Structural Geology Laboratory

surface of the Earth. Various colors and

EXERCISE 1. symbols are used to represent these rocks
UNDERSTANDING MAPS: and their spatial distribution within the
contained area. These maps are essential
TOPOGRAHIC MAP IN for uses in mineral exploration, resource
estimation, and hazard assessment.
FOCUS
Map Projection
Objectives
−To be familiarized with the different map aspects and Map making on a global scale usuallt requires
features that a spherical surface be seen on a flat paper.
−To know the uses of maps The only true accurate map is a globe. All other
maps have inherent distortions
By definition, a map is a visual representation of an
area and the spatial distribution or locations of Goode’s homolosine projection
objects within that area. A map represents a portion
of the Earth’s surface. For geology students, maps
are important for determining location and plotting
geologic data such as lithologies and geologic
structures. To make best use of different kinds of
maps, one must know how to identify and understand
the parts of a map before one can interpret the data
represented in it.

Types of Maps
As there are numerous representations of the
Earth’s surface, depending on what particular
aspect you want to present, there are also
numerous types of maps corresponding to the
data shown on the map. Here are just some of
the types of maps commonly used by people as
well as earth scientists.
The obvious problem with this projection is that adjacent
areas in some parts of the world can be decpited as being
widely spaced. Note that the meridians ofm longitude
coverge to points, thus not distorting the shapes and
sizes of high-latitude areas. Areas on this map are equal.
Mercator projection
Shapes are similar to globe, but areas are distorted,
appearing wider as you move away from the equator

1. Planimetric Map – This kind of map is the

simplest and most common type of map. It
contains the location of important
geographic and cultural features such as
towns, cities, rivers, and roads.
2. Political Map – This map shows political
boundaries surrounding countries, cities,
and states.
3. Topographic Map – (SEE SUCCEEDING
DISCUSSION)
4. Bathymetric Map – Similar to a
topographic map, bathymetric maps utilize
contour lines, not to represent elevation,
but depth. Bathymetric maps represent the
depth, or elevations if you’re viewing it Hoelzel projection
from the sea floor, at the bottom of a body The meridians of longitude converge to a line shorter
of water. Features such as trenches, ridges, than the equator but still not a point. Thus, polar areas
and underwater plateaus can be viewed are more distorted than the equatorial areas, but not as
using bathymetric maps. much as in Mercator projection. \
5. Geologic Map – A geologic map shows the
distribution of rock types (also called
“lithologies”) as they are seen on the

