ons.Such i
nter
pret
ati
on wer
eai
med atpr
eser
ving t
heuni
tyofEngl
i
sh l
aw
t
hroughoutt
heEmpi
re.

Af
terI
ndependence.

Ther
ewer
etwo v
iewsi
nrel
ati
ont
o Engl
i
shdeci
sionsi
nter
pret
ingst
atut
esi
npar
i
mat
eri
al.

 Bi
ndi
ng.

Thef
ir
stv
iewwast
hatsuchdeci
sionswer
ebi
ndi
ngasperSpr
y,JAi
nRashi
dMol
edi
na
case(
supr
a)wher
ethemat
teri
nvol
vedt
hei
nter
pret
ati
onoft
heAr
bit
rat
ionActofKeny
a
t
hatwasder
ivedf
rom t
heEngl
i
shAr
bit
rat
ionAct
,1889.Hest
atedt
hatr
espectshoul
d
begi
vent
otheEngl
i
shdeci
sionsont
heActast
heKeny
aActwaspassed wi
th
knowl
edgeoft
hoseEngl
i
shdeci
sions.

 NotBi
ndi
ng.

Theot
herv
iewwast
hatsuchdeci
sionswer
enotbi
ndi
ng.I
nthecaseofNat
ionaland
Gr
indl
aysBankv.Val
labhj
i[1966]E.
A186,t
heCour
tofAppeali
nint
erpr
eti
ngaKeny
a
Actof1930whi
chwasi
npar
imat
eri
awi
thaNewZeal
andActof1924st
atet
hat
,“i
twas
unsaf
etoassumet
hatwhent
heKeny
anActof1930wasor
igi
nal
l
ymade,
iti
ntendedt
o
i
mpor
tint
oKeny
athecasel
aw ofNew Zeal
and.Suchdeci
sionsf
rom t
hecount
ryof
or
igi
nar
eonl
yimpor
tantaut
hor
it
iesandnomor
e.

DECI
SIONSOFTHEEASTERNAFRI
CACOURTOFAPPEAL.

Bef
oreAbol
it
ionofAppeal
stot
hePr
ivyCounci
l.

61
TheE.
A.C.
Awasmodel
edont
heEngl
i
shCour
tofAppealandf
oll
owedt
her
ulesof
pr
ecedentascont
ainedi
nthecaseof Youngv
.Br
ist
olAer
opl
anecase(
supr
a).The
gener
alr
ulewast
hatt
heCour
tofAppealwasboundbyi
tsownpr
evi
ousdeci
sions
except
:

 Wher
ether
epr
iorconf
li
ctdeci
sions,
thecour
twast
ochoosewhi
cht
ofol
l
ow.

 I
twasnotboundt
ofol
l
ow adeci
sionofi
tsowni
fitcoul
dnotst
andwi
tht
he
deci
sionoft
hePr
ivyCounci
l
.

 I
twasnotboundt
ofol
l
owadeci
sionofi
tsowni
fitwasgi
venperi
ncur
iam.

Af
terAbol
it
ionofAppeal
stot
hePr
ivyCounci
l
.

I
nthecaseofDodhi
av.Nat
ionalandGr
indl
aysBankLt
d[1970]E.
A195,Newbol
d,VP
wasoft
hev
iewt
hatt
heE.
A.C.
Ahadwor
ntheshoesoft
hePr
ivyCounci
l
.Ther
efor
e,i
t
bei
ngt
hef
inalcour
tofappeal
,i
twasf
reet
odepar
tfr
om i
tspr
evi
ousdeci
sionswher
eit
appear
edr
ightt
odoso.Af
tert
hecol
l
apseoft
heEastAf
ri
canCommuni
tyi
n1977,
anad
hocEastAf
ri
canCour
tofAppeal
wasest
abl
i
shedandi
toper
atedunt
il1979.

THECOURTOFAPPEALOFTANZANI
A.

