CHAPTER 5 TYPICAL AND ATYPICAL
DEVELOPMENT AMONG CHILDREN
Introduction
Have you ever wondered how children
develop? Maybe at one time you have your
development with that of a sibling or cousin of yours. If
this is the case, you interested in child development
which is the pattern of growth, change, and stability
that occurs from conception up until adolescence.
Children do not grow at the same rate at the same
time. This also goes for the students in an inclusive
classroom. Knowing their capabilities can help you
better as their teacher. Find out more about their
development as this chapter focuses on the typical and
atypical development among children from infancy.
Objectives:
● Identify typical and atypical milestone in the
various stages of child development; and
● Differentiate typical and atypical development
of children in various stages of their
development.
I. CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND ITS
IMPORTANCE
To ensure that a child meets his/her
developmental milestone, it is crucial to observe and
monitor his/her development. The milestone or
developmental skills that need to be mastered usually
at the same rate act a guide for ideal development. It is
done by checking the progress of a child based on his
or her age to see if the child is developing within
expectation. For others, checking the milestones can
help detect any difficulties at a particular stage.
Intervention can then be given which can help in the
development of a child. Usually, it is the parents,
teachers and pediatricians who use the checklist.
II. CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES
During the early 20th century, interest in child
development began, specifically, that which focused on
detecting abnormalities. Certain theories were
discovered based on this interest to appreciate the
growth that children experience from birth to
adolescence.
1. Psychosocial Development Theory
of Erik Erikson
This is an eight-stage theory
that describes the changes one goes
through in a lifetime. The main focus
of Erikson’s theory is the conflicts or
crises one experiences through social
interaction. Starting from birth, each
person is faced with a conflict that
needs to be resolved since it has an
impact on the function of the
succeeding stages. If one successfully
overcomes the crisis of each stage, a
psychological virtue emerges.
2. Cognitive Developmental Theory of
Jean Piaget
This theory is concerned with
the thought processes of a person and
how they used to understand and
interact with the environment. Piaget’s
theory focuses on children’s
intellectual development and has four
stages.
A. Sensorimotor Stage – From birth to two
years old, a child’s knowledge is limited to his
or her use the senses.
B. Preoperational Stage – From two to six years
old, a child learns through the use of language.
However, mental manipulation of information
does not take place yet.
C. Concrete Operational Stage – From 7 to 11
years old, a child begins to think logically and
have better understanding of mental
operations. However, abstract concepts are
still difficult to understand.
D. Formal Operational Stage – From 12 years
old to adulthood, a person has the ability to
think in abstract concepts.
3. Sociocultural Theory of Lev
Vygotsky
This theory believes that
children learn actively through hands-
on experiences. Vygotsky highlights
the importance of other people such
as parents, caregivers, and peers in
the development of children. Culture
plays an integral role as well.
Interaction with others allows learning
to be integrated in the child’s
understanding of the world. Also,
included in the theory is the zone of
proximal development, which is the
portion in between what one can do on
his or her own and with help. Children
best learn when they are in this zone.
 4. Social Learning Theory of Albert V. STAGES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT
Bandura
This theory believes that Stages, along with age are used as
learning takes place through ranges to mark significant periods in a human
observation and modeling. As a child development timeline. In each stage, growth
observes the actions of the people in and development occur in the four domains
his or her environment, new mentioned above.
information is acquired and new skills The stages are as follows:
are developed. A. Infancy (birth to 2 years)
B. Early Childhood (3 to 8 years)
C. Middle Childhood (9 to 11 years)
III. TYPICAL AND ATYPICAL DEVELOPMENT D. Adolescence (12 to 18 years)
The development of a child usually follows a
predictable pattern. There are certain skills and  Infancy (birth to 2 years)
abilities that are observed to gauge a child’s
development are called developmental milestones. is a critical stage in child development
Examples of these sitting, babbling, and following because growth is rapid. Many believe that this
directions. However, each child is unique. With this, stage is the most important stage in one’s life
not all reach a milestone at the same time, thus the since the changes that occur in infancy will
terms typical and atypical development. Let us define affect the later stages of development. This
the two terms first before we look further into what stage is also known as the building block for
makes a child’s development typical and atypical. the succeeding stages in the attainment of
crucial knowledge, skills and behaviors, Let us
The term typical development refers to the look at the chart below to see the typical and
normal progression where children grow by acquiring atypical developmental milestones in the
knowledge, skills, and behaviors called developmental infancy stage.
milestone a certain time frame.
Atypical development is a term used when Table S.1. Typical and atypical development during
development does not follow the normal course. More infancy
so, a child is developing atypically when he/she
reaches a milestone earlier or later than other children
his/her age.
There is no clear way to identify if a child is DOMAINS TYPICAL ATYPICAL
developing typically or atypically. However, there are
three commonly accepted principles of child Physical Holds head Does not hold
development that one should look into. The principles without support head up
are as follows:
1. Rate of development differs among children Pushes legs down Does not put
2. Development occurs in a relatively orderly when feet are on weight on legs
process flat surface
3. Development takes place gradually. Cannot sit without
Rolls over support
IV. DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT
Sits without Does not walk
The developmental milestones are categorized support steadily
into four domains namely, physical, social and
emotional, language, and cognitive. Crawls
The physical domain refers to the
development of physical changes such as size and Walks
strength. The development occurs in both gross and
fine motor skills. The development of the senses and Begins to run
their uses are also part of the physical domain which is
influenced by illness and nutrition. Socio- Smiles at people Does not smile
A child’s experience, expression, and emotional
management of emotions along with the ability to Likes to play Shows no
establish positive relationships with others refer to the affection
social-emotional domain. This includes both the Shy or afraid of
intrapersonal and interpersonal processes that take strangers Does not
place in a child. recognize familiar
‘The language domain refers to the process of Cries when people
acquiring language in a consistent order without the caregiver leaves
need for explicit teaching from the environment.
Construction of thought process which Copies others
includes remembering, problem solving, and decision
making refers to the cognitive domain. Shows
 independence Can use toilet on
his/her own
Language Makes cooing and Does not coo and
babbling sounds babble Socio- Shows affection Does not want
emotional to play with
Responds to own Does not say a Takes turns in others
name single word games
Usually
Makes different Does not speak in Cooperates with withdrawn
sounds sentences other children

Responds to
simple requests Shows concern and
sympathy
Tries to say words
Shows more
Says sentences independence

Cognitive Watches things as Does not watch Language Follows two to three Has unclear
they move things as they step instructions speech
move
Can't tell stories
Uses eyes and Does not know Uses pronouns articulately
hands together what to do with
common objects Tells and retell
Recognizes stories
people at a
distance Speaks clearly

Transfers object Cognitive Plays make-believe Does not play

from one hand to with simple toys
another Works with simple or make-believe
toys
Loses skills
Explores things in Names colors and once had
various ways numbers

Uses things Draws a person

correctly (eats
with spoon) Names letters

Finds hidden Shows development

things of mental skills

 Middle Childhood (9 to 11 years)

is a stage that brings various changes
 Early Childhood (3 to 8 years old) in a child’s life, independence is a
is a period of life with slow growth and characteristic that children in this stage
rapid development. Most psychologist label asserts. Developing friendships is another
this stage as the exploratory and questioning milestone that is evident in this stage. Children
stag since the children enjoy discovering new should be given more tasks to develop their
things in their surroundings. Interactions with sense of responsibility to further develop their
family and the people around them will help growing independence.
shape their development (see table 5.2)
DOMAINS TYPICAL ATYPICAL
DOMAINS TYPICAL ATYPICAL
Physical Growth spurt may Has limited
Physical Runs well Falls down often take place mobility

