The Role of ATP in Energy Coupling and Transfer

Endergonic Reactions- Endergonic reactions require an input of energy. An example of endergonic reaction in the living system is
photosynthesis. Endothermic or endergonic reaction happens when the energy is absorbed in the formation of the products in the
chemical reaction. The figure on the right shows that the energy of the reactants is less than the energy of the products in the chemical
reaction.
Exergonic Reactions- Exergonic reactions release energy. An example of exergonic reaction is cellular respiration. Exothermic or
exergonic happens when energy is released in the formation of the products. The figure on the right shows that the energy of the
reactants is greater than the energy of the products of the chemical reaction.
Exergonic Hydrolysis of ATP and Endergonic Dehydration Process
Hydrolysis of ATP (Exergonic)- It is the process of breaking complex macromolecules. The hydrolysis of ATP produces ADP, together
with an inorganic phosphate ion, and the release of free energy.
Dehydration of ATP (Endergonic)- This reaction reversed the hydrolysis of ATP by regenerating ATP. This ATP regeneration requires
an input of free energy.
ATP Structure and Function
Adenosine triphosphate is composed of adenosine bound to three phosphate groups. At the heart of ATP is a molecule of adenosine
monophosphate (AMP), which is composed of adenine molecule bonded to a ribose molecule and to a single phosphate group.
Ribose is a five-carbon sugar found in RNA, and adenine is one of the nucleotides in RNA. The addition of a second phosphate group
to this core molecule results in the formation of adenosine diphosphate (ADP).
The addition of the third phosphate group forms adenosine triphosphate. The three phosphate groups are labeled as alpha, beta and
gamma. These chemical groups constitute an energy powerhouse.
Functions of ATP in Cells
Active Transport- ATP plays a critical role in the transport of macromolecules such as proteins and lipids into and out of the cell.
Cell Signaling- ATP has key functions both in intracellular and extracellular signaling. 
Structural Maintenance- ATP plays a very important role in preserving the structure of the cell by helping the assembly of the
cytoskeletal elements. It also supplies energy to the flagella and chromosomes to maintain their appropriate functioning.
Importance of Chlorophyll and Other Plant Pigments in the Absorption of Energy
Pigments reflect or transmit the wavelengths they cannot absorb, thus affecting how they appear to the human eye. Chlorophyll and
carotenoids are the two major classes of photosynthetic pigments found in plants and algae; each class has a multiple types of pigment
molecules.
Chlorophyll is a key component in the process of photosynthesis, which sustains plant life and produces oxygen for the entire planet.
Although microscopic in size, chloroplasts like these have a big role to play in the health of the planet. Chlorophyll is located in a
plant’s chloroplasts, which are tiny structures in a plant’s cells. This is where photosynthesis takes place.
Phytoplankton, the microscopic floating plants that form the basis of the entire marine food web, contain chlorophyll, which is why high
phytoplankton concentrations can make water look green. Plants that use photosynthesis to make their own food are called autotrophs.
Animals that eat plants or other animals are called heterotrophs.
There are five major chlorophylls: a, b, c, d and e related molecule found in prokaryotes called bacteriochlorophyll. Chlorophyll a and
chlorophyll b are found in higher plant chloroplasts.
Chlorophyll a this pigment is found in all higher plants. It is the most vital pigment used in photosynthesis. Some
algae, cyanobacteria and anaerobic phototrophs also show the presence of chlorophyll a. It has a strong rate of absorption. It absorbs
violet-blue as well as orange-red light and reflects blue-green light.
Chlorophyll b this type of chlorophyll is seen in green algae and plants. It is an accessory pigment that aids chlorophyll a. This pigment
usually absorbs the orange-red light and reflects a yellow-green color.
Chlorophyll c this pigment is primarily seen in marine algae. Brown algae, Diatoms and Dinoflagellates show the presence of
chlorophyll c.
Chlorophyll d is present only in red algae and cyanobacteria. These organisms live in deep water, and thus use red light for
photosynthesis.
Chlorophyll e this is a rare pigment that is found in some golden algae. Chlorophyll e has been identified from the Xanthophytes
(yellow-green algae).
Chlorophyll f this pigment was recently found and is known to absorb infrared light. It can absorb light of a wavelength that is over the
visible range. 
Carotenoids are much larger group of pigments. The carotenoids found in fruit-such as the red tomato (lycopene), the yellow of corn
seeds (zeaxanthin), the orange of an orange peel (B-carotene) – are used as advertisements to attract seed dispersers. In
photosynthesis, carotenoids function as photosynthetic pigments that are very efficient molecules for the disposal of excess energy.
These carotenoids reside in the thylakoid membrane, absorb excess energy, and safely dissipate that energy as heat. Each type of
pigment can be identified by the specific pattern of wavelength it absorbs from the visible light, which is the absorption spectrum. The
graph shows the absorption of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and other types of carotenoid pigments.
Chlorophyll a absorbs wavelengths from either end of the visible spectrum (blue and red), but not green. Because green is reflected or
transmitted, chlorophyll appears green. Carotenoids absorb in the short wavelength blue region, and reflect the long yellow, red, and
orange wavelengths.
Many photosynthetic organisms have a mixture of pigments; using them, the organism can absorb energy from a wider range of
wavelengths.
An instrument called spectrophotometer can differentiate which wavelengths of light a substance can absorb. Spectrophotometers
measure transmitted light and compute from it the absorption.