Chapter 5 Clause and Sentence

Clauses and sentences

• Phrase=sintagma
• Clause=proposizione
• Sentence=frase
we use phrases to build a clause

CLAUSE
➢ key unit of a sentence
➢ It is a unit that can stand alone as an expression of a complete thought
e.g Have you got an exam oon Monday = a simple sentence which consist in 1 clause
➢ Clauses can be combined in various ways to make complex and compound sentences
e.g I saw Sally and I gave her a book (compound sentence)

SENTENCE
➢ Simple sentences= sentences that consist of just one clause
➢ Compound sentences= the clauses are linked by coordination
➢ Complex sentences= the clauses are linked by subordination

CLAUSE ELEMENTS
A COMPLETE CLAUSE contains a predicator (the verbal element) and other clause elements (subj, obj, complement, adv)
e.g that cyclist (S) has called (P) Dave (O) a fool (C) twice (ADV)

1. Subject
• is the topic of a clause (what the clause is about)
• Obligatory in English
• Typically occurs before the verb element except in interrogative clauses
• Most typically a NP or a pronoun e.g the boy yawned (NP); are you going? (PRONOUN)
• Some types of subordinate clauses can function

Dummy subject: a subj that does not carry any semantic content (dummy= a copy/imitation often lacking some essential feature of the original)
e.g1 it/there: it really hurts me to be going away ; e.g2 there were too many people in the bus
-->the construction with there as dummy subj is called existential there structure
Extraposed subj: a second subj that follows the verb
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2. Predicator
• What is said about the subj
• Consists of the verb element
• Position: in main clauses and finite subordinate clauses the predicator normally follows the subj e.g She plays the piano
when it occurs in non-finite subordinate clauses with no subj it will be the 1st element in the clause or follow a subordinating conjuction
e.g Having seen her live, I can attest that she is awesome
e.g After being shot tha man stopped the car
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3. Object
• The obj follows the verb and is affected by it
• Only occur after transitive verbs (transitive v= verbs that occur with an obj in S-P-O structures)
Intransitive verbs will not be found with an obj e.g I’m dying for a cup f tea
Transitive verbs can be
• Monotransitive: verbs that requires a direct obj e.g I love beer
• Ditransitive : requires 2 obj (indirect and direct obj) e.g you must tell me the truth

• Types
• Direct obj refers to the entity which is directly affected by the process or action denoted by the verb
e.g I’m reading an interesting book but also a subordinate clause e.g He loves cooking

• indirect obj is the entity that receives something or benefite from the action or process expressed by the verb
e.g She gave him the book
the indirect obj can be paraphrased using the prepositions to or for e.g Mary gave a glass of wine to her sister
4. COMPLEMENT
• Something that completes, makes up a whole, or brings to perfection
• Function of complements is to complete what we know about something/somebody/ already mentioned
• a clause elements which characterises or describes either the S or the O
• they can be NPs, AdjPs, pronouns, certain kind of subordinate clauses

SUBJECT COMPLEMENT= complemento predicativo del soggetto

• follows a copular verb (=be, appear, seem, sound, smell, taste,feel, become, get, turn); which are verbs that link the subj complement
in the predicate to the grammatical subj e.g the stew smells good…

• often AdjP, NP, PP I feel tired (AdjP) ; She became a nurse; they were in danger or infinitive clauses
e.g the main problem is finding a job

OBJECT COMPLEMENT
• follows the direct obj and occurs with complex transitive verbs such as
-verbs of change (elect, make, paint, colour, get)
-verbs of perception (think, consider, find, regard, call ,see)

• typically a NP or an AdjP
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5. Adverbials
• usually optional elements added to the main obligatory elements of a sentence
• also called adjuncts
✓ CIRCUMSTANCE ADVERBIALS: describe the circumstances in which the action or process of the clause takes place,
they answer to the question where,when, how, how much, how long, why
e.g Julia speaks French very fluently (AdvP as adverbial)
include adv of place, time, manner, process, reasons, purpose, condition

✓ STANCE ADVERBIALS: add extra info about the speaker’s /writer’s feelings attitude and opinion toward what is being said
by the clause e.g to be honest, maybe, definitely, perhaps, frankly, in fact

✓ LINKING ADVERBIALS :connect clauses or parts of clauses therefore they do not add info as to what the clause is about
e.g nevertheless, however, in conclusion

optional or obligatory adverbials?

-Optional: a clause can stand on its own without them, since most of them add extra information e.g She cuts the bread on the table
-Obligatory: the clause would be incomplete without them e.g Sally put the bread on the table

Form and Function relationships

clause elements (f) can have different forms (word, phrase, clause class) BASIC CLAUSE STRUCTURES in English (pagina 138 a 141)
➢ SP: Jane lied
• S: NP, noun clause, verb ➢ SPO: They forgot their lines
• P: VP ➢ SPC: The journey was a nightmare
• O: NP, noun clause, verb ➢ SPA: Mr Stevens went to London
➢ SPOO: Philip sent me a present
• C: NP, AjP
➢ SPOC: Mum made me an artist
• A: AvP, NP, PP ➢ SPOA: He placed the bag on the table

2 PROCESSES can produce further structural patterning (esempi pagina 141 a 150)
1. COORDINATION: the joining together of two linguistic units which function at the same syntactic level
e.g For supper (PP) Lloyd (NP) cooked (VP) salmon fillets and new potatoes (2 NPs)
coordination can also involve whole clauses e.g. I had a pie and Jane had the vegetarian lasagne

2. SUBORDINATION (or EMBEDDING): the occurrence of one linguistic unit within another
e.g a rather nice AdP invitation NP
e.g Jane (NP) told (VP) an amusing story about her friend with measles (NP)