Climbs easily Needs help in Becomes clumsy

physical
Hops and stands on activities Increased in appetite
one foot

Socio- Forms stronger Has difficulty

emotional friendships making and about the future
keeping friends
Becomes aware of
Behaviors that are atypical should be observed
body changes due to
keenly and recorded carefully. At times, the recorded
puberty
observations might just be isolated events with no
significant impact on later development. However, they
Shows more concern
might also be early warning signs of needs. The
about looks
observed patterns will be useful to confirm if there is
such a need.
May feel stressed
about school work
CHAPTER 6 LEARNERS WITH ADDITIONAL
Language Continues to speak Has unclear
NEEDS
clearly speech
Children learn every day. This happens in
various settings and different ways. Learning at times
Expresses one's Can't tell stories
happens intentionally and with great effort while there
thought articulately articulately
are situations where it happens almost effortlessly.
Cognitive Increased attention Experiences This chapter focuses on learners with additional needs,
span problems with highlighting the definition, identification, learning
comprehension characteristics, and general education adaptations.
Sees the view of and attention
other people more Objectives:
clearly Unable to keep At the end of the chapter, you will be able to:
up with the ● identify the various additional needs learners
school's might have;
curriculum ● differentiate the additional needs from one
another;
● recognize the characteristics of learners with
 Adolescence (12 to 18 years) additional needs;
is the period where puberty begins. By ● discuss what marginalization means; and
the end of this stage, most will have completed ● identify different marginalized groups.
puberty. The child is now called a teen during
this stage. The teen is becoming more vocal I. LEARNERS WHO ARE GIFTED AND
about his/ her opinions due to the development TALENTED
of a unique personality. Peer pressure, A. Definition
however, will be present, which is why
guidance from parents and guardians is very Learners who are gifted and talented are
much needed. students with higher abilities than average and are
often referred to as gifted students. This group refers
DOMAINS TYPICAL ATYPICAL to students whose talents, abilities, and potentials are
developmentally advanced. They require special
Physical Reaches adult Limited mobility provisions to meet their educational needs, thus
weight and height presenting a unique challenge to teachers. They often
finish tasks ahead and might ask for more creative
Socio- Becomes Has limited peer tasks or exercises. Exciting and energizing activities
emotional interested in connections should be provided to continuously keep them
opposite sex motivated. This group includes students with
May exhibit exceptional abilities from all socio-economic, ethnic,
Begins conflict with inappropriate and cultural populations. What is the difference then
parents behavior in between gifted and talented? The term giftedness
public refers to students with extraordinary abilities in various
Shows more academic areas. However, talent focuses on students
independence from with extraordinary abilities in a specific area.
parents
There is also another way to look into
Language Continues to speak Has unclear giftedness which is conceptualized by Gardner in
clearly speech 1993. According to him, intelligence is multifaceted.
The following intelligences are seen in Figure 6.1.
Expresses one's Can't tell stories
thought articulately articulately

Cognitive Acquires and uses Is below grade

defined work habits level

Shows concern

B. Identification
To identify gifted and talented students, one must do
the following:
● Locate the student's domain of giftedness
● Describe the student's level of giftedness
● Describe the student's fields of talent
C. Learning Characteristics
Not all learners will exhibit the learning
characteristics listed below. However, these are the
common manifestations of gifted and talented learners.
One might possess a combination of characteristics in
varying degrees and amounts.
● High level of intellectual curiosity
● Reads actively
● High degree of task commitment
● Keen power of observation
● Highly verbal
● Gets bored easily
● Can retain and recall information
● Excited about learning new concepts
● Independence in learning
● Good comprehension of complex contexts
● Strong, well-developed imagination
● Looks for new ways to do things
● Often gives uncommon responses to common
questions
D. General Educational Adaptations
Learners who are gifted and talented usually get
bored since they have mastered the concepts taught in
classes. One thing that is common among gifted
students is that they are very inquisitive. Fulfilling their
instructional needs may be a challenging task. These
are some suggested strategies for teaching gifted
students:
o Teachers may give enrichment exercises that
will allow learners to study the same topic at a
more advanced level.
o Acceleration can let students who are gifted
and talented can move at their own pace thus
resulting at times to in completing two grade
levels in one school year.
o Open-ended activities with no right or wrong
answers can be provided, emphasizing on
divergent thinking wherein there are more
possibilities than pre-determined answers.
o Leadership roles can be given to gifted
students since studies have shown that gifted
students are often socially immature.
o Extensive reading on subjects of their own
interest may be coordinated with the school
librarian to further broaden their knowledge.
o Long-term activities may be provided, that will
give the gifted students an opportunity to be
engaged for an extended period of time.
II. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY SEEING
A. Definition
Students in the classroom will exhibit different
levels of clarity of eyesight or visual acuity. There may
be some students with hampered or restricted vision.
Learners with difficulty seeing are those with issues
regarding sight that interfere with academics. The
definition from Individuals with Disabilities Education
Act (IDEA) states that "an impairment in vision that,
even with correction, adversely affects a child's
educational performance, which includes both partial
sight and blindness." These students may need to
have their eyesight corrected by wearing glasses or
other optical devices.
B. Identification
Learners with difficulty seeing often have
physical signs, such as crossed eyes, squinting, and
eyes that turn outwards. They may also be clumsy,
usually bumping into objects which causes them to fall
down. They like to sit near the instructional materials or
at times would stand up and go near the visual aids.
Learners with difficulty seeing may also show
poor eye-hand coordination. This can be seen in their
handwriting or poor performance in sporting activities.
Another indication is poor academic performance as
these students might have difficulty reading as well as
writing.
C. Learning Characteristics
Good visual ability is critical in learning. Most
school lessons are done through blackboard writing,
presentations, or handouts, in most major subjects.
Visual impairments, whether mild, moderate, or
severe, affect the student's ability to participate in
normal classroom activities. In the past, students who
are visually impaired are placed in special institutions.
Nowadays, most are enrolled with other children who
are not visually impaired.
Learners with difficulty seeing have restricted
ways to learn incidentally from their surroundings since
most of them learn through visual clues. Because of
this, the other senses are used to acquire knowledge.
Due to the limited ability to explore the environment,
low motivation to discover is present.
D. General Educational Adaptations
Modification in teaching is needed to
accommodate students with difficulty seeing. The
following strategies may be considered:
o If the use of books is part of your
lesson, students with difficulty seeing
 should be informed ahead of time so
that they can be ordered in braille or in
an audio recorded format.
o Portions of textbooks and other printed
materials may be recorded so that
visually-impaired students can listen
instead of focusing on the visual
presentation.
o All words written on the board should
be read clearly.
o Students with difficulty seeing should
be seated near the board so that they
can easily move close to the
instructional materials used during the
lesson.
o A buddy can be assigned to a student
with difficulty seeing as needed. This
can be crucial to assist in the mobility
of the student such as going to the
other places in school during the day.
o Students with difficulty seeing might
need more time to complete a task or
homework. This might be on a case to
case basis.
o Teachers should be aware of
terminology that would require visual
acuity (such as over there or like this
one) which the impaired student may
not possess.
o Teachers should monitor the students
closely to know who needs extra time
in completing tasks.
III. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY
HEARING
A. Definition
This refers to students with an issue regarding
hearing that interferes with academics. The definition
from Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
defines it as "an impairment in hearing, whether
permanent or fluctuating, that adversely affects a
child's educational performance but is not included
under the definition of 'deafness". Deafness is
considered when hearing loss is above 90 decibels. A
hearing loss below 90 decibels is called hearing
impairment.
The main challenge of hearing-impaired
students is communication since most of them have
varying ways of communicating. The factors affecting
the development of communication skills include
intelligence, personality, the degree and nature of
deafness and residual hearing, family environment,
and the age of onset. The latter plays the most crucial
role in the development of language as those who
have hearing loss present at birth are more functionally
disabled than those who lose hearing after language
and speech development.
B. Identification
To identify learners with difficulty hearing, observe a
student and see if he/she does the following items
below.
 Speaking loudly
 Positioning ear toward the direction of the one
speaking
 Asking for information to be repeated again
and again
 Delayed development of speech Watching the
face of the speaker intently
 Favoring one ear
 Not responding when called
 Has difficulty following directions
 Does not mind loud noises
 Leaning close to the source of sounds
C. Learning Characteristics
Since much of learning is acquired through
hearing, students with hearing problems have
deficiencies in language and in their experiences.
Since they may miss out on daily conversations, they
may miss crucial information that non-hearing-impaired
students learn incidentally. Students may overcome
these problems by investing time, energy, and
combined effort by both parents and educators.
Most learners with difficulty hearing use
various methods of communication. The most common
is the use of hearing aids, combined with lip-reading.
These students are referred to as "oral" since they
can communicate thru speech as opposed to sign
language. They might have delayed communication
skills since the development of vocabulary is slower.
They understand concepts when the sentence
structure is simpler. Interacting with students can be a
challenge so they prefer to work on their own. Some
hearing-impaired students use note-takers in class
since it is difficult to lip- read and take notes
simultaneously.
D. General Educational Adaptations
There is an assumption that the only adjustment for
hearing impaired students is to make all instructional
materials and techniques in written format. These are
other ways to adapt to hearing-impaired students:
o Teachers should help students with difficulty
hearing to use the residual hearing they may
have.
o Teachers should help students develop the
ability for speech reading or watching others'
lips, mouth, and expressions.
o Teachers should be mindful to face the class
at all times when presenting information while
ensuring that the students with difficulty
hearing sit near them.
o Exaggerating the pronunciation of words
should not be done for it just makes it difficult
for the student with difficulty hearing.
o Directions, as well as important parts of the
lesson, should always be written on the board.
o Written or pictorial directions instead of verbal
directions may be given.
o Steps to an activity may be physically acted
out instead of verbally given.
 o A variety of multi-sensory activities should be
given to allow the' students to focus on their
learning strengths.
o Teachers should be more patient when waiting
to hear a response from a hearing-impaired
student which may take longer than usual.
IV. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY
COMMUNICATING
Some learners are observed to have difficulty
communicating, either verbally expressing their ideas
and needs and/or in understanding what others are
saying. Some may have had a clinical diagnosis of a
disability while others display developmental delays
and difficulty in the speech and language domain. To
have a clearer understanding of students who have
difficulty communicating, we will begin with a definition
of communication and its accompanying concepts:
how learners with communications difficulties are
identified, their learning characteristics, and ways how
to help them manage and become successful in an
inclusive setting.
A. Definition: Types of Communication
Impairments and Disorders
Communication is the interactive exchange of
information, ideas, feelings, needs, and desires
between and among people (Heward, 2013).
Communication is used to serve several functions,
particularly to narrate, explain, inform, request (mand),
and express feelings and opinions.
c) Syntax
Syntax is the system of rules governing the
meaningful arrangement of words, which also include
grammar rules. For instance, the sentence, Ready get
for the exam does not make sense until arranged in
the right sequence as Get ready for the exam.
d) Semantics
Semantics refers to the meanings associated with
words and combination of words in a language. This
also includes vocabulary, concept development,
connotative meanings of words, and categories.
e) Pragmatics
Pragmatics revolves around the social use of
language, knowing what, when, and how to
communicate and use language in specific context.
There are three kinds of pragmatics skills:
(1) using language for different purposes (e.g.,
narrating, explaining, requesting, etc.),
(2) changing language according to the context
(e.g., talking to a peer as compared to speaking to a
well-respected professor). and
(3) following rules for conversations and story-
telling (eg, taking turns, rephrasing when unclear, how
to use facial expressions and eye contact, etc.)
(American Speech- Language Hearing Association,
2011 cited in Heward, 2013).
Knowing these terms is necessary to understand
the different disabilities that are associated with
communication disorders, namely Speech Impairments
and Language Disorders.