TheCour
twasest
abl
i
shedi
n1979byt
heAppel
l
ateJur
isdi
cti
onAct
,1979.I
n1984,t
he
Const
it
uti
onoft
heUni
tedRepubl
i
cofTanzani
a,1977wasamendedt
omakepr
ovi
sions
f
ort
heest
abl
i
shmentoft
heCour
tofAppealofTanzani
a.I
tist
heFi
nalCour
tofAppeal
andi
thear
sal
lappeal
sfr
om Tanzani
amai
nlandandZanzi
barexcept
:

 I
slami
cmat
ter
s(appeal
sfr
om Zanzi
baronI
slami
cmat
ter
sendi
ntheHi
ghCour
t
ofZanzi
bar
).

 Di
sput
esbet
weent
hegov
ernmentofMai
nlandTanzani
aandt
heRev
olut
ionar
y
Gov
ernmentofZanzi
baron t
he i
nter
pret
ati
on oft
he Uni
on Const
it
uti
on.(
a
Speci
alConst
it
uti
onal
Cour
tisest
abl
i
shedunderAr
ti
cle126)
.

TheCour
tofAppeali
snotboundt
ofol
l
owi
tsownpr
evi
ousdeci
sionsandcandepar
t

62
f
rom t
hem wheni
tappear
sri
ghtt
odoso,
perNy
alal
i
,CJ(
ashet
henwas)i
nthecaseof
Jumui
yay
aWaf
any
akaziTanzani
a(JUWATA)v.Ki
wandachaUchapi
shaj
i(KI
UTA)
[
1988]TLR146(
C.A)
,inwhi
cht
heCour
tofAppealov
err
uledi
tsownpr
evi
ousdeci
sion
i
nthecaseofZambi
aTanzani
aRoadSer
vicesLt
dv.J.
KPal
langy
o,Ci
vi
lAppealno.
9/
1982(
unr
epor
ted)whi
chwasgi
venperi
ncur
iam.I
nJUWATA case,
itwasst
atedt
hat
:

 Al
lcour
tsandt
ri
bunal
sbel
owt
heCour
tofAppealar
eboundbydeci
sionsoft
he
Cour
tofAppeal
regar
dlessoft
hei
rcor
rect
ness.

 TheCour
tofAppeal
shoul
dbef
reei
nbot
hCi
vi
landCr
imi
nalCasest
odepar
t
f
rom suchdeci
si
onswheni
tappear
sri
ghtt
odoso.

 TheCour
tof Appeali
snotboundt
ofol
l
ow adeci
sionofi
tsowngi
venpr
e
i
ncur
iam.

CHAPTER SEVEN.

STATUTORY I
NTERPRETATI
ON.

63
Meani
ngofSt
atut
oryI
nter
pret
ati
on.

Thi
sist
hepr
ocessbywhi
cht
hecour
tsdet
ermi
nedt
hemeani
ngofast
ati
ngpr
ovi
sion
f
ort
hepur
poseof appl
yi
ngt
othest
atut
ebef
orei
t,somet
imesknownasSt
atut
ory
Const
ruct
ion.I
nter
pret
ati
onwi
l
ldependoncust
omsandusageandi
nter
pret
ati
oni
s
gener
alpr
obl
em oft
hecommuni
cat
ion.

Thet
er Const
m“ ruct
ion”i
ncl
udest
wot
hings;

 Themeani
ngoft
hewor
dsi
sal
way
sthemat
teroff
act
s.

 Thel
egalef
fectoft
hemeani
ngi
smat
terofquest
ionofl
aw.

Quest
ionsofI
nter
pret
ati
onar
edi
vi
dedi
ntot
wobr
oadcat
egor
ies:

 Quest
ionst
hatar
isef
rom t
het
ermsoft
hest
atut
esal
one.Somet
imesev
en
bef
oret
hequest
ionar
ise,t
hest
atut
emayhav
einher
entduet
ogr
ammat
ical
er
ror
sorsomeambi
guouswor
ds.

 Thosequest
ionswhi
char
isef
rom t
heappl
i
cat
ionofast
atut
est
oapar
ti
cul
arset
off
act
s.Thi
swi
l
lar
isewher
ether
eisadi
sput
ebef
oreacour
tast
ohow t
he
pr
ovi
sionsappl
ydi
sput
ebef
oreacour
t.

