Lecture 4: Turbines & hydraulics

1.Overview
Scope
Classification
Main turbine types
Other turbine types

2. Hydraulics
Definitions
Losses
Bernoulli
Main equation of
turbo machinery
Scope: What constitutes a turbine
A machine that extracts energy from a flowing fluid

Parts of a hydropower system

•Dam
•Water conduits vattenvägar
•Turbine
Distributor
Runner löphjul
Draft tube sugrör
Aux.
•Generator
•Grid connection
•Etc.

NB: The turbine is more than the runner!

Inside a power plant

Entrance to an under ground power plant

Inside a power plant

A machine hall
maskinsal
 A turbine chamber
turbinkammare
Inside a power plant
 Inside a huge spiral casing
spiral, snäcka
Inside a power plant
Inside a power plant
Inside a power plant
Parts:

•Rotating

•Bearings

•Stationary

•Movable
 Classification w.r.t energy conversion

1.Overview Impulse turbines Reaction turbines

Scope impulsturbiner reaktionsturbiner

Classification •A.k.a action turbines •Convert kinetic and pressure energy

Main turbine types
•Convert kinetic energy •Contained (water filled)
Other turbine types
•Free jet(s) •Main types: Kaplan and Francis

2. Hydraulics •Main type: Pelton

Definitions
Losses
Bernoulli
Main equation of
turbo machinery
 Main turbine types, w.r.t runner
Pelton
1.Overview
•Impulse
Scope
Classification •Tangential flow
Main turbine types •High H, low Q
Other turbine types
•High h
•Uncommon in
2. Hydraulics Sweden
Definitions
Losses
Bernoulli
Main equation of
turbo machinery
 Main turbine types
Pelton Francis

•Impulse •Reaction

•Tangential flow •Radial-axial flow

•High H, low Q •Medium to high H & Q

•High h •High peak h

•Uncommon in •Common
Sweden
 Kaplan
Main turbine types •Reaction
•Axial flow
Pelton Francis
•Adjustable blades
•Impulse •Reaction
•Low to medium H
•Tangential flow •Radial-axial flow •High Q
•High H, low Q •Medium to high H & Q
•High h for wide Q-range
•High h •High peak h
•Common
•Uncommon in •Common
Sweden

13
 Distributor (reaction turbines)

Stay vane
stagpelare

Guide vane
ledskovel = ledskena
Distributor (reaction turbines)
Open guide vanes Closed guide vanes
 Other turbine types
1.Overview
Bulb ~horizontal Propeller
Scope kaplan adjustable guide vanes,
Classification fixed runner blades
Main turbine types
Other turbine types
Semi-Kaplan
Lawaczeck fixed guide vanes,
2. Hydraulics ~propeller with mixed adjustable runner
Definitions radial-axial inflow blades

Losses
Bernoulli
Main equation of
turbo machinery
Banki Turgo
refined water wheel ~pelton with mixed
axial-tangential inflow
 Hydraulics Some notation
H, h – head [m] fallhöjd
1.Overview Q – flow rate, discharge [m3/s] flöde
Scope
c, u, v, w –water velocity [m/s]
Classification
p – static pressure [Pa] statiskt tryck
Main turbine types
Other turbine types n – runner rotational speed [s-1] or [rpm]
D – runner (or hydraulic) diameter [m]
2. Hydraulics L – some length [m]
Definitions
P – power [W] or sometimes perimeter (omkrets) [m]
Losses
Bernoulli
Y – specific energy (conversion) [J/kg=m2/s2]
Main equation of h – efficiency [-] verkningsgrad
turbo machinery r – density of water, 1000 kg/m3
g – gravitational acceleration, 9.82 m/s2 in northern Sweden
 Turbine power

𝑃 𝑊 = 𝜂𝜌𝑔𝐻𝑄
H – head [m]
Q – discharge [m3/s]
P – power [W]
h – efficiency [-]
r – density of water, 1000 kg/m3
g – gravitational acceleration, 9.82 m/s2 in
northern Sweden
Pressure reminder
𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 + 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚

Absolute pressure Gauge pressure Athmospheric pressure

Absolut tryck Övertryck Atmosfärstryck
Relevant when The common one Close to 105 Pa
studying phenomena to use in (1 bar, 10.2 m.w.c.)
related to pressure hydropower in absolute terms.
dependent fluid applications m.w.c. = meter water column
properties e.g.
vaporization ångbildning
Pressure conversion