How is speech different from language? Speech Impairments are communication

disorders such as stuttering, impaired articulation, and
Speech is the expression of language with language or voice impairment. Such disorders are
sounds, or oral production. Speech is produced significant enough that they can adversely affect a
through precise physiological and neuromuscular student's academic performance. There are four basic
coordination: (1) respiration (act of breathing), (2) types of speech impairments: articulation,
phonation (production of sound by the larynx and phonological, fluency, and voice disorder (see Table
vocal folds), and (3) articulation (use of lips, tongue, 6.2).
teeth, and hard and soft palates to speak).
Speech Description Example
Language is used for communication, a Impairment
formalized code used by a group. of people to
communicate with one another, that is primarily Articulation A child is unable "I want a blue
arbitrary (Heward, 2013). People decide on symbols, Disorder to produce a lollipop."
their corresponding meaning, and rules that make up a given sound
language. There are five dimensions of language physically. Severe "I want a boo
that describe its form (i.e., phonology, morphology, articulation wowipop."
syntax, content, and use (pragmatics). disorder may
render a child's "Can I get
a) Phonology speech three
Phonology refers to the sound system of a unintelligible. bananas?"
language. A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound Examples are
within a language. For instance, the word dog is made substitutions, "An I et tee
up of three phonemes, namely /d/-/o/-/g/ while beans omissions, nanas?"
has four phonemes, /b/-/ea/-/n/-/s/. distortions, and
additions of
b) Morphology speech sounds.
Morphology of a language refers to the smallest
unit of language that has meaning and which are used Phonological A child produces "That pie is
to combine words. Sounds, syllables, or whole words Disorder multiple patterns good."
are examples of morphemes. of sound errors
 On the other hand, a receptive language
with obvious "Cat bye is
disorder interferes with the understanding of
impairment of tood."
language. A child may have difficulty understanding
intelligibility.
spoken sentences or following the directions a teacher
There is also
gives. Some children may be found to have a
noted inconsistent
combination of receptive and expressive language
misarticulation of
disorder.
sounds (Le.,
sometimes a child
At this point, it is also essential to mention that
is able to
students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) also
articulate it but not
display speech and language difficulties. ASD is an
in other words).
umbrella term for related disorders that affect social
development and communication (Kirk et al. 2015).
Fluency Difficulties with Blocks:
Students with ASD display a triad of impairments in
Disorder the rhythm and "I want a...
social relationships, social communication, and social
timing of speech. banana."
understanding. Other disorders that are subsumed
Stuttering is an (blocks)
under ASD are Rett Syndrome, Pervasive
example marked
Developmental Disorder, and Asperger's
by rapid-fire Prolongations
Syndrome. Oftentimes, students with ASD display
repetitions of "I waaaant a
deficits in the pragmatic use of language that impact
consonant or bbbanana."
their social relationships.
vowel sounds
especially at the Repetitions
B. Identification
beginning of "I want a ba-
Communication difficulty is oftentimes one of
words, ba-ba-
the most common red flags observed by family
prolongations, banana."
members, daycare workers, and early childhood
hesitations,
teachers. Noted absence, delays, and difficulties in
interjections, and
speech and/or language often prompt family members
complete verbal
to consult their general pediatrician who then makes
blocks (Ramig &
referrals to developmental pediatricians and other
Shames, 2006
specialists.
cited in Gargiulo
To screen children with communication
2012).
difficulties, early childhood professionals use
questionnaires and developmental checklists to
Voice Problems with the Phonation
determine the severity of the delay as compared with
Disorder quality or use of disorder
typical language development. Upon screening, a child
one's voice (breathiness,
may receive educational supports and
resulting from hoarseness)
accommodations to help address the delay. If the
disorders of the
difficulty is pronounced, referrals can already be made
larynx. Voice may Hypernasality
to developmental pediatrician and a speech and
be excessively
language pathologist. At times, referrals are also made
hoarse, breathy, Hyponasality
to an occupational therapist if speech difficulty is
or too high-
resulting from motor problems.
pitched.
How do specialists determine a speech and/or
language problem? A comprehensive speech and
Language Disorders involve problems in one language evaluation to determine the presence of a
or more of the five components of language and are communication disorder involves several components
often classified as expressive or receptive. Language (Heward 2013).
disorders are characterized by persistent difficulties in
acquiring use of language that result from deficits in ● Case history and physical examination.
comprehension that include reduced vocabulary, Assessment always begins with the case
limited sentence structure, and impairments in history that provides the specialist the
discourse, that limit a child's functioning (American necessary background about the child's birth
Psychiatric Association 2013). To receive a diagnosis and developmental history, health record,
of language disorder, the difficulties must not be due to achievement test scores, and adjustment in
an accompanying medical or neurological condition school. The specialist examines the child's
and other developmental disability (ie., intellectual Oral-Peripheral Mechanism which includes the
disability or global developmental delay). mouth, noting irregularities in the tongue, lips,
teeth, palate, or other structures that may
There are different types of language disorder- affect speech production.
expressive, receptive, and a combination of the two.
An expressive language disorder interferes ● Hearing. Hearing is tested to determine
with the production of language. A child may have very whether an organic hearing problem is the
limited vocabulary that impacts communications skills cause of the suspected communication
or misuses words and phrases in sentences. disorder, as discussed in the previous section.
 Thus, hearing impairment needs to be treated
to develop speech and language skills.
● Articulation. A child's articulation skills are
assessed, which includes identifying speech
errors (see Table 6.2).
● Phonological awareness and processing.
Phonological awareness and processing skills
provide the foundation for beginning to read in
young children (Adams 2013). Children with
difficulties in processing sounds in language
as well as in hearing, segmenting, and
identifying phonemes in words may experience
problems with expressive and receptive
spoken language as well as in learning how to
read.
● Overall language development and
vocabulary. Formal tests may be used to
measure a child's overall language
development and vocabulary as these affect
how well a child is able to understand and use
language in spontaneous speech and in
academic settings. Assessment of language
function. Language is used to serve several
functions such as to request, name, imitate,
ask, and converse among others. B. F.
Skinner (Sundberg 2007 cited in Heward
2013), emphasized how language is used
rather than the structure and form of language.
● Language samples and observation in
natural settings. Language difficulties may
also be identified through play-based,
authentic assessment where a specialist plays
with a child during which spontaneous speech
and verbalizations can be elicited.
Observations in natural settings, such as a
child's home or school, allows the specialist to
sample the child's language in daily activities
and observe parent and child interaction and
communication as part of holistic assessment.
These are used to supplement assessment
information gathered in clinical settings.
Assessments in speech, language, and
communication must take into consideration the
student's cultural and language context, particularly for
children growing up in bilingual environments. At this
point, it is essential to differentiate English Language
Learners (ELL) from children with diagnosed
communication disorder. ELLs are proficient in their
mother tongue or first language in both expressive and
receptive language tasks; on the other hand, they
display difficulties in understanding and speaking the
second language, such as English. In a multi-cultural
setting, knowing the child's first and second language
aids teachers and language specialists to determine
the possible sources of communication difficulties and
plan for needed supports and interventions. An English
language learner is put at a disadvantage when his/her
first language (i.e.. mother tongue) is not identified and
assessed solely in the second language.
C. Learning Characteristics
Children with communication disorders
frequently struggle across social settings, whether at
home, school, or in other places in the community.
Some of the difficulties that characterize
communication disorders are presented in Table 6.3.
Expressive Language Receptive Language
Difficulties Difficulties
Limited vocabulary Following oral directions
Incorrect grammar or Understanding humor or
syntax figurative language
Expressive repetition of Comprehending
information compound and complex
sentences
Difficulty in formulating
questions Responding to questions
appropriately
Difficulty constructing
sentences
Children with communication disorders may
also experience behavioral difficulties. Because they
struggle in expressing their needs and ideas, some
children resort to inappropriate behaviors out of
frustration or to get the attention of significant others.
For instance, a five-year old child with
expressive language disorder may resort to grabbing
toys and hitting his peers who try to take the toy he
was playing with the day before. While typically
developing children will be able to say, "May I please
borrow?" or "It's my turn now," a child with
communication difficulties may not be able to utter
these accurately and instead resort to using actions
resulting to physical aggression. Thus, it is essential
that teachers and professionals take this into
consideration when working with children with
communication disorders and difficulties. Such feelings
of frustration may even become worse when peers or
adults are unable to understand them (Gregg 2016).
Despite these language difficulties, children
with communication disorders are to have their own
strengths and abilities. This can be best understood
using the theory of multiple intelligences (Gardner
1983 cited in Armstrong 2012), as explained in
Chapter 5, that shows the different strengths and
abilities children have. In Gardner's theory, children
may have abilities in different areas or domains, which
makes it necessary for parents and teachers to provide