Latitude and longitude
By international agreement the earth's surface is divided
by a series of east-west and north-south lines to form a
grid. Each grid has a particular value designated in terms
of angles. We use the intersection of the equator
(imaginary line running around the center of the planet)
and prime meridian (imaginary line connecting the poles
and intersecting Greenwich, England) as the origin. So
we can describe each surface position in degrees north or
south of the equator (90 north and south are the
maximums) and degrees east or west of the prime
meridian (180 east and west are the maximums).
Latitude is measured from the equator to 90 N at the
north pole and 90 S at the south pole. • Meridians (lines
of longitude) are north-south lines that run from pole to
pole. Meridians are measured east and west of the prime
meridian to 180, which is the International date line.
Most maps are based on latitude and longitude: their east
and west boundaries are meridians and their north and
south boundaries are parallels.
Entering locations into Google
Earth/Oceans –
To go to a particular location within Google Earth, enter
latitude and longitude as follows: • Latitude first,
Longitude second. • Put spaces between degrees,
seconds, minutes (and don’t include the units) • Positive
latitudes are North, Negative are South • Positive
longitudes are East, Negative are West • Example: 46°
23’ 15” N, 122° 22’ 15” W is entered as: 46 23 15 -122
22 15 • If you enter decimals, Google Earth/Oceans
interprets it as a fraction of a degree. Example: 23.5 =
23° 30’ 00” To find the latitude and longitude of a
particular location in Google Earth/Oceans, you can drop
a pin and look at its properties, or you can hold the
cursor over the location.
Orientation
All NAMRIA-Philippines topographic maps and most
other maps are made with north pointing to the top of
the sheet. True north is the direction to the north
geographic pole. The north-seeking end of a compass
needle is attracted to Earth’s north geomagnetic pole,
which is located at Latitude: 82° 17' 60" N Longitude:
113° 24' 0" W as of Jan. 2011. Each topographic map
has two north arrows in the lower margin, indicating the
directions of both true north and magnetic north. The
angular difference between these two directions is called
the magnetic declination.
TOPOGRAPHIC MAP
A topographic map is a graphical representation of the
three dimensional shape of the earth’s surface. It
represents the Earth’s surface not just in horizontal
distances, but in vertical distances as well. Elevation, or
vertical distance, is depicted as contour lines, which are
continuous lines that connect points of equal elevation
above or below a reference plane on the Earth’s surface.
The reference plane, or datum, from which elevations
are measured for topographic maps, is mean (average)
sea level. The datum is usually declared in the lower
central margin of the map (ex. Datum = mean sea level).
Contour lines and contour interval
easiest method to use is linear interpolation, wherein it
The contour interval (CI) defines the vertical
difference in elevation or depth between nearby contour
lines, and is constant for a given topographic map. Thus,
all contour lines are multiples of the contour interval.
Most maps make use of the smallest possible contour to
provide the greatest amount of detail for the surface
being mapped. The contour interval of a topographic
map is usually given in the lower central margin of the
map (ex. Contour interval = 20 m).
Topographic maps that have many contour lines become
too confusing to read, if not for index contours, which
are lines that are printed thicker than the normal contour
line. By convention, index contours are also labeled with
the line elevation. For example, for topographic maps
with contour intervals of 20 m, index contours are
usually drawn at each 100 m. Reference points called
bench marks (BM) are also often present in topographic
maps to represent known points of elevation.
The difference in elevation between two points on a
topographic map is called relief. The total relief is the
difference between the highest and lowest points in the
map, while the local relief refers to the distance in
elevation between two specific points. The relief divided
by the distance between two particular points gives the
slope or gradient between those points.
A topographic map is constructed by measuring
elevations in the field and plotting these using their
corresponding coordinates. Between points of known
measurements, elevations are interpolated (estimated)
and contour lines are drawn to separate elevations
greater or less than the represented value. There are
different interpolation schemes depending on the
assumption of the gradient of the topography. The
is assumed that the gradient between two points
is uniform; that is, the distance between two
points is measured and the units between them
are equally distributed.
Certain rules govern the construction of
contour lines, as enumerated below:
1. Every point on a contour line is of
the same exact elevation.
2. Contour lines always separate
points of higher elevation (uphill)
from points of lower elevation
(downhill). One must determine
which direction on the map is
higher and which is lower, relative
to the contour line in question, by
checking adjacent elevations.
3. Contour lines always close to
form an irregular circle, although
sometimes part of a contour line exceeds
beyond the mapped area, so that you
cannot see the entire circle formed. A
contour line never branches or splits.
4. Steep slopes are shown by closely spaced
contours, while gentle slopes are relatively
wider-spaced. Evenly spaced contour lines
represent a uniform slope.
5. Contour lines never cross, except to show
an overhanging cliff. (To show an
overhanging cliff, the hidden contours are
dashed.) Contour lines can also merge to
form a single line along a vertical cliff face.
6. Hills, mountains and volcanoes are
generally represented by a concentric series
of closed contour lines.
7. A concentric series of closed contours with
hachure marks on the downhill side
represents a closed depression.
8. The Rule of V’s: When contour lines cross
streams or dry stream channels, they form a
“V” that points upstream.
9. Contours that occur on opposite sides of
ridges and valleys are always paired.
The figures show how contour lines repeat when the b. Place the strip of paper with the tick
slope orientation is changed. The upper left figure shows marks along the base of your blank
an example for a ridge, while the upper right example grid, and place a dot above it for each
shows a valley. The two lowermost figures show the corresponding elevation. Smoothly
attitude of contour lines on depressions. connect the dots to complete the
topographic profile (this line should
Scale not make angular bends or “bounce
off” a horizontal grid line; it should be
A means of showing the relationship between the a smoothly curving line that reflects
size and object feature indicated on a map and the actual the relief of the land surface along the
size of the object on the ground is the scale. Scale is line of section).
expressed as ratio such as 1:50,000 (i.e. I unit on the
map is equal to 50,000 units on the ground) and as scale
bars marked in meters or kilometers as in the
Philippines.

Topographic Profiles

A topographic map provides a bird’s eye view of an

area, showing features and relief by means of symbols
and contour lines. But occasionally, a more pictorial
representation is useful. A topographic profile is a cross
section that shows the elevations and slopes along a
given line.