WHYSHOULDWEHAVEI
NTERPRETATI
ON.

a)Compl
exi
tyofl
egaldocument
swhi
chbr
ingsaboutambi
gui
ty.

Legal
documentar
enor
mal
l
ydr
aft
edusi
ngami
xtur
eofor
dinar
ylanguageandt
echni
cal
j
argonsandt
heyar
enor
mal
l
ydr
aft
edbymor
ethanoneper
son.

b)Legaldocument
sspeakf
ort
hespeakandf
utur
e.

Peopl
ewhodr
aftl
egi
sl
atonknownasdr
i aft
smen,t
heyt
ryt
othi
nkal
lev
ent
ual
i
tiesand
dr
aft
sver
ycompl
exl
egi
slat
ion.Theycov
eral
lev
ent
ual
i
tiesand dr
aft
ing compl
ex
document
s.Lat
erondr
aft
smayl
eadst
owor
dswhi
chhav
econf
usi
onandbecome

64
r
edundanci
es.

c)Si
ngul
arwor
dsofl
egaldocument
stor
efl
ectsol
uti
ont
opr
obl
emsandconf
li
ct
i
nter
est
.

Todr
aftacont
ractt
opr
otectorbenef
itt
hecl
i
ent
sorsomemayamendsoev
ery
one
want
stocomewi
tht
hei
rowni
nter
estorconf
li
cti
ngi
nter
est
sandt
her
efor
edr
aft
ing
becomeconf
usi
on.

I
NTENTI
ON OFTHEPARLI
AMENT.

Thi
sisaphr
aset
hati
sof
tenusedbuti
tisdi
ff
icul
ttodef
ine.Cour
tsi
nint
erpr
eti
ng
st
atut
esnor
mal
l
ysayt
heyar
egi
vi
ngef
fectt
othei
ntent
ionoft
hepar
li
ament
.

I
nasmuchast
hephr
asei
susedwhenev
ercour
tsest
abl
i
sht
hei
ntent
ionoft
he
par
li
amenti
nast
atut
e,t
hei
ntent
ionmustdet
ermi
nei
nthewor
dsusedi
nthest
atut
e
and t
het
estt
o beappl
i
ed i
sobj
ect
ive(
notbased on per
sonali
nter
est
)and not
subj
ect
ive(
per
sonali
nter
est
).Asi
twasst
atedi
nthecaseof Rv
.Secr
etar
yfort
he
st
atef
orEnvi
ronmentTr
anspor
t&Roy
al& Anot
her
,Exp.Spat
hHomeLt
d[2000]2AC
349,
thecour
thel
dthati
ntent
ionofpar
li
amenti
sanobj
ect
iveandnotsubj
ect
iveoft
he
Mi
nist
eri
ndr
aft
smenormaj
ori
tyoft
heMember
soft
hepar
li
amentwhov
otedf
ort
he
Act
.

NB:I
ntent
ionofpar
li
amentr
egar
dingt
opar
ti
cul
arst
atut
escannotmeani
ntent
ionofal
l
member
sofwhi
chpar
li
amentwhent
heActi
spassed,
li
kewi
sei
tcannotbei
ntent
ionof
t
hemaj
ori
tywhov
otef
ort
hest
atut
e,agai
nnotal
lwhov
otedf
ort
heActhadt
he
i
ntent
ion.

Whyi
sthenot
ionofI
ntent
ionofPar
li
amentst
il
lret
ained?

a)I
texpr
essessubor
dinat
eoft
hej
udi
ciar
ytot
hepar
li
ament(
supr
emeoft
he
par
li
amentofmaki
ngl
aws)
.