opportunities for such strengths and abilities to be
displayed. Children with communication disorders may
have limitations in the linguistic and interpersonal
areas but may possess good spatial, musical, and
bodily-kinesthetic abilities. In other a child may struggle
with communication but can be very good in playing
musical instruments, be very creative and artistic,
and/or excel in sports. As parents, teachers, and
practitioners, knowing a student's strength and
highlighting such abilities in an inclusive classroom is
as important as knowing and understanding his/her
communication disorder.
D. General Educational Adaptations
Different strategies and accommodations may
be used to provide a level playing field for children with
communication difficulties or disorders. This section
discusses the use of Universal Design for Learning
(UDL) and practical tips to be used in the classroom.
1. Universal Design for Learning
Use of UDL in the classroom allows
children to learn information, demonstrate
understanding, and stay engaged in multiple
ways (i.e., multiple means of presentation,
expression, and engagement). Because of
weaknesses resulting from communication
difficulties or disorders, teaching and learning
practices as well as assessment should be
presented in different modalities, such as
visual, auditory, and kinesthetic-motor or
tactile. This means that lessons are presented
through various means, such as using pictures
and/or videos and hands- on experiential
learning, and not solely by passive approaches
such as reading from textbooks, lectures, and
teacher-directed discussions. Presenting
learning activities in this manner gives children
with communication difficulties or disorders the
opportunity to use their strengths and stronger
modalities to compensate for their weaknesses
and a chance to be successful in an inclusive
classroom.
2. Practical Tips for the Classroom
In addition to using UDL, there are
practical tips and techniques that teachers can
use to provide students with communication
difficulties the support they need in order to be
successful. The following list provides practical
suggestions that teachers can use in the
classroom. These suggestions are best
implemented in a classroom that promotes a
supportive and respectful culture, one that
acknowledges and accepts diversity, and
allows accommodations for learners with
difficulties.
___________________________________________
1. Allow the child to sit near the teacher and the
blackboard, away from auditory and visual
distractions such as the window and the door.
2. Get the child's attention before giving
directions. Call the child's name or use a pre-
arranged signal (e.g., tap on the table or hand
on the shoulder) to help the child focus and
listen to the directions.
3. Use pictures, charts, and other visual aids
when explaining content to supplement
auditory information.
4. Speak slowly and clearly without exaggerating
speech.
5. Simplify directions into short steps. Break
down multi-step directions and give each one
at a time instead of just repeating each one.
6. Provide a written copy of directions for a task
so the child can refer back to it at his/her own
pace.
7. Use gestures to clarify information.
8. Use peer-mediated instruction so that peers
without difficulties can serve as language
models and learning buddies.
9. Provide extra time to prepare for oral language
activities. Do not call children with
communication difficulties/disorders to recite
first in class. Call other typically developing
children first to serve as language models.
10. Model correct language forms and use
appropriate wait times (3-5 seconds or more)
to give the child time to think and respond.
11. Explicitly teach vocabulary that is needed in
the learning context to promote better
comprehension.
___________________________________________
Universal Design for Learning, alongside
different accommodations (ie., presentation, response,
setting, and timing) that are appropriate to the child,
and collaboration between the general education
teacher and the special education professional, will all
help ensure that children with communication
difficulties/disorders have a chance to be successful in
an inclusive classroom.
V. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY
MOVING/WALKING
The previous section presented the strengths,
difficulties, limitations, and educational strategies in
working with and helping children with
difficulties/disorders in communication. This section
now focuses on learners with difficulty moving and/or
walking, thus focusing on physical and motor
disabilities, their learning characteristics, abilities, and
the support they need in an inclusive classroom.
A. Definition
When a child has difficulty moving and/or
walking, the physical domain of development is
affected. Examples of physical disability are
developmental coordination disorder or dyspraxia,
stereotypic movement disorder, tics and cerebral
palsy. Each one is defined in the succeeding sections.
Developmental coordination disorder as
described in the DSM-5 (American Psychiatric
Association 2013), refers to significant and persistent
deficits in coordinated motor skills that are significantly
below expected typical development. Difficulties are
manifested as clumsiness (e.g., dropping or bumping
into objects), slowness, and inaccuracy of motor skills
(e.g., catching an object, using scissors or cutlery,
handwriting, riding a bike, or participating in sports).
These observed deficits impact academic performance
and other activities of daily living, which do not result
from intellectual disability, visual impairment, or any
neurological condition affected movement (e.g.,
cerebral palsy). Dyspraxia, used synonymously with
developmental coordination disorder, is a term often
used by occupational therapists.
Another type of motor problem, Stereotypic
movement disorder, is characterized by repetitive,
seemingly driven, and nonfunctional motor behavior
(e.g., hand shaking or waving, body rocking, head
banging, self- biting, hitting own body). These
behaviors interfere with social, academic, or other
activities and may result in self-harm or injury
(American Psychiatric Association 2013). Such motor
behaviors do not result from any other
neurodevelopmental or mental disorder.
Cerebral Palsy refers to a disorder of
movement and posture that results from damage to the
areas of the brain that control motor movement (Kirk et
al. 2015). This damage to the brain can occur before,
during, or after birth due to an accident or injury.
Muscle tone (tension in the muscles) affects voluntary
movement and full control of the muscles that results in
delays in the child's gross and fine motor development.
There are different classifications of cerebral palsy,
depending on which parts of the body are affected and
the nature of the effects on muscle tone and
movement. The term plegia, from the Greek word
meaning "to strike," is used with a prefix that indicate
the location of limb movement (see Table 6.4).
CLASSIFICAT DESCRIPTION  jumping, walking, running, and maintaining balance.
IONS
Monoplegia Only one limb is affected (upper or
lower)
Hemiplegia Two limbs on the same side of the
body affected
Triplegia Three limbs are affected
Quadriplegia All four limbs, both arms and legs,
are affected; movement of the
trunk and face may also be
impaired
Diplegia Legs are affected, less severe
involvement of the arms
Double Impairment primarily involves the
hemiplegia arms, less severe involvement of
the legs
B. Identification
Developmental Coordination Disorder.
Identifying children with motor difficulties begins with
family members and early childhood practitioners.
Upon noticing that their child is showing difficulties and
delays in fine and/or gross motor movements, parents
oftentimes consult their general pediatrician who in
turn may refer them to other specialists such as a
developmental pediatrician, a physical therapist, or an
occupational therapist. Some signs that a child may
have developmental coordination disorder, that is more
than just typical difficulty in moving or walking, are
presented in Table 6.5 (Nordqvist 2017).
Developmenta Signs
l Stage
Early Difficulty in tying shoelaces,
Childhood buttoning, using spoon and fork,
and getting dressed; problems in
jumping, skipping, catching, and
kicking a ball; a higher tendency
to bump into things, to fall over,
or to drop things
School-Age The difficulties in early childhood
be- come more pronounced; tries
to avoid sports; works on writing
tasks for a longer period of time
in comparison to typically
developing peers
In conducting an assessment, a specialist
determines the child's developmental history,
intellectual ability, and gross and fine motor skills. To
differentiate between the two, gross motor skills
involve the use of large muscles in the body to
coordinate body movement, which includes throwing,
On the other hand, fine motor skills involve the use of
smaller muscles that are needed in activities like
writing, cutting paper, tying shoelaces, and buttoning.
The evaluator needs to know when and how
developmental milestones are achieved. Assessment
is conducted to check the child's balance, sensitivity to
touch, and performance in other gross and fine motor
activities (Nordqvist 2017).
Oral motor coordination in doing activities like
blowing kisses or blowing out birthday candles may
also be reported. Moreover, an evaluator will check for
the following: (1) strength and flexibility by palpating
muscle bulk and texture, assessing flexibility of joints,
and the quality and intensity of grasp and (2) motor
planning which includes observing functional fine and
gross motor skills and determining hand dominance or
lack thereof (Harris et al. 2015).
Stereotypic Movement Disorder. Similar
steps are followed in the identification of the presence
of Stereotypic Movement Disorder (SMD) among
children. Typically developing children may display
stereotypic movements, or behaviors, often referred to
as stereotypies, between ages two and five as well as
children with other neurological conditions such as
Autism Spectrum Disorder and other developmental
disabilities. Because of this, specialists classify SMD
as "primary" when it occurs in an otherwise typically
developing child, or "secondary" if it exists alongside
other neurological disorders (Valente et al. 2019).
C. Learning Characteristics
Motor difficulties and disabilities are known to
significantly affect a child's ability to perform daily
activities, which include memory, perception and
processing, planning, carrying out coordinated
movements. Speech may also be affected as motor
control is needed in articulation and production.
Moreover, developmental coordination disorder also
affects psychosocial functioning as children report to
have lower levels of self-efficacy and competence in coordination/movement disorder (Pollock & Missiuna
physical and social domains, experience more 2007; Beech 2010).
symptoms of being depressed and anxious, as well as
display externalizing behaviors (Harris et al. 2015).
Children with stereotypic movement disorder also tend
to have low self-esteem and have been reported to be
withdrawn (Valente et al. 2019).

