XII.

The Special Senses

The human body is continuously bombarded by all kinds of stimuli. Some of these stimuli are received
by sensory receptors distributed throughout the entire body. Other stimuli are received by highly
complex receptor organs. These are referred to as the special senses.
Functions of the five special senses:
1. Vision. Sight or vision is the capability of the eye(s) to focus and detect images of visible light on
photoreceptors in the retina of each eye that generates electrical nerve impulses for varying colors,
hues, and brightness.
2. Hearing. Hearing or audition is the sense of sound perception.
3. Taste. Taste refers to the capability to detect the taste of substances such as food, certain minerals,
and poisons, etc.
4. Smell. Smell or olfaction is the other “chemical” sense; odor molecules possess a variety of features
and, thus, excite specific receptors more or less strongly; this combination of excitatory signals from
different receptors makes up what we perceive as the molecule’s smell.
5. Touch. Touch or somatosensory, also called tactition or mechanoreception, is a perception resulting
from activation of neural receptors, generally in the skin including hair follicles, but also in the
tongue, throat, and mucosa.

METALANGUAGE:
 Neurotransmitter – also called chemical transmitter or chemical messenger, any of a group of
chemical agents released by neurons (nerve cells) to stimulate neighboring neurons or muscle or
gland cells, thus allowing impulses to be passed from one cell to the next throughout the
nervous system.
 Hormone - A chemical substance produced in the body that controls and regulates the activity
of certain cells or organs.
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
XIII. Endocrine System
The endocrine system is the collection of glands that produce hormones that regulate metabolism,
growth and development, tissue function, sexual function, reproduction, sleep, and mood, among other
things.
The endocrine system is made up of the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal
glands, pancreas, ovaries (in females) and testicles (in males).
 Gland is an organ that makes and puts out hormones that do a specific job in your body. Endocrine
glands release the substances they make into your bloodstream.
 Hypothalamus. This organ connects your endocrine system with your nervous system. Its main job is
to tell your pituitary gland to start or stop making hormones.
 Thyroid gland. This gland makes thyroid hormone, which controls your metabolism.
 Parathyroid. This is a set of four small glands behind your thyroid. They play a role in bone health.
The glands control your levels of calcium and phosphorus.
 Thymus. This gland makes white blood cells called T-lymphocytes that fight infection and are crucial
as a child's immune system develops. The thymus starts to shrink after puberty.
 Adrenals. Best known for making the "fight or flight" hormone adrenaline (also called epinephrine),
these two glands also make hormones called corticosteroids. They affect your metabolism and
sexual function, among other things.
 Pancreas. This organ is part of both your digestive and endocrine systems. It makes digestive
enzymes that break down food. It also makes the hormones insulin and glucagon. These ensure you
have the right amount of sugar in your bloodstream and your cells.
 Ovaries. In women, these organs make estrogen and progesterone. These hormones help develop
breasts at puberty, regulate the menstrual cycle, and support a pregnancy.
 Testes. In men, the testes make testosterone. It helps them grow facial and body hair at puberty. It
also tells the penis to grow larger and plays a role in making sperm.
 Tissues - is a cellular organizational level between cells and a complete organ. A tissue is an
ensemble of similar cells and their extracellular matrix from the same origin that together carry out
a specific function. Organs are then formed by the functional grouping together of multiple tissues.

Fig. 40: the Endocrine System

Table 1. Endocrine Glands, Hormones, and their Target Tissues

Gland Hormone Target tissue Response
Pituitary gland

Anterior (front of pituitary Growth hormone Most tissues Increases protein synthesis,
gland) breakdown of lipids, and
release of fatty acids from

Posterior (back of pituitary
gland)
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands
cells; increase blood
glucose level
Thyroid-stimulating Thyroid gland Increase thyroid hormone
hormone (TSH) secretion (thyroxine and
triiodothyronine)
Adrenocorticotropic Adrenal cortex Increase secretion of
hormone (ACTH) glucocorticoid hormones
Melanocyte-stimulating Melanocyte in skin Increases melanin
hormone production in melanocyte
to make the skin darker in
color
Luteinizing hormone (LH) Ovary in female, testis in Promotes ovulation and
males progesterone production in
the ovary; testosterone
synthesis and support for
sperm cell production in
testis
Follicle-stimulating Follicles in ovary in Promotes follicle
hormone (FSH) females, seminiferous maturation and estrogen
tubules in males secretion in ovary; sperm
cell production in testis
Prolactin Ovary and mammary gland Stimulates milk production
in females, testis in male and prolongs progesterone
secretion following
ovulation and during
pregnancy in women;
increases sensitivity to LH
in males
Antidiuretic hormone Kidney Increases water
reabsorption (less H2O is
lost as urine)
Oxytocin Uterus Increases uterine
contraction
Thyroid hormones Most cells of the body Increases metabolic rates,
(thyroxine and essential for normal
triiodothyronine) process of growth and
maturation.
Calcitonin Primary bone Decreases rate bone
breakdown; prevents large
increase in blood calcium
levels
Parathyroid hormone Bone, kidneys Increases rate of bone
breakdown by osteoclast;
 increases vitamin D
synthesis; essential for
maintenance for normal
blood calcium level.

Adrenal medulla Epinephrine mostly, some Heat, blood vessels, liver, Increases cardiac output;
norepinephrine fat cells increases blood flow to
skeletal muscles and heart;
increases release of glucose
and fatty acids into blood;
in general, prepares the
body for physical activity.

Adrenal cortex Mineralocorticoids Kidneys; to lesser degree, Increases rate of sodium

(aldosterone) intestine and sweat glands transport into body;
increase rate of potassium
excretion; secondarily favor
water retention

Glucocorticoids (cortisol) Most tissues (e.g., liver, fat,
skeletal muscle, immune
tissues)
Increases fat and protein
breakdown; increase
glucose synthesis from
amino acids; increase blood
nutrient level; inhibit
inflammation and immune
response.

Adrenal androgens Most tissues Insignificant in males;

increase female sexual
drive, pubic hair and
axillary hair growth.

Pancreas insulin Especially liver, skeletal Increase uptake and use of

muscle, adipose tissue glucose and amino acids

Glucagon Primarily liver Increases breakdown of

glucagon and release of
glucose into the circulatory
system.

Reproductive organs
Testes Testosterone Most tissues Aids in sperm cell
production, maintenance
of functional reproductive
organs, secondary sexual
characteristics, and sexual
behavior.

Ovaries Estrogens and Most tissues Aid uterine and mammary

progesterone gland development and
function, external genitalia
structure, secondary sexual
characteristics, sexual
 behavior and menstrual
cycle.

Uterus, ovaries, inflamed Prostaglandins Most tissues Mediate inflammatory

tissues responses; increase uterine
contractions, and
ovulation.

Thymus gland Thymosin Immune tissues Promotes immune system

development.

Pineal body Melatonin At least the hypothalamus Inhibits secretion of

gonadotropin-releasing
hormone, thereby
inhibiting reproduction.