I
tremi
ndst
heJudgedeal
swi
thst
atut
est
hatoper
atedwi
tht
hest
atut
esi
nthef
iel
dof
l
awi
nwhi
cht
heyar
efr
eet
odef
inepubl
i
cpol
i
cysi
mpl
yaccor
dingt
othei
rownj
udgment
,

65
t
hecour
tsi
mpl
ytogeti
nst
ruct
ionf
rom par
li
ament
.Asi
twasst
atedi
nthecaseof
Hey
don’
scase,i
twashel
dthat
,thedut
yoft
hecour
tist
oint
erpr
ett
hewor
dst
hatt
he
l
egi
slat
urehasbeenused.

b)Desi
reoft
heJudi
ciar
ytodi
scov
erl
argecr
eat
erol
eint
hei
nter
pret
ati
onof
st
atut
es.

I
nthecase ofMagor&St
.Mel
lonsv.Newpor
tCor
por
ati
on[
1950]2Al
lE.
R1266,The
Cour
tofAppealagr
eedwi
thLor
dDenni
ngwasoft
hev
iewt
hat
,theJudgehast
hedut
y
t
ofi
ndt
hei
ntent
ionofpar
li
amentandi
ndoi
ngsoJudgecoul
d“f
il
lthegap”asappealt
o
t
heHouseofLor
ds,Lor
dDenni
ngat
temptoff
il
lint
hegapwasst
rongl
yrebukedand
t
ermed as naked usur
pat
ion/
takeov
eroft
he l
egi
slat
ivef
unct
ion undert
he t
hin
i
nter
pret
ati
on.
Howev
er,t
hewor
dsmaybeambi
guousbutt
hecour
tar
est
ri
ctl
yli
mit
ed
andi
fthecour
tdi
scov
eredt
hei
ntent
ionofpar
li
amentandofMi
nist
erst
oo,must
pr
oceedt
ofi
l
lint
hegaps.

PRI
NCI
PLEOFSTATUTORY I
NTERPRETATI
ON.

Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofi
nter
pret
ati
on;

 St
ri
ctl
yInt
erpr
etat
ion.

 Li
ber
alI
nter
pret
ati
on.

a)St
ri
ctl
yInt
erpr
etat
ion.

Thei
nter
pret
erconsi
derwhatt
hel
egi
slat
urewast
hinki
ngwhenmaki
ngapar
ti
cul
arl
aw.
Thei
nter
pret
ergi
vest
hest
atut
orypr
ovi
sioni
nexact
lymeani
ngwhi
chl
i
ter
all
yappeart
o
bei
ntendedbyt
hel
egi
slat
urewi
thoutchange.I
nthecaseofAugust
inov.Republ
ic
[
1991]TLR no,97,t
he cour
thel
dthat
,the Judge gav
ethe sect
ion a st
ri
ctl
y
i
nter
pret
ati
onsay
ingt
hatbecauset
her
eisnoamendmentt
otheMi
nimum Sent
ence
Act
,theni
tspr
ovi
sionhadt
obei
nter
pret
ati
onofsect
ion172(
2)(
c)of1985wast
hat
;the
per
iodofr
emandcust
odyshal
lbeconsi
der
edt
oget
herwi
thot
hermi
ti
gat
ingf
act
or.

b)Li
ber
alI
nter
pret
ati
on.

66
I
nLi
ber
alI
nter
pret
ati
ont
hisat
tri
but
est
othel
egi
slat
uredonenecessar
yref
lectwas
r
eal
l
yent
ert
ainatt
het
imet
hel
awwasmadeandi
twasdi
vi
dedi
ntot
wo;

 Ext
ensi
veLi
ber
alI
nter
pret
ati
on,
apr
ovi
sion(
sect
ion)i
sext
endedt
oacasewhi
ch
i
s notcov
ered byl
i
ber
almeani
ng oft
he st
atut
e,meani
ng i
s ext
ended t
o
accommodat
eot
herf
act
ual
sit
uat
ion.

 Rest
ri
cti
veLi
ber
alI
nter
pret
ati
on,
apr
ovi
sioni
snotappl
i
edt
oacasef
all
i
ngwi
thi
n
i
t

CANONS OFSTATUTORY I
NTERPRETATI
ON.