On the other hand, a "range of strengths"

Type of Description
needs to be acknowledged in every child with a
Accommodations
disability (Armstrong 2012). Students with motor/
movement disorders may excel in other areas of
Response Assign a peer/adult as scribe
intelligences that are not controlled by motor functions.
for note- taking
They may have adequate intelligence, creativity, and
Use different sizes of paper
language skills depending on the severity of the
and graph paper to align
disorder and the presence of a supportive adult. In
numbers"
fact, some children and adults who are physically
handicapped or have cerebral palsy have learned to
Try different writing tools and
paint with their mouths or feet to compensate for their
pencil grips Use a word
rigid limbs and have done so successfully. Some
processor/computer
children may do well in logical thinking and
comprehension and even in writing using assistive
Use text-to-speech programs
technology. Hence, for children with motor difficulties
and disabilities, support systems are needed to ensure
Allow for oral recitation/test-
that they are given equal opportunities to access
taking to supplement written
learning experiences in school alongside their typically
tests 
developing peers.
Provide alternate assessment
D. General Educational Adaptations
methods
First and foremost, children with motor
Setting Allow for preferential seating
difficulties and disabilities need primary intervention
near the teacher 
with specialists such as physical and occupational
therapists. These professionals are responsible for
Adjust chair and/or desk
setting goals in motor development, planning, and
height to maximize posture
mobility as well as in providing teachers and others
and stability
with information about the child's physical conditions,
limitations, and abilities (Kirk et al. 2015).
Place a non-skid mat on the
chair
Physical accessibility of a school and
classrooms to children with motor difficulty/disability is
Provide opportunities for
essential. Ramps and elevators for schools with
movement breaks
multiple levels of buildings is necessary, as well as the
provision of wheelchairs. Providing such structures and Schedule Allow for extra time to
supports ensure that children with motor complete tests and writing
difficulty/disability would be able to access as well as assignments
move around the classroom safely.
Provide extra time to change
The type of accommodations given will always for physical education classes
be relative to the strengths, abilities, and difficulties of
the child. For a child with developmental coordination Others Photocopy notes and
or stereotypic movement disorder who struggles or is homework reminders for the
unable to write but has adequate articulation and child 
language skills, he/she may benefit from being given
accommodations in the way understanding is Allow to take photos of notes
demonstrated (Le., response). Some of the and homework reminders 
recommendations for a child with such a profile may
include the following: (1) assigning an adult or a peer Give advance organizers
to be a scribe when accomplishing written tasks may before a lesson/lecture to
be an option and (2) being given a pencil or pen grip lessen/remove writing task
and different size/ diameter for a pencil for those with
poor fine-motor control. Send lecture handouts via
email
Table 6.6 presents practical classroom
accommodations for children with developmental
VI. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY REMEMBERING
AND FOCUSING
In this section, we will learn about students
who find it difficult to remember lessons, concepts, and
even instructions as well as those who find it a
challenge to sustain their focus.
A. Definition
The International Classification of Functioning,
Disability, and Health of the World Health Organization
(2001) provides definitions of specific mental functions
and focusing Memory functions include short-term
memory, long- term memory, and retrieval, while
attention functions include sustaining, shifting,
dividing, and sharing attention. Santrock (2011) also
provides a description of each of these functions (see
Table 6.7). Understanding these concepts is necessary
to have a clearer picture of how to enable learners with
such difficulties to succeed and how to provide support
in an inclusive setting.
Memory Functions
involves encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
over time
Short- Mental resources that allow for
term storing information temporarily, for
memory only ap- proximately 30 seconds,
after which is lost if strategies are
not used to integrate them into
long-term memory (e.g.,
remembering a 7-digit landline
number for a moment to be able to
write it down).
Long- Mental resources that allow for
term storing information for a long period
memory of time
Retrieval Mental resources used to recall
information stored in long-term
memory
Attention Functions
involves focusing of mental resources on a stimulus for
a required time period
Sustained Mental resources used to maintain
attention attention for an extended period
also called vigilance (e.g., staying
focused while reading a chapter in
a classical novel without any
interruptions until it is finished).
Selective Mental resources that allow for
attention focusing on a specific stimulus
that is important while ignoring
others (e.g., focusing on the voice
of a lecturer amidst the noise of a
group of used to refocus
concentration from one stimulus to
another).
Dividing Mental resources that involves
attention focusing on ore more activities or
tasks simultaneously (e.g.,
listening to music while driving).
Students with Learning Disability (LD) and/or
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) are
characterized by having difficulties with memory and
attention functions. The subsequent sections present
the definition, identification, and learning
characteristics for each disability.
1. LD
It was Samuel Kirk who coined the term, "learning
disability" in 1962 when he met with parents and
families as they discussed about students who
encountered pronounced difficulties in school despite
having average to above-average intelligence. He
further described students with learning disabilities as
a heterogeneous mix of learners who all had
neurologically-based problems that affected their
learning in different ways (Kirk et al., 2015).
To better understand learning disabilities, Gargiulo
(2012) provided common components on the
definitions of a LD:
 Intellectual functioning within normal range
 Significant gap or discrepancy between a
student's assumed potential and actual
achievement
 Inference that LD is not primarily caused by
other disabilities or extrinsic factors
 Difficulty in learning in one or more academic
areas
 Presumption of CNS dysfunction. (p.198)
These components are also found in the definition
provided by the National Joint Commission on
Learning Disabilities (1990):
"Learning disabilities is a general term that
refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders
manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition
and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing,
reasoning, or mathematical abilities. These disorders
are intrinsic to the individual, presumed to be due to
central nervous system dysfunction, and may occur
across the life span. Problems in self- regulatory
behaviors, social perception, and social interaction
may exist with learning disabilities but do not by
themselves constitute a learning disability. Although
learning disabilities may occur concomitantly with
other disabilities (for example, sensory impairment,
intellectual disabilities, emotional disturbance), or with
extrinsic influences (such as cultural or linguistic
differences, insufficient or inappropriate instruction),
they are not the result of those conditions or
influences."
The term Learning Disability is differentiated
from Specific Learning Disability which focuses on
difficulties in "one or more basic psychological
processes involved in understanding or in using
language, spoken, or written, which may manifest as
difficulties in the ability to listen, think, spark, read,
write, spell, or do mathematical calculations"
(Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 1997 in
Hallahan, 2014, p. 168). Thus, the term Learning
Disability is a general term under which other
difficulties are subsumed.
There are different types of specific learning
disabilities for each type of difficulty namely, Dyslexia
for difficulties with reading, spelling, and oral reading
fluency: Dyscalculia for difficulties in math
computation, problem- solving, and analysis; and
Dysgraphia for difficulties with handwriting and written
expression (see Table 6.8).
More behavioral manifestations are presented in Table
6.9
Type Definition
Dyslexia Characterized by difficulties with
accurate and/or fluent word
recognition and by poor spelling
and word reading abilities that
result from a deficit in
phonological processing
abilities. The difficulties are
often unexpected in relation to
other cognitive abilities and the
provision of effective classroom
instruction (IDA 2002). Limited
vocabulary and background
knowledge as well. as problems
in reading comprehension may
result as secondary
consequences (Shaywitz 2003).
Dyscalculia A specific learning disability that
affects how students acquire
and develop their arithmetic
skills despite average
intelligence (Shalev 2011) and
may manifest as difficulty in
retrieval of math facts and
understanding number concepts
or using symbols or functions.
Dysgraphia A specific learning disability that
affects the development of
writing abilities which may
display as spelling, hand-
writing, and expressive writing
difficulties resulting from
problems in organizing and
putting thoughts on paper
(NCLD 2007 cited in LD Online
2019).
2. ADHD
DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association
2013) provides the diagnostic criteria for ADHD, which
include inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity, and a
combination of the two. For a child to be diagnosed
with ADHD, the observed behaviors should meet the
following criteria:
 Display a persistent pattern for at least 6
months that significantly interferes with
functioning or development Observed in two or
more settings (e.g., at home, school, work;
with friends or relatives; and in other activities)
 Several of the symptoms were present before
the age of 12 years.
 The behaviors are not resulting from other
disorders (e.g., schizophrenia, anxiety
disorder, personality disorder, etc.)
Inattention
Does not pay attention to details and works in a
haphazard manner resulting in careless
mistakes (e.g., school tasks, at work, in other
activities)
Finds it difficult to sustain attention in tasks
Easily distracted and sidetracked by extraneous
stimuli
Often does not follow through on instruction and
fails to finish schoolwork, chores, or duties in the
workplace
Appears not to listen or distracted when spoken
to directly
Has difficulty following instructions resulting in
unfinished work Shows a tendency to be
forgetful in daily tasks and routines
Has problems in organizing tasks and activities
Tends to lose things that are needed for
schoolwork and other activities
Hyperactivity and Impulsivity
Often restless and fidgety and cannot seem to
stay still while sitting down
Often stands from seat to roam around the room
Often runs around or climbs in situations when
sitting is required
Often rather talkative, interrupts in
conversations, and blurts responses
Finds it difficult to wait for one's turn in tasks and
activities
Impulsive with words and actions
May struggle in following instructions and rushes
through tasks

