Process Description Diagrams and Oversights

Media – Refers to the type of shot used in terms of what material it is made from, its morphology and its size. 1. Check coverage with UV light or magnifying glass until a
Intensity – refers to the magnitude of energy in the stream of shot. The larger the shot, and the larger its projecting coverage of 200% is achieved.
Shot Peening velocity, the larger the momentum and energy possessed by the shot stream, and the larger the intensity. 2. When conducting an Almen strip test for verification, the
Coverage – Refers to how effectively the shot hits the surface it has been projected on. If the spread of the shot leaves strip's flatness before peening needs to be accounted for.
noticeable unpeened regions the coverage would be poor. 3. The Almen strip bends away from the peened surface.

A jet of water is projected perpendicular to a surface with a high velocity. This results in the formation of voids
1. The pressure created is lower than the vapour pressure of
Cavitation Peening of vacuum to form and implode immediately, sending shockwaves into the part and inducing dislocations - thereby
water, causing cavities to form.
imparting compressions and relieving tensile stresses.

A laser is projected onto a surface. The surface itself is coated in an ablative, sacrificial layer that entraps a layer of water.
1. A layer of water is typically applied in conjunction with a
As the laser heat up the water, this is immediately vapourised but constricted to move by the sacrificial layer. This leads
Laser Shock Peening pulsed laser and not a continuous laser beam.
to the formation and propagation of shockwaves into the part and inducing dislocations - thereby imparting compressions
2. Has the best penetration at the lowest degree of cold work.
and relieving tensile stresses.

Burnishing is usually reserved for cylindrical sections as they are rotated against a hardened disk that impinges coldwork
Burnishing
to the surface and inducing compressive residual stresses in said manner.

1. Both process smoothen a roughened surface.

Ultrasonic Nano - Crystal Involves the indentation of a surface through a tiny pin that is oscillated at an ultrasonic frequency, leading to a surface
Surface Modification modifications and refining the grains down to a nanoscopic dimension.

Carburising of Low Carbon Steel – The material is heated such that the steel is austenitised at 850℃ and the temperature
is held for a few hours. This allows sufficient time for carbon to diffuse into the austenite which has a high solubility to
carbon. The material is then quenched to form a hard martensitic case that is then tempered to reduce brittleness.
Enriched in Carbon (Martensitic
Carburised Layer) Expanded Austenite (S - Phase)
Carburising of Stainless Steel – Passivation is removed by ion bombardment before heating the material to a temperature 1. This process is typically used on hypoeutectoid steels such
below 500℃ and maintained for a few hours, allowing the expansion of the austenitic phase - called the S-Phase. This that the component gains a soft ferritic/pearlitic interior with
results in increased hardness and reduced susceptibility to galling. The heated material is then annealed or normalised but harder carburised outer layer. Chromium Carbides (Sensitisation)

Low - Carbon Steel

not quenched to reduce sensitisation of the stainless steel.

Stainless Steel
2. For carburising to occur the carbon potential of the furnace
Dimensional Control – Compensation refers to the practice of anticipating dimensional change in the design phase by atmosphere must be higher than that of the workpiece surface.
Carburising applying draft angles, wide tolerances and downsized dimensions to account for the eventual distortion. The resulting
"distorted" part would still satisfy the dimensional requirements. Alternatively, the part can be straightened after 3. The austenitising phase allows a transformation from FCC
carburising to annihilate the distortion. Fixturing refers to the practice of rigging and positioning the parts in such a way to BCC austenite which is more diffusive to carbon.
that they get equal heating and cooling throughout, minimising thermal gradients as much as possible. Marquenching or Core Not Enriched in Carbon Core Not Enriched in Carbon
martempering is a an interrupted quench of steels typically in a molten salt bath at a temperature right above the 4. Stainless Steel: S-Phase is formed which an expanded (Ferritic / Pearlitic) (Ferritic / Pearlitic)
martensite start temperature. The purpose is to delay the cooling for a length of time to equalise the temperature carbon super saturated hard layer. This layer is a diffusion
throughout the piece. Press quenching is a process that involves applying constraints to the carburised part before gradient of carbon in solid solution in the austenite matrix.
quenching, restraining the part from distorting.

