• Module 4 : Eastern and positive perspective

History
• Yoga began as an ancient practice that originated in India around 3000 B.C. Stone-
carved figures of yoga postures can be found in the Indus Valley depicting the original
poses and practices. The word yoga was first mentioned in the oldest sacred texts, the
Rig Veda. Yoga was slowly refined and developed by the Brahmans and Rishis. Yoga is
a Sansrit word meaning ‘to join or to unite’. Goal of yoga practice is self realization.
Yoga also means ‘method’. Yoga was developed as a way to achieve harmony between
the heart and soul on the path to divine enlightenment. Yoga has a practical benefit of
curing many diseases like diabetes and high blood pressure, and alleviating physical
injuries and chronic pains.
• The bhagavad Gita: Is the 1st and most popular work on yoga. It is the part of the great
Indian epic of the second century BC called Mahabharata, a magnificent collection of
mythology, religion, ethics and customs. The classical period is defined by Patanjali’s
Yoga-Sutras, the first systematic presentation of yoga. This is called as Raja Yoga or
classical yoga". Patanjali organized the practice of yoga into an "eight limbed path“ .
Patanjali is often considered the father of yoga and his Yoga-Sutras still strongly
influence most styles of modern yoga.
Major concepts
• Three principles of creation:
• 3 GUNAS
• Sattvic , Rajas, Tamas
In yoga terminology….
• Consciousness: or mind (chitta) embraces all thought processes. Patanjali defines a
controlling the activities of the mind. Final goal is to focus attention on the self
• Karma : Karma means action and also its results. Karma is based on the principles that
every activity brings with it certain consequences and every individual’s life is influenced
by past actions. This influence occurs in part through the creation of subconscious
tendencies
• Subconscious tendencies : Control of the waves of consciousness is possible only when
we diminish the subconscious tendencies. Such tendencies shape mental activity. Eg.
Anger. The goal of Yoga is complete reformation of consciousness.
Schools of yoga
• Several major schools of yoga emerged in India, each suiting a particular personality
Karma Yoga
 • Karma Yoga is the yoga of action done with awareness, detachment, and Love.
Karma means “action,” which we all perform, consciously or unconsciously. When we
add Yoga to the word, it means an action performed with meditative awareness.
So Karma Yoga is actually the yoga of dynamic meditation
Jnana yoga (the yoga of knowledge)
• Is a discipline of rigorous self analysis, a path for those entered with a clear refined
intellect. It is basically a path of discrimination. The jnana yogi seeks to understand the
forces of delusion and bondage and to counter for avoid the influences of passion, sense
attachment and identification with the body.
The yoga of devotion (Bhakti yoga)
• It is a way of reforming one’s personality through the development of love and devotion.
Its proponents argue that this simple path is most suitable to the modern era in which few
people have the time and discipline to pursue fully the other traditional parts of yoga.
Followers of this yoga use deep devotion to concentrate the mind and transform the
personality. It includes ritual worship, chanting and worship of God
Yoga of the body (Hatha yoga)
• It designed to purify and strengthened the body for advanced meditation and higher states
of consciousness. Enlightenment is a whole body event. Through hatha yoga the yogi
seeks to manifest the infinite self in the finite body mind
The yoga of sacred chanting (Mantra yoga)
• A mantra is sacred syllable, charged with psycho spiritual power. These sacred sounds
are used to attain a one pointed meditative state and to transform the individuals
consciousness. The most important mantra in Vedic chanting was OM, which is said to
be the basic level of vibration in the universe
The yoga of subtle energy (kundalini yoga)
• Means latent female energy believed to lie coiled at the base of the spine. All energies of
mind and body are manifestations of Kundalini energy which can be consciously
controlled by an accomplished yogi.
The Seven Chakras: Chakra means the “wheel of a wagon.” Metaphorically, the term
refers to our energetic centers, the powerhouses in the body’s electrical system.