B. Identification
Identifying students with LD and ADHD begins with
the parents and teachers. The presence of difficulties
in mental functions provided in Table 6.8 and the
behaviors enumerated in Table 6.9, as well as meeting
the provided criteria for persistence and consistency in
more than one setting, may create the impetus for
parents to consult specialists and for teachers to apply
pre- referral strategies before referring the student for
special education testing.
1. LD
In identifying students with LD, a discrepancy
between academic achievement and intelligence
needs to be established using tests that measure
intelligence and standardized achievement tests.
Children with LD oftentimes display average to above
average intelligence but perform below their grade
placement in achievement tests of reading, spelling,
math, and written expression. The problem, however,
in identifying children with LD is establishing the
discrepancy as there is no clear description or level of
discrepancy to occur for a student to be diagnosed to
have LD (Gargiulo 2012).
In addition to the use of clinical testing, teachers
can provide essential information about a student's
patterns of abilities and difficulties. Conducting student
observations, interviews, and error analysis of
schoolwork will provide the supplementary information
needed to determine ways to help a child who may be
at-risk and/or have signs of a learning disability. A
clinical/educational psychologist and/or a special
education diagnostician use all available data from
norm-referenced tests, teachers' observations,
analysis of achievement tests, and parent interview to
determine if the learning difficulties may be attributed
to the presence of a learning disability.
On the other hand, identifying children with
specific learning disabilities, do not adhere to the
achievement-potential discrepancy. In its place, what is
measured is the discrepancy between the current level
of skills (i.e., reading, spelling, math, written
expression) and the expected grade level performance
in achievement tests in reading, spelling, oral reading
fluency, and math. This discrepancy needs to be
established to ascertain that the underlying difficulties
emanate from the disability and not due to other
contributory factors. To create a holistic picture of the
learner, observations, and interviews with parents and
teachers are essential.
2. ADHD
There are four components that are needed in
identifying students with ADHD: (1) medical
examination, (2) clinic interviews, (3) use of teacher
and parent rating scales, and (4) behavioral
observations (Hallahan et al. 2014). Each one is
discussed as follows.
 Medical examinations are needed to rule out
the presence of sensory impairment or middle
ear infections that can cause hearing
problems. Other medical conditions such as
seizure disorders, brain tumors, and thyroid
problems that may be the underlying cause of
the inattentive and/or hyperactive behaviors
also need to be ruled out (Barkley & Edwards
2006 cited in Hallahan et al. 2014).
 Clinical interview with the parent's provides
the specialists with a holistic perspective of the
child and essential information about the
student's physical and psychological
characteristics, family and cultural background,
and peer relationships. An ecological approach
in assessment is necessary to rule out other
contributing factors, like drastic changes in
family dynamics such as separation of parents,
unexpected deaths, and others that may be
causing the observed behaviors of inattention
and/or hyperactivity.
 Teacher and parent rating scales are used
as additional tools to provide evidence of the
student's inattention, hyperactivity, and/or
combination of the two. Standardized rating
scales, such as the Conners Rating Scales
(Conners 2007 cited in Hallahan et al. 2014),
are used by clinical psychologists and special
education diagnosticians to identify the
presence of ADHD in a student. The rating
scale measures the following behaviors:
hyperactivity, aggressive behavior, violent
tendencies, compulsive behaviors,
perfectionism, difficulty in class, extra trouble
with math, difficulty with language, social
issues, emotional distress, and separation
anxiety (Johnson 2018). The teachers' and
parents' responses to the rating scales are
based on their daily observations of the
student for the past six months in their
respective settings (home, school, or
workplace).
C. Learning Characteristics
Oftentimes, learning characteristics refer to the
difficulties and challenges experienced by students
with LD and ADHD. While these are also essential to
determine possible accommodations and interventions,
it is equally important to present their strengths and
abilities alongside their challenges as these can be
used to help create a positive niche for students
(Armstrong 2012).
Students with LD are known to have
challenges in language, literacy, and memory (Kirk et
al. 2015) as well as in math, writing, and
focusing/attending skills. Nonetheless, it is important to
note that these are merely general characteristics as
there are individual differences in terms of abilities and
difficulties among children with LD and ADHD.
In language development, they often display
delays in learning how to speak, have difficulties in
naming objects and retrieving words from memory, and
have limited vocabulary in comparison to typically
developing peers. Students with LD oftentimes
struggle with having to organize their thoughts that
they are unable to use precise words to express their
ideas. On the other hand, there are students with LD
who are better at oral expression in relation to their
reading and writing skills. Such students are better at
expressing themselves, at times rather fluently. but are
unable to transfer their thoughts to writing.
In terms of reading skills, students with
dyslexia display delays and difficulties in phonological
processing, word reading/decoding, spelling, and oral
reading. fluency. Fundamental to reading is
phonological awareness, or the knowledge. that all
words can be segmented into phonemes (sounds) and
that the letters in a written word correspond to these
sounds. Individuals with dyslexia have poor
phonological awareness that subsequently impedes
word reading ability, fluency, and accuracy. This basic
weakness, then, blocks access to higher-order
language processes and to gaining meaning from text.
Thus, problems with comprehension may be attributed
to inaccurate decoding and lack of oral reading
fluency, but they can use higher-level skills of
vocabulary, reasoning, problem-solving, concept
formation, and general intelligence (Shaywitz 2003).
To a certain extent, their reading skills may be
compared with younger children who are at the
beginning reading level. Oral reading fluency tends to
be slow and laborious, others reading in a word-by-
word fashion, at times substituting words, and lacking
in proper intonation/expression due to poor decoding
skills. and sight word vocabulary. Table 6.11 shows a
sample oral reading of a nine- year old student with
dyslexia. It is expected that the student will not be able
to understand the passage well because of all the
substitution errors unless he/she uses his/her prior
knowledge and experience revolving around the story.
Table 6.10. Sample oral reading and spelling of a
student with dyslexia
Original Text Student's Oral Reading
A man got out of the car. In a man got out of the
car.
He had a pretty box He had a pet pate on his
under his arm. arm
A little girl ran from the A let girl run form... farm
house to meet the man. the house to meet him
"Hello, Father" she said. "Hello, Father," she said.
"Do you have a surprise Father said, "I have
for me?" Father said. "I some "Do you have a
have something for a sharp for me?" thing for