𝑝 𝑃𝑎 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ Pressure in Pascal

h [m] = p/(𝜌g) Pressure in meter

Pressure can be expressed in [m]

If the density of water is used h
[m] denotes the pressure under h
m.w.c (meter water column)
 Energy loss in flowing water
Frictional losses are seen as a drop in pressure

𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = Δ𝑝=Losses
Extra pressure is needed
to ‘push’ water past
obstacle
 Energy loss in flowing water
•Friction: internally and in contact with walls
•Roughness, velocity variations
•Very interesting small scale phenomena with very important
large scale impact (turbulence, chaos)
The longer the pipe,
•Necessary to accept averaging the larger the loss
•The loss manifests itself as a pressure drop (tryckfall). The higher the speed
•Higher loss if of the water, the
larger the loss
Long pipe
2
Long perimeter 𝐿𝑝𝑐 h – head [m]
High speed Δ𝑝 ∝ v –water velocity [m/s]

Small cross sectional area 𝐴 p – static pressure [Pa]

L – some length [m]
P – perimeter [m]
A – cross sectional area [m2]
The smaller the pipe,
the larger the loss
 Energy loss in flowing water
1.Overview 2
Scope
𝐿 𝜌𝑣
Classification Δ𝑝 = 𝑓 [Pa]

Main turbine types 𝐷 2

Other turbine types
Where D=4A/P is the hydraulic diameter
and
2. Hydraulics v –water velocity [m/s]
Definitions f is the p – static pressure [Pa]

Losses D – hydraulic diameter [m]

Darcy friction factor = L – some length [m]
Bernoulli
Main equation of Darcy-Weisbach friction factor = P – perimeter [m])
r – density of water [kg/m3]
turbo machinery Moody friction factor A – cross sectional area [m2]
(But it differs from the Fanning friction factor and the Manning f – friction factor [-]
coefficient)
Energy loss in flowing water
Pressure and pressure loss are often measured in meters of water
column (m.w.c) [m]
(meter vattenpelare)

Remember p=rgh in static case

Then one can consider head loss (fallförlust):

h – head [m]

𝐿 𝑣2 v –water velocity [m/s]

p – static pressure [Pa]

Δℎ = 𝑓 [m] D – hydraulic diameter [m]

𝐷 2𝑔 L – some length [m]

r – density of water [kg/m3]
g – gravitational acceleration [m/s2]
f – friction factor [-]
Friction factors are found in the literature
Beware of different definitions!

Dynamic viscosity ≈ 10-3 Pa∙s for water @ 20oC Hydraulic diameter

Energy loss in flowing water
For ”obstacles” or sudden area changes, L is irrelevant

2
𝜌𝑣
Δ𝑝 = 𝜉
2 Called ”minor loss”
or (engångsförlust)

2
v –water velocity [m/s] 𝑣
h – head [m]
Δℎ = 𝜉
p – static pressure [Pa]
r – density of water [kg/m3]
2𝑔 𝜌𝑣 2
g – gravitational acceleration [m/s2]
Δ𝑝 = 𝜉Δ𝐴
ξ – loss coefficient [-]
Coefficients are found in e.g.
Miller, D. S., Internal Flow Systems BHR 1996
2
𝜉Δ𝐴 = 𝑓(𝐴1 , 𝐴2 )
 Bernoulli
Assumptions
1.Overview
c2
Scope •Incompressible fluid (r = const)
Classification
p2
•Stationary flow (not varying in time)
Main turbine types
Other turbine types •Inviscid fluid (no shear stress)
c1 z2
•No energy loss or gain p1
2. Hydraulics z1
Definitions Then
Losses
Bernoulli 𝑐2 𝑝
Main equation of + 𝑔𝑧 + = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
turbo machinery 2 𝜌 c – water velocity [m/s]
p – static pressure [Pa]
along stream lines
z – vertical position above ref. [m]
r – density of water [kg/m3]
g – gravitational acceleration [m/s2]
 Bernoulli
Derived e.g. using conservation of energy

Potential ”Pressure
energy energy”

