Chapter 6  As a result, cartilage is relatively rigid, but it springs back its original

shape after being bent or slightly compressed.

Skeletal System: Bones and Joints  An excellent shock absorber.

Components of Skeletal System

 Bones
 Tendons Bone Extracellular Matrix
 Ligaments  Contains collagen and minerals, including calcium and phosphate.
 Cartilages  The ropelike collagen fibers lend flexible strength to the bone.
      The mineral component gives bone compression (weight-bearing)
Skeletal System Functions strength.
 Support
 Protect HYDROXYAPATITE
 Movement - Most of the mineral in bone is in the form of
 Storage calcium phosphate crystals
 Blood Cell Production
Shape Classification of Bones
Extracellular Matrix  There are four bone shape classifications
 Bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments of the skeletal system are all o Long
connective tissues.  o Short
 Their characteristics are largely determined by the composition of o Flat
their extracellular matrix.  o Irregular
 The matrix always contains collagen, ground substance, and other
organic molecules, as well as water and minerals. LONG BONES
 Are longer than they wide
COLLAGEN  EXAMPLE; UPPER AND LOWER LIMB
 Is a tough, ropelike protein.
SHORT BONE
PROTEOGLYCANS  Are approximately as wide as they are long
 Are large molecules consisting of many polysaccharides attaching  EXAMPLE; THE BONES OF THE WRIST AND ANKLE
to and encircling core proteins.
 Form large aggregates and attract water. FLAT BONES
 Have a relatively thin, flattened shape
 EXAMPLES; BONES OF THE SKULL AND STERNUM
TENDONS AND LIGAMENTS
 Their extracellular matrix contains large amounts of collagen IRREGULAR BONES
fibers, making those structures very tough, like ropes or cables.  Include the vertebrae and facial bones, which have shapes that do not
fit readily into the other three categories.
Cartilage Extracellular Matrix
 Contains collagen and proteoglycans. Long Bone Structures
 Collagen makes cartilage tough, whereas the water-filled proteoglycans  Diaphysis
make it smooth and resilient. o Shaft
 o Compact bone tissue (on outside) Compact Bone Tissue
 Epiphysis LOCATION
o Ends spongy bone tissue - Outer part of diaphysis (long bones) and thinner
 Articular Cartilage surfaces of other bones
o Covers epiphyses OSTEON
o Reduces friction - Structural unit of compact bone includes;
 Epiphyseal Plate  LAMELLA
o Site of growth between diaphysis and epiphysis.  LACUNAE
 Medullary cavity  CANALICULUS
o Center of diaphysis red or yellow marrow  CENTRAL CANAL
 Periosteum  OSTEOCYTES
o Membrane around bone’s outer surface LAMELLA
 Endosteum - Rings of bone matrix
o Membrane that lines medullary cavity LACUNAE
- Spaces between lamella
Bone Marrow CANALICULUS
 Bones contain cavities, such as the large medullary cavity in the - Tiny canals
diaphysis, as well as smaller cavities in the epiphyses of long bones and - Transport nutrients and remove waste
in the interior of other bones CENTRAL CANAL
MARROW - Center of osteon
- These spaces are filled with soft tisuue - Contain blood vessels
RED MARROW
- Is the location of blood forming cells Spongy (Cancellous) Bone Tissue
YELLOW MARROW
- Is mostly fat SPONGY BONE
 In newborns most bones have blood making red bone marrow  It is located at the epiphyses of long bones and center of other bones.
 In adults red marrow in the diaphysis is replaced by yellow bone  It has TRABECULAE(BEAMS) which are interconnecting rods, and
marrow spaces that contain marrow
 In adults most red bone marrow is in the flat bones and the long bones  It has no osteons
of the femur and humerus
Bone Formation
Bone Cells  Ossification is the formation of bone by osteoblasts
OSTEBLASTS INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION
- Responsible for the formation of bone and the - Bone formation that occurs within connective
repair and remodeling of bone tissue membranes
OSTEOCYTES ENDOCHONDROL OSSIFICATION
- Cells that maintain bone matrix and form - Bone formation that occurs inside hyaline cartilage
osteoblast after bone matrix has surrounded it.  Both types of bone formation result in compact and spongy bone.
OSTEOCLASTS
- Contribute to bone repair and remodeling by
Intramembranous Ossification
removing existing bone, called BONE
 Intramembranous ossifications occurs when osteoblasts begin to
REABSORPTION
produce bone within connective tissue.
  This occur primarily in the bones of the skull
 Osteoblasts line up on the surface of connective tissue fibers and begin
depositing bone matrix to form TRABECULAE.
 OSSIFICATION CENTERS
o The process begins
o The trabeculae radiate out from the centers
 Usually, two or more ossification centers exist in each flat skull bone
and mature skull bones result from fusion of these centers as they
enlarge.
 The trabeculae are constantly remodeled and they may enlarge or be
replaced by compact bone.
 This type of bone growth occurs through endochondral ossification.
 Chondrocytes increase in number on the epiphyseal side of the
epiphyseal plate.
 Then the chondrocytes enlarge and die.
 The cartilage matrix becomes calcified. 
 Much of the cartilage that forms around the enlarged cells is removed
by osteoclasts, and the dying chondrocytes are replaced by osteoblasts.
 The osteoblasts start forming bone by depositing bone lamellae on the
surface of the calcified cartilage. 
 This process produces bone on the diaphyseal side of the epiphyseal
plate.