good girl." you got girl."
The girl laughed, "I am The girl let her. "I have
very good." give good."
Words Student's Spelling
will wel
arm urm
dress bres
train tran
shout  saot
watch wuch
grown gom
In terms of written language, students with
LD have tendencies to reverse letters or words, have
poor spelling skills and display difficulties in the quality,
organization, sentence fluency, and application of
writing conventions, including handwriting, spelling,
and grammar, as well as motivation to write (Graham
2017).
As for math skills, the difficulties manifest in
relation to students' age and grade (Shalev 2004). For
instance, students in the first-grade level have
problems in the retrieval of basic math facts and in
computing exercises, while older children display
severe difficulties in learning the multiplication table
and understanding algorithms of the four basic
operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division). Moreover, they are known to have
incomplete or inadequate procedural knowledge of
algorithms, which are reflected in the way they misuse
or substitute arithmetic sign, forgetting to regroup,
misplacing digits, not following the proper alignment of
digits when solving, or solving from left to right. As a
result, students with LD struggle with more complex
math equations and problems as they lack the
foundational arithmetic skills.
Moreover, students with LD also display
problems with short-term and working memory (ie.,
mental resources used to retain information while
simultaneously engaged in another activity), deficits in
metacognition, display attention problems, and
hyperactivity. As a result, they often have trouble
focusing on tasks, exhibit excess movement,
restlessness, and fidgety behaviors that are
characteristic of students with ADHD (see Table 6.9).
Because of difficulties in executive functioning,
students with LD and ADHD are known to be forgetful
of daily activities and routines, can be disorganized
with their personal belongings and even schedules,
and have problems monitoring comprehension.
Parents complain about having to buy a new set of
pens and pencils every week because their children
tend to lose them easily. Adults tend to be frustrated
because such learners seem to be forgetful and/or
absent-minded and they need to be constantly
reminded of chores and other daily routines, which
typically developing learners would have already
remembered easily. Moreover, due to their impulsivity,
students with ADHD exhibit academic
underachievement as well as disruptive behavior that
impact on family and peer relationships (DuPaul and
Stoner 2003 cited in DuPaul et al. 2012).
 Anchoring on neurodiversity, children with LD  Use reading materials
and ADHD also have their strengths and abilities that include rich visual
amidst such difficulties and limitations. Students with representation in the
LD are known to have strong artistic abilities and form of photos,
visual-spatial skills. As a result, they oftentimes display graphic organizers,
unusual skills in drawing, doing mechanical puzzles, diagrams, etc.
as well as in building models. Moreover, they are
Multiple In addition to traditional
known to be creative, divergent thinkers, imaginative,
means of measures of assessment,
and highly curious. For instance, a famous person with
expression provide variety of ways to
dyslexia is Charles Schwab, founder of Charles
demonstrate understanding of
Schwab Corporation, who attributes his success to his
concepts/ lessons:
dyslexia. He only learned he had dyslexia when he
was 40 years old after his son was diagnosed with the
same condition. Despite being excellent in economics  debates
and business, he narrated that he would sound out  build models
words to understand them when he was younger and  experimentation
that he would still struggle in understanding books  digital audio
about topics unfamiliar to him. But because of his presentations
dyslexia, he was able to think of out-of-the-box  writing activities
solutions.  portfolio assessment
 photographs/pictures
In relation to this, Shaywitz (2003) presented a  blogs
"Sea of Strengths Model of Dyslexia," where  draw pictures/use
weakness in decoding is compensated through other graphic organizers to
strengths such as reasoning, concept formation, illustrate concepts or
comprehension, general knowledge, problem-solving, content
vocabulary, critical thinking, and reasoning abilities.
This is the reason why students with dyslexia are Multiple Provide varied activities to
oftentimes active in class recitations and projects but means of support student engagement
struggle with literacy tasks that involve reading and engagement through:
writing stemming from their phonological deficits.
 hands-on, kinesthetic
D. General Educational Adaptations activities
 plays/drama/dance
The use of Universal Design for Learning (UDL)  simulation games
principles, such as providing multiple means of  role playing
representation, expression, and engagement are  discussion and
effective for all types of learners and provide a level debates
playing field for students with LD, SLD, and ADHD
 give opportunity for
(see Table 6.11) Through a variety of approaches,
student choice (e.g.,
students with difficulty remembering and focusing are
range of reading
given opportunities to compensate for their
materials, activities) 
weaknesses and use their strengths to learn as much
 use inquiry-based
as their typically developing peers.
learning and project-
based approach
Table 6.11. Application of UDL in an inclusive
classroom.
In addition to UDL, an approach that has been
UDL Principle Examples
proven to be effective for students with memory and
Multiple focusing difficulties is the use of explicit instruction
 Audio books alongside
means of of literacy skills, comprehension, and writing
real books
representation strategies. Such approach uses a step-by-step
 Multimedia
instruction that includes modeling, providing guided
presentations and
practice, as well as independent practice, while giving
videos to supplement
immediate corrective feedback so students will
textbooks
understand what and how to improve. Part of this
 Math-manipulative approach is the use of think-aloud to model concrete
materials and steps in problem-solving, such as how to attack an
illustrations to unfamiliar word, how to begin a writing task through
reinforce lessons brainstorming, and how to begin answering a math
 Hands-on word problem.
experiences, use of
multisensorial For instance, students with dyslexia and
activities in addition to struggling readers benefit from the direct/explicit
teacher-talk approach in phonological processing, phonics
instructions, (and spelling rules. Because of their his/her behavior, and (3) providing home-school
reading and spelling difficulties, learning through mere communication.
visual approach will not be effective. They may And finally, the provision of different types of
remember the words now, as they are processed in accommodations in terms of presentation, response,
their short-term memory, but forget them by tomorrow, setting, and scheduling is beneficial for students with
because the words were not stored in their long-term difficulty remembering and focusing (see Table 6.12).
memory, along with other accompanying difficulties.
Gough (1993 in Magpuri-Lavell et al. 2014)
demonstrated that explicit instruction in phonemic
awareness and phonics was essential to develop a
firm understanding of the alphabetic principles.
Another meta-analysis conducted by Galuschka et al
(2014) found that phonics instruction is the most
intensively investigated treatment approach and the
only one that has been found to be effective and
statistically confirmed in improving the reading and
spelling performance of children and adolescents with
reading disabilities.