I
nher
entt
echni
calnat
ureofst
atut
oryi
nter
pret
ati
onmadei
tnecessar
yforJudgest
o
dev
elopv
ari
ouscanonsorr
ulesofst
atut
oryi
nter
pret
ati
on.Amongt
hebasi
ccanonsof
st
atut
oryi
nter
pret
ati
oni
ncl
udel
i
ter
alr
ule,gol
denr
uleandmi
schi
efr
ule,eachhav
ing
di
sti
nct
ivesal
i
entf
eat
ure.

1.LI
TERALRULE.

Thi
srul
eisgear
ed/
mechani
smst
oobt
aincl
earmeani
ngoft
hel
anguageoft
hest
atut
e.
I
nthel
i
ter
alr
ulewor
dsofst
atut
eshoul
dbegi
vent
hei
ror
dinar
ymeani
ng.Thecour
t
shoul
dint
erpr
ett
hewor
dsaccor
dingt
othel
i
ter
alorpl
ainmeani
ngr
egar
dlessof
whet
hert
her
esul
tissensi
bleornot
.Lor nRv
dEsheri .Judgeoft
heCi
tyofLondon
Cour
t[1982]1QBat290,sai
dthat
,“I
fthewor
dsofanact
sar
ecl
eary
oumustf
oll
ow
t
hem ev
ent
hought
heyl
eadt
omani
festabsur
dit
y/ambi
gui
ty.Thecour
thasnot
hingt
o
dowi
tht
hequest
ionwhet
hert
hel
egi
slat
urecommi
tsabsur
dit
y.”

Dowor
dshaveal
way
shavepl
ainmeani
ng?

No,andwor
dsar
ecapabl
eofhav
ingmor
ethanasi
ngl
emeani
ng.Meani
ngofwor
ds
maynotbei
dent
if
iedi
nisol
ati
onbutr
atherbyr
efer
encet
othecont
exti
nwhi
cht
heyar
e
used.I
nt Whi
hecaseof tel
yv.Chappel(
1868)L.
R4QB147,
thecour
tsai
dthat
:

 TheJudgemayr
ead-
inwor
dswhi
chheconsi
der
sbei
ngnecessar
yimpl
i
edby
wor
dswhi
char
eal
readyi
nthest
atut
e.Howev
er,
hehasal
i
mit
edpowert
oaddor

67
 t
ochangeori
gnor
est
atut
orywor
ds.

 I
nappl
yi
ngt
heabov
erul
e,t
heJudgemayr
esor
ttot
heai
dtoconst
ruct
ionand
pr
esumpt
ion.

a)Cont
extr
ule.

Ast
atut
emustbeconst
ruedi
nit
scont
extandt
hest
atut
east
ober
eadasawhol
e.
Wor
dsorphasesofadoubt
fulmeani
ngmaybebet
terunder
stoodbyl
ooki
ngatt
he
cont
exti
nwhi
cht
heyar
eused.I
nappl
yi
ngt
hecont
extr
ule,
thel
ati
nmaxi nosci
m of“ tor
ascoci
is”byt
hi ase wor
sphr dsar
eknown byt
hei
rassoci
ati
on when onehast
o
est
abl
i
sht
hemeani
ngoft
hewor
dsonehast
olookont
hesur
roundi
ngwor
dsand
phr
ases.

I
nthecaseofMui
rv.Keay[
1875]
,itwasst
atedt
hatwor
dsofadoubt
fulmeani
ngmay
bebet
terunder
stoodf
rom t
henat
ureofwor
dsandphr
asesf
rom wor
dsofsur
roundi
ng
andt
heyar
eassoci
atedwi
th.Onehast
olookonhow t
hesamewor
dsi
susedi
nthe
pr
ovi
si
on and t
hewhol
eAct
,onemayal
so l
ookon how wor
dsi
sused i
n ot
her
l
egi
slat
ionont
hesamesubj
ectmat
ter
.

b)Expr
essdi
rect
iononI
nter
pret
ati
onofst
atut
es.