The simultaneous addition of ammonia when a material is being carburised, results in it breakdown to its constituents of
nitrogen and hydrogen. The diffusion of nitrogen while detrimental in terms of austenite stabilisation, can be controlled to
Carbonitriding preferentially increase the hardenability of the material. Nevertheless, this allows for a slower cooling rate to be used, 1. Do not confuse with ferritic Nitrocarburising.
which is preferential in minimising distortion. Furthermore, since nitrogen has been added, more martensite can form on
the surface as the material becomes more hardenable.

Not Shown - White Layer (Too hard to

be supported by the substrate) Not Shown - White Layer (Too hard to
be supported by the substrate)
Compound Layer of Epsilon' and
then Gamma' Phases Compound Layer of Epsilon' and
then Gamma' Phases
1. It is typical for the chamber to be purged with nitrogen
Nitriding of Stainless Steel – Much like the carburising of stainless steel, the passivation is first removed and subjected to
before initiating the nitriding reactions.

High Alloyed Steel

Diffusion Zone with Traces of
a temperature below 400℃ and held for a few hours before normalising or annealing. Elevation of temperature beyond

Stainless Steel
2. In nitriding, austenitising is never wanted, rather a heating Nitride Intermetallics Diffusion Zone with Traces of
400℃ can result in sensitisation. The resulting microstructure will include a compound zone made from the γ' and ε Nitride Intermetallics
below the eutectoid temperature such that the nitrogen can
intermetallics and a diffusion zone combined forming a nitride case. If steel are not alloyed with molybdenum additions,
Nitriding the nitride case becomes brittle and spalls off easily.
easily diffuse through the BCC ferrite phase. Nitrogen does
not diffuse well in the FCC austenite phase.
Chromium Carbides (Sensitisation)
3. Strong nitride formers include iron, aluminium, chromium,
A white layer can form on nitrided steels that would need to have its thickness diminished. This can be achieved by
vanadium and molybdenum.
double stage nitriding with a second stage at 500℃. Alpha Iron
4. These nitrides increase surface hardness and toughness. Alpha Iron

Involves the simultaneous addition of nitrogen and carbon, resulting in a hardening intermetallic rich compound layer.
Ferritic Nitrocarburising
Comparative with nitriding, the temperature is heavily supressed, minimising thermal distortion of the part.

In sulfuric acid anodising, the aluminium part is made the anode with a cathode wired to a DC supply. As the name
implies, a sulfuric acid electrolyte is used. This leads to the oxidation of aluminium into its ions as they migrate towards 1. Think of the process as the inverse of electroplating.
Sulfuric Acid Anodising Instead of driving metallic ions towards the work part, the
the cathode. On the other hand, oxide ions are reduced to oxygen at the anode, inducing the formation of aluminium
and metallic ions are driven away as oxygen ions are attracted to
oxide on the surface of the anode. The process is terminated and the pores are sealed. Hard anodising follows a similar
Hard Anodising react with the metallic ions on the work part surface.
procedure but differs in the concentration of the electrolyte. In hard anodising, the sulfuric acid is more dilute and
refrigerated.

2. Spotting or uneven etching is avoided by cleaning in an

detergent.

3. A material that has just been anodised has a porous

 2. Spotting or uneven etching is avoided by cleaning in an
Chromic Acid Anodising Results in a thin, ductile oxide with highly structured thick walls. detergent.

3. A material that has just been anodised has a porous

structure that absorbs dyes well. After applying the dye, the
pores need to be sealed.

4. Sealing, in practice, is achieved by immersion in hot water.

Phosphoric Acid Anodising Produces a very thin oxide layer with high porosity and a thin cell wall.