Moreover, planning the classroom

environment and how routines are implemented is
equally important in an inclusive classroom. Because
students with LD and ADHD show a tendency to be
restless, become hyperactive, and have short attention
spans, providing a classroom that is highly structured
and with clear expectations is essential. Class rules
and norms, agreements, routines as well as schedules
need to be written and accompanied by clear and
simple images. These need to be explained, displayed,
and implemented consistently to make the classroom
environment structured and safe for all children. Table 6.12. Types of accommodations to provide
support for students with difficulty remembering and
One intervention that has been reported to be focusing
effective in helping students with ADHD is the use of
the Daily Report Card (DRC), which is an
individualized intervention to manage target behaviors Type of Accommodations/
of a child (Moore et al.2016). It begins with an Accommodatio Supports
assessment through observation and teacher/ parent n
interviews to determine specific behaviors that need to
be managed and/or developed in a student (see Figure Presentation Provide the following:
6.2). Once identified, the target behaviors are framed
positively, and teachers monitor the student's progress Audio files to supplement a
on the DRC throughout the day by recording whether slide presentation
the targets have been met. A system of reinforcements
and consequences is developed with the child. Bigger font sizes in reading
Reinforcements can be in the form of tangible rewards materials and worksheets 
such as stickers, stamps, puzzles, etc. but they can
also be opportunities to do certain activities in school, Leveled books that match
such as having extra time in the classroom or library, student's reading level
having an extra book to borrow, being the leader for
the day, being the teacher's lunch buddy, and other Audio books and/or have a
activities. Parents are also included in the planning and peer read aloud the selection
implementation to promote home-school
communication and collaboration. In this manner, Digital text that provides
generalization of behaviors is targeted to the home word meanings
setting or vice-versa.
A meta-analysis of DRC literature from 2007- Advance organizers to serve
2017 yielded results that ranged from weak to strong as guide during lectures
impact on the academic and social behavior of
elementary students who were noted to have Preview of vocabulary or key
disruptive behaviors as well as the ones diagnosed points to provide the big
with disabilities (Riden et al. 2018). The study found picture
important components that the DRC should have to
make it effective: (1) clear and operationalized target Active involvement in class
behaviors, (2) provide feedback to the student about
Use graphic organizers and
 mind mapping techniques for
note-taking during class
Explain and write directions
step-by-step while making
sure student is attentive and
listening
Response Allow students to use the
following: 
Use text-to-speech software
to facilitate writing
Use word processor with
spelling and grammar check
Waive incorrect spelling in
specific subjects (do not
mark misspellings as
incorrect provided content is
accurate)
Graphic organizers as a pre-
writing task
Math supports:
 calculation devices
(calculator)
 concrete material
and manipulatives
 chart of math facts
and formula
 special paper with
grids for
computation
Setting Preferential seating (away
from sources of distraction)
Play appropriate background
music through individual
earphones while studying  conceptual, social, and practical that occur during
Allow students to move or
run around a few times
before class or in between
classes
Scheduling Provide extended time 
Break tasks into sections
Time limits for assignment
and countdown
Allow for quick brain breaks
to move around and stretch
in between activities
Behavior Teach self-talk skills
management
Teach physical relaxation
techniques such as mindful
breathing
Use squeeze balls to release
tensions
Allow students to doodle
while listening to lecture
(Andrade 2010 in Armstrong
2012)
VII. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY WITH SELF-
CARE
This section presents another set of
learners with specific difficulties in self-care, or
caring for oneself.
A. Definition
Self-care often refers to a person's capacity to
perform daily living activities or specific to body
care such as the following skills: washing oneself,
brushing teeth, combing, trimming nails, toileting,
dressing, eating, drinking, and looking after one's
health. Self-care skills are gradually learned by
very young typically developing children through
adult modeling and direct instruction within
developmental expectations. On the other hand,
children with additional needs may struggle with
the basic activities of daily living. Oftentimes, such
students are those with moderate to severe
cognitive deficits, including individuals with
Intellectual Disability or Intellectual
Developmental Disorder (ID or IDD).
Intellectual disability is a developmental
disorder that includes deficits in intellectual and
adaptive functioning across domains of
the developmental period. To be diagnosed with
ID/IDD, a student must have deficits in both the
cognitive and adaptive domains (Kirk 2015).
Children with Down's syndrome with moderate to
severe disability may also have problems with
self-care.
B. Identification
Young children suspected to have cognitive
deficits which manifest as difficulties with self-care
can be identified at a very young age. The
traditional approach to measuring levels of
severity of ID was determined through the use of
intellectual tests:
Mild level IQ 50-70
Moderate IQ 35-50
Severe IQ 20-35
Profound IQ below 20
However, based on the definition provided by the needs, make them aware of these strengths, and
American Psychiatric Association (2013), using use them to their advantage.
measures of intelligence is only one aspect as
adaptive functioning also needs to be assessed to D. General Educational Adaptations
identify if a child has an intellectual disability. In
place of IQ levels, the support needed by a Specific approaches have been found to be
person with ID is used to determine the level or
degree of severity of the disability. The presence effective in teaching students with difficulty with
of ID or IDD is measured by direct observation,
structured interviews, and standardized scales self-care, namely the use of direct/explicit
such as the AAMR Adaptive Behavior Scale
(Lambert et al.1993 in Heward 2013) and instruction, task analysis, forward and backward
Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (Sparrow et
al. 2016). Some of the domains measured by the chaining, as well as the use of video modeling.
AAMR Adaptive Behavior Scale include personal
self-sufficiency, community self- sufficiency, and
social adjustment. On the other hand, the It is essential that the instructions given are
Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales cover simple and straight forward and that hands-on,
communication, daily living skills, socialization, experiential activities are used.
and motor skills.

C. Learning Characteristics Task analysis is a behavioral approach that

breaks down a complex behavior or task into
step-by-step procedures, thereby providing
Students who have difficulty with self-care
modeling and ample practice for the student with
oftentimes reach developmental milestones at a
difficulties. Gargiulo (2012) provided working
later age compared to typically developing peers.
guidelines on how to do task analysis.
They learn to sit up, crawl, walk, and talk later
than other children and may have trouble
remembering and understanding consequences  Define the target behavior or task.
of actions. Due to cognitive difficulties, children
with ID may also have deficits in the areas of  Identify the required skills needed to
reasoning, planning, judgment, and abstract successfully complete the task.
thinking.
 Identify the necessary materials to perform
On the other hand, depending on the level of the task.
support needed, a student with ID learns adaptive
skills at a slower pace, resulting in delay,  Observe an able and competent person
compared to same aged typically developing perform the task.
students. They benefit from modeling and can
imitate well. Moreover, adults with mild intellectual
 List the needed steps in sequential order
disability eventually learn to be functional and
to complete the task.
independent in society.
In an inclusive classroom, self-care skills such as
Youths with intellectual disabilities are known to
washing hands and brushing teeth can be tasks
be friendly, sociable, and are reported to have
analyzed into the simplest steps and presented in
positive coping skills. A study conducted by
a poster accompanied by pictures (see Figure
Carter et al. (2015) investigated the strengths and
6.3). Using direct instructions, the teacher models
positive traits of transition- age youth with
how each step is done then allows the student to
intellectual disability and/or autism, as reported by
try the steps with guidance and prompts until
their parents. Using quantitative and qualitative
he/she is able to do the task independently.
measures, the study yielded the following positive
Hence, direct instruction and support from the
traits of the youths: (1) they have a positive
environment in the form of prompts and as well as
outlook in life, (2) shows positive relations with
routines that are simplified are essential for
others, (3) have active coping skills, and (4) have
students to eventually become independent in
acceptance coping skills. In this study, they found
using self-care skills (Heward, 2013).
that the youths were rated highest in items
pertaining to the positive outlook factor.

These results suggest the importance of having to

find the strengths in children with additional
 The use of video-based intervention including
video modeling and video prompting for teaching
daily living skills, such as brushing teeth, setting a
table, washing dishes, etc. has been found
effective for learners with intellectual and learning
difficulties (Rayner 2011, Bellini & Akullian 20017
cited in Heward 2013). With video modeling, a
student watches a brief video of an able person
performing a target skill or task and then imitates
the behavior. In video self-modeling, the student
watches a video of himself/herself performing a
task. In video prompting, each step is shown in
a video, which the student imitates before the
next step is shown. This is helpful as the student
can access the video anytime, replay it as often
as needed to develop independence.

In summary, this chapter has presented important

definitions, identification and assessment,
learning characteristics, and general educational
adaptations for learners with additional needs
namely: (1) the gifted and talented students with
difficulties in (2) seeing, (3) hearing, (4)
Forward and backward chaining is used
communicating, (5) walking and moving, (6)
alongside task analysis. In forward chaining, the
remembering and focusing, and (7) self-care. You
program begins with the first step in the
have learned the different disability labels that are
sequence, such as getting the toothbrush and
associated with the difficulties, their challenges in
toothpaste, then providing the needed hand-over-
learning, their strengths, and educational
hand assistance, and then gradually fading verbal
adaptations in the form of accommodation. While
and then gestural prompts. The goal is to allow
awareness and understanding of their disability
the student to master the first step first and then
and needs are essential, as educators supportive
followed by the next step in the sequence until the
of inclusive education, it is of utmost importance
entire task has been performed. On the other
that we see learners with additional needs
hand, in backward chaining, the teacher models
beyond their difficulties, to enable them to explore
all the steps from the beginning and then allows
and use their range of strengths and abilities as
the child to do the last step of the behavior chain
well as provide opportunities for them to succeed
with assistance and prompts.
and flourish in their own positive niches.