Endochondral Ossification Bone Remodeling

 CARTILAGE MODEL
o Endochondral bone formation is bone formation
o Cartilage model is replaced by bone
 PRIMARY OSSIFICATION CENTER
o Which is bone formation in the diaphysis of a long bone
 SECONDARY OSSIFICATION CENTER
o Is bone formation in the epiphysis
Bone remodeling involves:
 removal of existing bone by osteoclasts and 
 deposition of new bone by osteoblasts
 occurs in all bones
 responsible for changes in bone shape, bone 
 repair, adjustment of bone to stress, and 
 Calcium ion regulation

(Steps in Endochondral Ossification) Bone Repair

1. Chondroblasts build a cartilage model, the chondroblasts become  Broken bone causes bleeding and a blood clot forms.
chondrocytes.  Callus forms which is a fibrous network between 2 fragments.
2. Cartilage model calcifies (hardens)  Cartilage model forms first then, osteoblasts enter the callus and form
3. Osteoblasts invade calcified cartilage and a primary ossification center cancellous bone this continues for 4-6 weeks after injury.
forms diaphysis.  Cancellous bone is slowly remodeled to form compact and cancellous
4. Secondary ossification centers form epiphysis bone.
5. Original cartilage model is almost completely ossified and remaining
cartilage is articular cartilage. Bone and Calcium Homeostasis
 Movement of calcium in and out of bone helps determine blood levels of
Bone Growth in Width calcium
 Bone growth occurs by the deposition of new bone lamellae onto existing  Calcium moves into bone as osteoblasts build new bone
bone or other connective tissue.  Calcium move out of bone as octeoclasts break down bone
 As osteoblasts deposit new bone matrix on the surface of bones  Calcium homeostasis is maintained by parathyroid hormone  (PTH) and
between the periosteum and the existing bone matrix, the bone calcitonin
increases in width, or diameter.   BONE
 This process is called appositional growth.  Is a major storage site for calcium

Bone Growth in Length Bone Anatomical Terms

 Growth in the length of a bone, which is the major source of increased Foramen:  
height in an individual, occurs in the epiphyseal plate.   hole 
  Example - foramen magnum  Forms part of cranium floor, lateral posterior portions of eye orbits,
Fossa:   lateral portions of cranium anterior to temporal bones
 Depression  Sella turcica
 Example -  glenoid fossa  Ethmoid bone
Process:   Anterior portion of cranium, including medial surface of eye orbit and
 Projection roof of nasal cavity
 Example -  mastoid process  Nasal conchae
Condyle:  
 smooth, rounded end  Facial Bones
 Example - occipital condyle Maxillae
Meatus:  Form upper jaw, anterior portion of hard palate, part of lateral walls of
 canal-like passageway nasal cavity, floors of eye orbits
 Example - external auditory meatus  Maxillary sinus
Tubercle: Palatine bones
 lump of bone  Form posterior portion of hard palate, lateral wall of nasal cavity
 Example - greater tubercle Zygomatic bones
 Cheek bones
Axial Skeleton  Also form floor and lateral wall of each eye orbit
 The axial skeleton is composed of the skull, the vertebral column, and Lacrimal bones
the thoracic cage.   Medial surfaces of eye orbits
 The skull has 22 bones divided into those of the braincase and those of Nasal bones
the face.  Form bridge of nose
 The braincase, which encloses the cranial cavity, consists of 8 bones Vomer
that immediately surround and protect the brain.  In midline of nasal cavity
 The bony structure of the face has 14 facial bones.  Forms nasal septum with the ethmoid bone
 Thirteen of the facial bones are rather solidly connected to form the Inferior nasal conchae
bulk of the face.   Attached to lateral walls of nasal cavity
 The mandible, however, forms a freely movable joint with the rest of Mandible
the skull.   Lower jawbone
 There are also three auditory ossicles in each middle ear (six total).  Only movable skull bone