Thesear
est
atut
esofGener
alAppl
i
cat
ionwhatknownasI
nter
pret
ati
onofLawsAct
def
inesdi
ff
erentwor
dsi
nast
atut
e,byt
hen/
prev
iousi
twascal
l
edI
nter
pret
ati
onof
LawsandGener
alCl
auseActof1972butnowi
scal
l
edTheI
nter
pret
ati
onofLawsAct
,
2002.I
nthecaseofShei
khMohammedNassor
oAbdal
lahv.R.
P.C ofDaressal
aam
andTwoot
her
s(1985)T.
L.Rno.
1,t
heappl
i
cantar
eli
giousl
eaderwasar
rest
edi
nthi
s
housei
nMabi
boDaressal
aam i
n1993.Hewast
akent
oPol
i
ceCust
odyandhi
sfami
l
y
di
dnotknowhewas.Theyappl
i
edf
orappl
i
cat
ionofHabeusCor
pust
obebr
ought
.In
t
heDepor
tat
ionOr
dinancepr
ovi
dedt
hati
twasanof
fencet
oimpr
isonanyper
son
ent
it
ledt
ovot
eatael
ect
ion,t
hedef
endanthadi
mpr
isonedaper
sonwhohasal
ready
dead.Thei
ssuewaswhet
herdeadmenent
it
ledt
ovot
e.Thecour
thel
dthatdeadmen

68
ar
enotent
it
ledt
ovot
eandt
her
efor
enotgui
l
ty.

Cr
it
ici
sm oft
heLi
ter
alRul
e.

 I
tbasedonf
alseassumpt
iont
hatwor
dshav
epl
ainor
dinar
ymeani
ngapar
tfr
om
t
hei
rcont
ext
.

 Thosewhoappl
ythel
i
ter
alappr
oacht
alkofusi
ngdi
cti
onar
ymeani
ngofwor
dsi
n
quest
ionbutdi
cti
onar
ypr
ovi
deanumberofal
ter
nat
ivemeani
ng.

 Pl
ainmeani
ngappr
oachcannotbeusedf
orgener
alwor
dswhi
char
ecapabl
eof
bear
ingsev
eral
meani
ng.

WhyLi
ter
ali
sm?

One v
iew was t
hatcour
tadher
etol
i
ter
ali
sm because oft
he basi
c const
it
uti
on
supr
emacysuchasl
egi
slat
ivesupr
emacy
,separ
ati
onofpowerandr
uleofl
aw.

2.GOLDENRULE.

Accor
dingt
otheGol
denRul
e,t
hecour
tissupposedt
ofol
l
ow t
hel
i
ter
alappr
oach
unl
essi
tpr
oducesabsur
dit
yinwhi
chcasei
tshoul
dfi
ndsomeot
hermeani
ng.I
nthe
caseof Gr
eyv.Pear
son[
1867]Vol
.6HLCp.61,Par
keB.sai
dthat
,inconst
rui
nga
st
atut
ethegr
ammat
icali
nor
dinar
ysense,
thewor
dshast
obef
oll
owed.I
tisonl
ywhen
t
hel
i
ter
alappr
oachpr
oducesabsur
dit
yorr
epugnancyori
nconsi
stencyt
hatt
heGol
den
r
ulewi
l
lcomei
ntopl
ainandt
hepur
poseofaGol
denr
ulei
stoav
oidabsur
dit
yand
i
nconsi
stency
.

TheGol
denr
ulei
snotmuchbet
tert
hant
hel
i
ter
alr
uleasi
tent
ail
stheJudget
ofol
l
ow
t
hel
i
ter
alr
uleunl
essi
tresul
tint
oabsur
dit
yinwhi
chcaseaJudgehast
ofi
ndanot
her
sol
uti
on.

Reasonf
orGol
denRul
e.