Topographic profiles can be easily constructed using

the following steps (refer to Figure):
1. On the topographic map, draw a section
line along which the profile is to be drawn.
Label the section line A-A’. Be sure that
the line intersects all the features (e.g.,
ridges, valleys, streams) that you wish the
profile to represent.
2. On a strip of paper placed along section
line A-A’, make tick marks at each place Construction of a topographic profile.
where a contour line or feature intersects
the section line, and note the elevation at The vertical scale of the profile will vary greatly,
the tick marks. Also note the location and depending on how you draw your grid. If the vertical
elevation of points A and A’. scale is arbitrarily selected, it may somewhat be
3. Draw the profile: stretched or shrunk compared to what the profile looks
a. On a separate sheet of paper, draw a like in real life. To get the real profile, the vertical scale
series of equally spaced parallel lines must be equivalent to the horizontal scale. If, for
that are the same length as the section example, the horizontal scale is 1:50,000 (1 cm = 500
line (graphing paper or cross-section m), then the vertical scale must be drawn using the same
paper can be used). A horizontal line relationship. Otherwise, a difference in horizontal and
on this sheet represents a constant vertical scales causes a vertical exaggeration (VE). This
elevation, and therefore corresponds to is almost always necessary in the construction of a
a contour line. The total number of readable profile, because without vertical exaggeration,
horizontal lines that you need, and the profile may be so shallow that only the highest peaks
their elevations, will depend on the are visible).
total relief along the section line, and
on whether you make the space The vertical exaggeration can be calculated by
between the lines equal to the contour dividing the fractional vertical scale by the fractional
interval, or to multiples of it (vertical horizontal scale:
exaggeration, see explanation
following this discussion). Label your
lines so that the highest and lowest
elevations along the section line will
be within the grid.
 The value of the vertical exaggeration (5, in the
example; sometimes written as 5x) indicates that the
relief shown on the profile is 5 times greater than the
true relief. This makes the slopes on the profile 5 times
steeper than the corresponding slopes in “real life.”
The given relationship can also be used to determine
the vertical scale of a given profile where both the
vertical exaggeration and horizontal scale are known:
Name: _____________________ Student No:________________

TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS
YOUR TASK:

PART 1: Creating a topographic map.

In this section of the lab, you get to build your own topographic map. The attached figure (Figure 1) shows a
landscape, at this point depicting nothing but the streams in the area and a series of points for which elevations
have been surveyed, in meters. Draw in the contour lines, using a 20 meter contour interval and showing all
contours from 60 m to 200 m. Before you do, make sure to review the rules governing contour lines above.
Make index contour lines for any contour that is an even multiple of 100. This line should be heavier than the
other contour lines and you should leave some white space along it in one or two places to write the index
elevation right in line. Use the following cues to complete the topographic map.

1. Find the highest point on the map (_____m) and the lowest (_____m). This will help you get your
bearings on the general lay of the land.
2. Figure out the direction of stream flow. You can figure this out from the elevations given for points near
the streams and also by observing the intersections between streams (where tributaries come together
to form a larger stream). They intersect in a “V” pattern, and the apex of the “V” points downstream.
3. Start drawing in the lowest elevation contour line first and then do the next higher one and so on. Draw
the lines in very lightly in pencil at first, as you will probably change your mind a few times as you get
more familiar with the process. Darken them in or do them in ink only when you are totally sure you “got
it” and are happy with your lines’ placement.
4. To do the lines, you need to interpolate (“eyeball”) the position of points in areas where there are no
points of known elevation. The landscape is a continuous surface, and you can assume very crudely
that a contour elevation will be located proportionally to its value between two points of known
elevation. In other words, if you’re trying to draw in the 160 m contour line and you have a point with a
value of 170 m on one side and another marked 155 m on the other, you can assume that the contour
elevation of 160 is probably about one third of the way between the 155 m point and the 170 m point
(because 160 is one third of the way between the two numbers).
5. Remember that, whenever contour lines cross streams, you have to stretch the contour
line upstream to form a “V,” and the apex of the “V” has to 6oincide exactly with the stream itself.
6. To help you get started, a 100 m contour line has been created. You’ll find that you can make its
neighbors kind of parallel it, and that works until you get to the part of the landscape where there are
hills and you have to start creating concentric circles around them.
 FIGURE 1

PART 2. Constructing a topographic profile/cross section.

Refer to Figure 2. Draw a map using a contour interval of 500 meters. Next, construct a topographic profile
of the region, using the points labeled A and A’. Apply a vertical exaggeration of 1.5X.