Plasma Electrolytic An electric field that is greater than the dielectric breakdown of the oxide itself is pulsed. The temperature elevation
Oxidation Anodising generates plasma that reacts in the ceramic oxide. The process is caried out in a bath of water.

Thermal oxidation is used specifically to anodise titanium. The metal is heated such that its diffusivity to oxygen
Thermal Oxidation Anodising increases and the result is a thick oxide layer with a strengthened diffusion zone. Cooling of the titanium part is
performed at a slow rate to avoid spallation of the oxide layer - (owning the thermal volumetric variations).

Martensite

Medium - Carbon Steel

Transition to Bainite /
Used mainly to harden steel by subjecting a part to an intense flame that austenitised the surface only for a Pearlite
Flame Hardening few seconds before quenching and tempering. Quenching is carried out by the incidence of a jet of water that immediately
proceeds the flame. This leads to the formation of a case hardening layer of tempered martensite over a pearlitic substrate.
1. In steels, a carbon content of at least 0.4wt.% carbon is
needed such that the CCT diagram shifted backwards and
martensite is able to form when the part is quenched.
Core Pearlite / Ferrite

Induction hardening is typically reserved for prismatic sections that are inserted into a coil subjected to a high frequency
alternating current. The magnetic field that results induces eddy currents that cause the motion and therefore, heating of
Induction Hardening
the metallic atoms. The heating raises the temperature of the extremities up to the austenitising temperature before quench
hardening and tempering.

The application of a laser to harden the surface of a material can be employed in several means. Without altering
1. Unlike electron and ion beams, a laser beam is non-direct
the chemistry of the material, a laser can increase the temperature of a localised area to the austenitising temperature,
contact and clean means of transferring energy to the surface.
relying on cooler regions of the part as a heat sink causing the region to self quench and harden. Another means of
Laser Beam Hardening
increasing the hardness is by changing the chemistry of the surface. This can be done by melting the material with a laser
2. Laser surface cladding protects well against of erosion,
while adding alloying elements to the melt pool. A laser also enables the melting and adherence of an applied powder that
cavitative wear and abrasion. - used to protect turbine blades.
solidifies as a protective clad.

A power supply drives copper ions from an anode to a cathode which is made the part. At the cathode copper is reduced
into its solid state. Bath additives include; Copper Cyanide: Provides the Cu2+ ions that are driven towards the cathode
and reduced into solid copper on its surface. Sodium Cyanide: Acts as a supporting electrolyte to increase the
conductivity of the bath while blocking the diffusion of copper into the substrate. Surfactant (Wetting Agent): Used to
minimise the surface tension between air and the bath contents such that any by-product gaseous products are liberated
with greater ease instead of accumulating around the electrode and impeding the uniform deposition of copper.
Electroplating of Copper Brightening Agent: As the name suggests, give the material a brighter finish by refining the grains such that they reflect
light rather than dispersing it.

Electroplating ABS – Initially, the part is washed in a mild alkaline soap solution. This liberates surfactants on the surface
of the part and removes any grease and residue. Dipping in acetone helps dissolve any trace contaminants including any
Electroplating of ABS excess soap. The part is etched in sulfuric acid, liberating butadiene rubber and creating anchor holes that can be later
filled by copper ions by electroless plating. In this state, the material becomes conductive and is therefore able to be
electroplated - typically with nickel and then chromium.