Gol
denr
ulei
susual
l
ywhent
hepl
ainmeani
ngdef
eat
sthel
egi
slat
ivei
ntent
.Amongt
he
r
easonsf
oropt
ingt
hisr
ulei
ncl
udesabsur
dit
y,unr
easonabl
enessandv
ari
ancewi
tht
he

69
l
egi
slat
ivepol
i
cy.Thi
srul
erequi
rest
hecour
ttogobey
ondt
hepl
ainmeani
ngofwor
ds.
Forexampl
einoneoccasi
ont
heDeanoft
heFacul
tyt
oldst
udent
stowearanycl
othes
oft
hei
rchoi
cedur
ingapubl
i
ctal
kledbyt
heChi
efJust
iceofTanzani
a.Li
ter
ary“
any
cl
othes”woul
dmeanev
enunder
pant
sorni
ghtdr
ess.Howev
eri
nthi
scont
extt
he
phr
asemustbeconst
ruedanydecentcl
othessui
tedt
otheoccasi
on.

3.MI
SCHI
EFRULE.

I soknownasaRul
tal einHey
don’
scase(
1584)3Co.Rep.7a,andaccor
dingt
othi
s
r
ulef
ourquest
ionsmustbeconsi
der
edi
nint
erpr
eti
ngast
atut
e.

 Whatwast
heCommonLawbef
oret
hemaki
ngoft
heAct
?

 Whatwast
hemi
schi
efanddef
ectf
orwhi
cht
heCommonLawdi
dnotpr
ovi
de?

 Whatr
emedyhast
hepar
li
amentr
esol
vedandappoi
ntedt
osecur
ethedi
seaseof
t
heCommonLaw?

 Whati
sthet
ruer
easonoft
her
emedy
?

St
atut
ear
eal
way
stomakesuchi
nter
pret
ati
onasshal
lsuppr
esst
hemi
schi
efand
adv
ancet
her
emedy
.

NB:Wi
thmi
schi
efr
ule,
aJudgewi
l
lnotconf
inehi
msel
font
hel
abelorwhatt
hest
atut
e
expr
essl
ybecauset
hel
egi
slat
ivei
ntentl
i
esont
hemi
schi
efandnott
heact
uall
abel
.
Howev
er,
thecour
tmaynotadoptsuchr
ulewhendeal
i
ngwi
thsubsi
diar
ylegi
slat
ion.I
n
r
espectt
osubsi
diar
ylegi
slat
iont
hecour
twi
l
lal
way
sint
erpr
ett
hewor
dingst
ri
ctl
y
wi
thoutpay
ingat
tent
ionont
heunder
lyi
ngmi
schi
ef.Per
hapst
hisl
i
esont
hel
ogi
cthat
i
nsubsi
diar
ylegi
slat
iont
hemakeri
sassumedt
ohav
ehadsuf
fi
cientoppor
tuni
tyt
ofeed
al
lthedet
ail
s.

70
Whatwast
hespi
ri
toft
hel
aw.I
nint
erpr
eti
ngt
hest
atut
esi
naddi
ti
ont
other
ulesuse
ot
herappr
oaches t
othe i
nter
pret
ati
on ofst
atut
ethi
sincl
ude I
nter
nalAi
ds of
Const
ruct
ion,Ext
ernalAi
ds of Const
ruct
ion,l
ogi
calAi
ds t
o const
ruct
ion and
pr
esumpt
iont
othei
nter
pret
ati
on.

I
NTERNALAI
DS TO CONSTRUCTI
ON.

Thi
sref
erst
omat
ter
sthatar
efoundwi
thi
nthest
atut
eit
sel
f.Forexampl
e,l
ongt
it
le,
shor
tti
tl
e,mar
ginal
not
es,
schedul
e,pr
eambl
es,
andpunct
uat
ion.

 Pr
eambl
es.

Thesear
enor
mal
l
ycont
ainedi
nol
denst
atut
esandnor
mal
l
yset
soutt
her
easonsf
or
t
hest
atut
esandst
atut
oryi
nter
pret
ati
on.I
tist
hatgener
alpr
inci
plet
hatt
hepr
eambl
eis
notpar
toft
hest
atut
e.Howev
er,
i hecaseofThabi
nt tNgakav.Regi
onalOf
fi
cer(
1973)
LRTno.24,i
nthi
scaseev
ent
houghpr
eambl
edonotconsi
dert
othest
atut
e,t
hiscase
pl
ayedar
olei
nconst
it
uti
on.