Cranial Bones Paranasal Sinuses

Frontal bone Several of the bones associated with the nasal cavity have large cavities within
 Anterior part of cranium them, called the paranasal sinuses which open into the nasal cavity. 
Parietal bones (The paranasal sinuses are: )
 Sides and roof of cranium Frontal
Occipital bones Ethmoid
 Posterior portion and floor of cranium Sphenoid
Temporal bones Maxillary
 Inferior to parietal bones on each side of the cranium Hyoid Bone
 Temporomandibular joint  The hyoid bone is an unpaired, U-shaped bone that is not part of the
Sphenoid bone skull and has no direct bony attachment to the skull or any other bones. 
  The hyoid bone has the unique distinction of being the only bone in the  Protects vital organs
body that does not articulate with another bone.   12 pair of ribs
 The hyoid bone provides an attachment for some tongue muscles, and it Sternum:
is an attachment point for important neck muscles that elevate the  breastbone
larynx. True ribs:
 attach directly to sternum by cartilage
Vertebral Column False ribs:
 The vertebral column, or spine, is the central axis of the skeleton,  attach indirectly to sternum by cartilage
extending from the base of the skull to slightly past the end of the Floating ribs:
pelvis.   not attached to sternum
 In adults, it usually consists of 26 individual bones, grouped into five
regions.  Bones of the Pectoral Girdle
 The adult vertebral column has four major curvatures: cervical, Scapula:
thoracic, lumbar and sacrococcygeal.   shoulder blade
o cervical Clavicle:
 region curves anteriorly.  collar bone
o thoracic
 region curves posteriorly. Upper Limb Bones
o Lumbar Humerus:
 region curves anteriorly  upper limb
o sacral and coccygeal Ulna:
 regions together curve posteriorly  forearm
 7 cervical vertebra Radius:
 12 thoracic vertebra  forearm
 5 lumbar vertebra Carpals:
 1 sacrum  wrist
 1 coccyx Metacarpals:
Atlas:    hand
 1st vertebra
 holds head
Pelvic Girdle
Axis:  
Where lower limbs attach to the body
 2nd vertebra
Pelvis:
 rotates head
 includes pelvic girdle and coccyx
Ischium:
Functions of Vertebral Column  inferior and posterior region
 Supports body weight Ilium:
 Protects the spinal cord  most superior region
 Allows spinal nerves to exit the spinal cord Acetabulum:
 Provides a site for muscle attachment  hip socket (joint)
 Provides movement of the head and trunk
Lower Limb Bones
Femur:
Thoracic Cage  thigh
Patella: Types of Movement
 knee cap Flexion:
Tibia:  bending 
 large lower leg  Extension:
Fibula:  straightening 
 small lower leg Abduction: 
Tarsals:  movement away from midline
 ankle Adduction: 
Metatarsals:  movement toward the midline
 foot  Pronation: 
Phalanges:  rotation of the forearm with palms down
 toes and fingers Supination: 
 rotation of the forearm with palms up
Articulations Rotation: 
 Articulations (joints) are where two bones come together.  movement of a structure about the long axis
 Joints can be classified structurally as fibrous, cartilaginous, or
synovial,  Effects of Aging on the Skeletal System and Joints
 Joints are also be classified in functional categories according to their 1. Decreased Collagen Production
degree of  motion as synarthroses, amphiarthroses, or diarthroses.  2. Loss of Bone Density
3. Degenerative Changes
Structural Classifications of Joints
A) Fibrous joint
 united by fibrous connective tissue
 subclasses are sutures, syndesmosis, and gomphoses
B) Cartilaginous joint
 united by means of cartilage
 subclasses are synchondroses and symphysis
C) Synovial
 joined by a fluid cavity
 Most joints of the appendicular skeleton

Functional Classification of Joints

Synarthrosis:
 non-movable joint
 Example – skull bone articulations
Amphiarthrosis:
 slightly movable joint
 Example -  between vertebrae
Diarthrosis
 freely movable joint
 Example - knee, elbow, and wrist articulations