Electroless nickel deposition never proceeds on its known but is deposited together with phosphorus. The process needs a
source of nickel (II) ions and a reducing agent, typically the hypophosphite ions. Electroless nickel plating results in
harder and more wear-resistant coatings than conventional nickel electroplating due to the addition of phosphorus. Post-
treatment annealing may be needed to remove hydrogen and reduce hydrogen embrittlement and converting the nickel-
phosphorus from amorphous to crystalline. Complexing agents are used to intentionally reduce the rate of deposition of 1. It is typical for a suspension of silicon carbide, diamond,
ions on the part's surface and slow down the electroless plating process. Levellers are added to limit deposition of ions on PTFE, silica or titania to be placed in the bath by stirring or
edges and corners such that the surface finish is uniform and smooth. Inert electrolytes are used in a salt bridge because ultrasonication. These are incorporated to give the layer anti-
they do not chemically react with the solution in either of the compartment and they do not interfere with the net cell corrosive, low friction, heat absorption and wear resistive
Electroless Deposition of reaction also. properties.
Nickel - Phosphorus
2. Sensitization prior to electroless plating improves
deposition of metals on a variety of substrates. Sensitisation
refers to the activation of a surface before electroless plating -
typically non-conductive ones such a diamond particles.
 Electroless Deposition of properties.
Nickel - Phosphorus
2. Sensitization prior to electroless plating improves
deposition of metals on a variety of substrates. Sensitisation
refers to the activation of a surface before electroless plating -
typically non-conductive ones such a diamond particles.

Sol - Gel uses a suspension of particles called the colloidal solution or 'sol' that aggregates and gelates into a 3D network
of polymer chains called the 'gel'. With heating and agitating the hydrolysis and polymerisation reactions occur leaving
the coating to cure and the excess water to condense and evacuate the coating. Sintering follows to crystallise the coating.
Sol - Gel Coatings
The reaction (right) shows the formation of silica 'sol' that forms a gel by condensation polymerisation. The layer is
deposited by dip coating, spinning, spraying or inkjet printing. Sol-gel coatings, due to their low porosity and
homogeneity can be used as an optical coating. Furthermore, the coating has anticorrosion and anti-fouling properties.

Oxy - Fuel Thermal Spray In oxyfuel spray, an oxy-acetylene flame heat a melt wire that projects a splat onto a surface the nozzle is aimed at.

1. In general, to obtain low-porosity and high-strength coating,

Two wires, one made the anode and the other the cathode are fed simultaneously onto each other, meeting at a focal point the injected powder needs to be projected in a completely
Arc - Wire Thermal Spray whereby an arc is formed. In between, a jet of air projects the consumable wires into a spray of molten material that is molten state, projected with sufficient momentum to splat and
splat onto the surface. flow on the surface and meet no resistance to bond to the
surface.

In plasma spraying a non-consumable cathode is used to arc with a non-consumable, nozzle anode through a plasma gas
Plasma Spray
(argon or hydrogen). The arc is used to vaporise and turn injection powder into plasma that is projected onto a surface.

The process is inherently simple, consisting of a water-cooled tube into which a spark ignited mixture of acetylene and
Detonation Thermal Spray 1. Highest splat temperature and velocity of all processes.
oxygen melts a feed of powder that is fed out of the ‘gun’.

HVOF follows a similar working principle to detonation gun spraying, using a blend of vapourised kerosine and oxygen
to 1. The layer formed is extremely dense, with carbide being a
HVOF Thermal Spray
drive the combustion in a combustion chamber that melts and drives forward coating material that is supplied in powder common splat material used.
form.

Thermal Physical In thermal evaporation, an evaporant is heated in an evacuated containment. As the vapourised atoms rise they hit the
Vapour Deposition target and condense on the surface forming a solid deposit.

In the sputtering variant, the evaporant is not heated, rather a potential difference drives cations (usually charged argon)
towards the target cathode in a chamber with reduced pressure. Particles are sputtered and projected towards the rotating
part. The use of magnetrons as opposed to a planar diode in PVD enables a higher current and hence a high deposition
rate of material at a low gas pressure. This is due to the magnetic field capturing electrons near the target material, easing
Sputtering the formation of ions from the noble argon gas.
Vapour Deposition
Balanced vs Unbalanced Magnetron Sputtering PVD: The most essential difference is the location of magnets. In
balanced one, magnets are placed only on the cathode (target), therefore the magnetic field lines are closed near the
surface of the target. In unbalanced one, there are other magnets placed outside the cathode let say anode, so the
distribution of magnetic field becomes different.