 Longt
it
le.

Thi
sseekst
osetoutt
hepur
poseandobj
ect
ivesoft
heAct
.Thesear
epar
tsoft
he
st
atut
eandmayt
her
efor
ebeusedasal
egi
ti
macyai
dtoconst
ruct
ionofconst
it
uti
on.
Thel
ongt
it
lewi
l
lnor
mal
l
yshadel
i
ghtont
heobj
ect
iveandpur
poseoft
heActandi
n
appl
yi
ngt
heMi
schi
efr
ule,
thecour
tsmayl
ookatt
hel
ongt
it
let
odet
ermi
net
hedef
ect
s
whi
cht
hel
awseekst
ocur
eandgi
veani
nter
pret
ati
onwhi
chsuppr
esst
heMi
schi
efand
adv
ancesr
emedi
es.

71
  Shor
tti
tl
e.

Thesear
efoundatt
hebegi
nni
ngoft
heAct
.Forexampl
e,t
hisActmaybeci
tedasPenal
Codeort
heLawofCont
ractAct
.Ashor
tti
tl
eispar
tof
ast
atut
eandbasi
cal
l
yshor
tti
tl
es
ar
eusedf
ori
dent
if
icat
ionandnotpr
escr
ipt
ion.Theyonl
ysav
easashor
tident
if
yingl
evel
butt
her
eisnor
easonwhyt
heyshoul
dnotbeusedhasi
nter
nal
aidst
oconst
ruct
ion.

 Headi
ng.

Act
sar
enor
mal
l
ydeci
dedi
ntosect
ionsandsect
ionsnor
mal
l
yhav
eheadi
ngsand
mar
ginalnot
es.Headi
ngsnor
mal
l
yappearbef
oreagr
oupofsect
ion.Headi
ngf
orm par
t
ofast
atut
esandt
heymaybeconsi
der
edi
nint
erpr
eti
ngsect
ion.

 Mar
ginalNot
es.

Thesear
efoundont
hesi
desofsect
ionsandt
heymayal
sobeusedast
heI
nter
nal
Aids
t
oConst
ruct
ionev
ent
hought
heymaybeusedasai
dst
oconst
ruct
ion,t
heyshoul
dnot
r
est
ri
ctt
hepl
ainmeani
ngofenact
ingwor
dsandnor
mal
l
ysummar
izest
heef
fectoft
he
sect
ion.

 Punct
uat
ion.

Bef
ore1850punct
uat
ionsi
nEngl
andwer
enotconsi
der
edt
obepar
tofast
atut
es
becauset
heywer
einser
tedaf
terenact
ment
.Nowpunct
uat
ionmaybeusedasapar
tof
ast
atut
eswhi
chnowaday
spl
aysani
mpor
tantr
ole.

 I
nter
pret
ati
onsect
ions.

Thewor
dsandphr
asesar
eusual
l
yint
otwof
orms:

 Theyusual
l
ysay
swhatt
hepar
ti
cul
arwor
dsorphr
asemeani
ng.

 I
tnor
mal
l
ysay
swhatt
hepar
ti
cul
ari
ncl
udes.Whent
heAct
susedt
hewor
d
“
incl
udes”i
tindi
cat
est
hatanext
ensi
onor
dinar
ymeani
ngcont
inuet
obeused.

72
  Pr
ovi
so.

Thi
sisqual
i
ficat
ionoft
hegener
ali
tyoft
hemai
npr
ovi
sionandpr
ovi
soi
sfr
equent
lynot
anai
dtoconst
ruct
ionev
ent
hought
het
ermsoft
hepr
ovi
siont
owhi
chi
tisapr
ovi
soar
e
usual
l
yofconsi
der
abl
eai
dtoconst
ruct
ion.A pr
ovi
sousual
l
ybegi
nwi
thwor
dsl
i
ke
pr
ovi
ded t
hat
,not
wit
hst
andi
ng and apr
ovi
so nev
erst
andsal
one,t
heymustbea
pr
ovi
dedsect
ionorf
ormspar
ttot
hemai
nsect
ion.

73