𝑐2 𝑝
+ 𝑔𝑧 + = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 [J/kg]
2 𝜌
Kinetic
energy Total head
𝑐2 𝑝
+𝑧+ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. [m] c – water velocity [m/s]
2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 p – static pressure [Pa]
z – vertical position above ref. [m]
r – density of water [kg/m3]
g – gravitational acceleration [m/s2]
Velocity head Piezometric head
hastighetshöjd trycknivå
 Bernoulli
An unexplained α in Hydropower booklet, sect. 4.3:
𝛼𝑐 2 𝑝
𝑒= +𝑧+
2𝑔 𝜌𝑔
1
𝛼 = 3 න 𝑢3 𝑑𝐴 ≥ 1
𝐴𝑐 𝐴
where c is mean velocity and u is local velocity

The purpose is to compensate for velocity variations across the cross section, when considering
all of the cross section instead of just one stream line.
Energy grade line without losses
energilinje

𝑝
𝐻𝑆𝑇𝐴𝑇 =
𝜌𝑔
 Energy grade line with losses

From collection of formulas:

Energy grade line with losses and turbine

Net head h is
trycklinje
measured close to
the turbine when
evaluating turbine
efficiency.
Includes kinetic
energy (velocity
head).

bruttofallhöjd
nettofallhöjd
net head
Gross head is
interesting when
evaluating plant
efficiency
Including losses into Bernoulli’s equation
• The losses are added ‘after’ they occur on the right hand side
Example of Bernoulli’s equation in action
A barrel of water: how long time does it take to empty it?
Example of Bernoulli’s equation in action
 Main equation of turbo machinery turbinekvationen

booklet 4.4
1.Overview
Scope Specific energy conversion Y [J/kg]:
Classification
How much energy that is converted by the runner for each kg of water
Main turbine types
that passes through
Other turbine types

2. Hydraulics
Definitions
Y >0: Energy transferred from fluid to rotor. TURBINE
Losses
Bernoulli
Y <0: Energy transferred from rotor to fluid. PUMP
Main equation of
turbo machinery
Main equation of turbo turbinekvationen

machinery booklet 4.4

𝑌 = 𝑐1ҧ ∙ 𝑢ത1 − 𝑐2ҧ ∙ 𝑢ത 2 [J/kg]

Main equation of turbo machinery

Index 1:inlet
𝑢:
ത runner blade velocity vector
𝑐:ҧ water velocity vector

Index 2:outlet
 Main equation of turbo machinery

Vector-free version:

Y=cu1u1-cu2u2 [J/kg]

Length of 𝑢ത1

Length of 𝑐1ҧ in 𝑢ത1 -direction

For Y, we also have that

𝑃 𝜂𝜌𝑔𝐻𝑄
𝑌= = = 𝜂𝑔𝐻
𝑚ሶ 𝜌𝑄

Dimensional check:

[J kg-1] = [N m kg-1] = [kg m s-2 m kg-1] = [m2 s-2]

Main equation of turbo machinery

Y=cu1u1-cu2u2 [J/kg]

Interpretation:
The energy transferred from each kg of water is determined by
how much the runner changes the rotational speed of the water.

Alternative names:
Turbine equation
Turbine energy equation
Euler’s turbine equation (in the booklet)
Euler equation (very confusing)
 Velocity triangles
provide input to main eq. of turbine machinery

•c: absolute velocity of water

• Guide vanes determine c1 •u: runner blade velocity
• Runner diameter and rotational •v=c-u: water velocity relative to
speed determine u runner blade

• Small angle of attack is good

(v1 aligned with runner blade)

• Small c2 is good (minimal if cu2=0) Guide vane

• Runner blade outlet determines

angle of v2

Runner blade
(Here, vectors have lost their overbars. Sorry.)
The really short summary
Turbine > runner
1. Overview Impulse – Reaction
• Scope Free jet Pressure difference

• Classification Pelton Francis & Kaplan

• Main turbine types
• Other turbine types Cf. p. 14

2. Hydraulics 𝑃 𝑊 = 𝜂𝜌𝑔𝐻𝑄
• Definitions Head ≈ water level (difference)
• Losses Prop. to velocity squared
• Bernoulli Like rigid body mech. + pressure
• Main equation of Including losses  Energy eq.
turbo machinery
Energy per kg water
depends on change of rotation