Chemical vapour deposition differs from PVD in that the reaction is driven by a chemical reaction between precursor
gases that are fed into a heated chamber. The reaction induced results in the diffusion of the products and the deposition
of a high purity film. The process also differs from PVD, in that surface cleanliness is not as crucial in this case as the
precursor only needs to react rather than attach to the surface.

Sequence of Events;

1. Diffusion of reactants through boundary layer.

2. Adsorption of reactants on substrate.
Chemical Vapour Deposition 3. Chemical reaction takes place.
4. Desorption of adsorbed species.
5. Diffusion out of by-products through boundary layer.

Reactions;

1. Pyrolytic - Thermal Decomposition

2. Reduction - Loss of Oxygen, Gain of Hydrogen and Electrons
3. Displacive - Exchange Reactions
4. Disproportionation - Same Compound Reduced and Oxidised

Steel is cleaned and pickled in an acid bath to remove any mill scale before being dipped in molten zinc. As the zinc
Hot Dip Galvanising solidifies it reacts with the air, specially oxygen and carbon to more ceramic oxides and carbonates. This forms a dull
layer that is nonetheless protective to the steel substrate against corrosion.

Steel is cleaned and pickled in an acid bath to remove any mill scale before being dipped in molten aluminium and
Hot Dip Aluminising typically some content of silicon to promote the adherence of the metal to the steel surface. The resulting layer gives the
steel corrosion resistant, passivating properties.

Hot dip tinning is made by cold rolling steel, pickling to remove mill scale, annealing to remove any strain hardening,
and then coating it with a thin layer of tin. The process is intended to increase the corrosion resistance of a surface that is
Hot Dip Tin
not exposed to high temperatures or environments that induce wear. Due to these limitation tinning nowadays is used
almost exclusively in tin can production.
 Bitumen: Low Cost, Good Penetration, Limited Colour Options
Chlorinated Rubber: Plasticiser Needed
1. In general, physically curing paints form thermoplastic coatings by evaporation of the solvent,
Acrylic: Plasticiser Needed and Chlorinated
leaving behind a network of intertwined binder molecules. These paints are reversible but are not
Vinyl: Quick Drying, Poor Wetting Properties, Costly
as durable.
Alkyd: Simple Application but no Resistance to Alkali
Paint Types
Epoxy: Good Adhesion and Resistant to High Temperatures, Health Hazard
2. Chemically curing paints form non-reversible and robust coatings by the activation of a
Polyurethane: Gloss and Colour Retention, Health Hazard and Costly
chemical reaction by adding more than one component or applying heat. A thermosetting coating
Zinc Silicates: Resistant to Heat and Protects Well Against Corrosion
forms.
Silicone: Heat Resistant but Only Cures at Elevated Temperatures

Binders: Provide Adhesion and Cohesion

Pigment: Provide Colour and Opacity
Paint Constituents Extenders: Improve Durability and Reduce Cost
Solvents: Dissolve the Binder and Determine the Drying Time
Additives: UV Absorbers, Plasticisers, Levellers
 Induction / Flame Hardening
Laser Arc Cladding
Nitriding
1000 Shot Peening / Laser Peening

Hot-Dip Coatings
Electroplating
Coating Thickness (µm)

100 Powder Spraying

CVD
Carburizing Plasma-Arc Spraying
PVD
10

Flame Spraying Laser Hardening / Melting

Electroless Plating
Anodizing
1

PVD Sputtering
0.1

Ion Implantation
0.01

1000 Induction / Flame Hardening

PVD Sputtering

Nitriding Carburizing Laser Arc Cladding

Ion Implantation
Surface hardness (HV)

Electroless Plating
Laser Hardening / Melting

PVD CVD
100

Electroplating

Powder Spraying Flame Spraying

10

Hot-Dip Coatings