1. Muladhara (the Root Chakra): Muladhara (literally, “root support”) is located at the base of the
spine. It connected to the earth element. Muladhara governs what are considered the four primal
urges: food, sleep, sex, and self-preservation. Its energetic function is to help us maintain a sense
of groundedness and inner stability.

 2. Svadhisthana (the Sacral Chakra)

Svadhisthana (literally, “her own abode”) is located at the pelvis. It is associated with the water
element—fluidity, adaptability, creativity, emotions, sexual energy, and the unconscious. The
second chakra’s energetic function is to help us regulate our emotions and desires, so as not to be
driven by them.

3. Manipura (the Navel Chakra)

Manipura (literally, “city of jewels”) is located at the navel center. It is commonly depicted as a
downward or upward-facing red triangle, and it’s associated with the fire element. Having a
strong inner fire (agni) can help us digest not only our food, but also our life experiences.  

4. Anahata (the Heart Chakra)

Anahata (literally, “unstruck”) is located at the heart center. On a spiritual level, it’s said to be
the home of the higher/infinite, “unstruck” or indestructible self. Anahata is associated with the
air element, and with emotional qualities such as peace, love, and openness.

5. Vishuddha (the Throat Chakra)

Vishuddha (literally, “to purify”) is located near the base of the throat. Vishuddha is associated
with the element ether, or “space” (akasha), and with speaking one’s truth. Its energetic function
is to help us find authentic self-expression.

6. Ajna (the Third-Eye Chakra)

Ajna (literally, “command center”) is located between the eyebrows. It is considered to be the
seat of the mind, of conscious and unconscious awareness. It is not associated with any element,
as this chakra is considered “beyond” the physical elements. It is held to be the center of
intuition, vision, prophecy, imagination, inner knowing, and self-assurance. The energetic
function of ajna chakra is to help us learn to know ourselves: emotionally, mentally, and
spiritually.

7. Sahasrara (the Crown Chakra)

Sahasrara (literally, “thousand-petaled lotus”) is located just above the crown of the head. Said to
be the doorway into pure consciousness. It is not associated with a physical element (as it too is
considered to be beyond the elements). Sahasrara serves as a way of connecting to divine energy
and is associated with our highest self. Sahasrara helps us function in a more enlightened way,
cultivate self-mastery, and find a sense of connection with all.

Raja yoga
• Or royal yoga emphasizes the development of mental control as the most effective and
efficient discipline. This is also called psychological yoga.
• Eight limbs of yoga
 • YAMA: Restraints, moral disciplines or moral vows
• NIYAMA: Positive duties or observances
• ASANA: Posture
• PRANAYAMA: Breathing techniques
• PRATYAHARA: Sense withdrawal
• DHARANA: Focused concentration
• DHYANA: Meditative absorption 
• SAMADHI: Bliss or enlightenment
The abstentions and observances are the moral code than serves as the foundation for
yoga practice.
1. Yama (Abstentions) include nonviolence, truthfulness. Non stealing , chastity and nongreed
2. Niyama (The observances) are purity, austerity, contentment, study and devotion
3. Asanas (Posture): refers to the ability to remain still in a single position for in long periods
of time. The essence of posture is the stilling of both body and mind. Posture implies steadiness
and comfort. It requires relaxation and meditation on the immovable
4. Pranayama (Control of vital energy): It is the unique and fundamental aspects of yoga. The
original Sanskrit term pranayama, is often mistranslated as breath control. Breathing exercises
can slow the metabolism and free vital energy
5. Pratyahara (Interiorization) : Refers to the shutting off of the senses. Vital energy is
withdrawn from the sense organs
6. Dharana (Concentration) :
• Is attention fixed upon an object . There are 2 aspects of concentration: the withdrawal of
the attention from objects of distraction and the focusing of attention upon one thing at a
time
7. Dhyana (Meditation): Meditation is a highly advanced practice in which only a single
thought , the object of meditation alone remains the consciousness of the meditator
8. Samadhi (Illumination): It is the essence of yoga practice. It also translated as ecstasy . Self
realization can occur once the mind is totally calm and concentrated, reflecting the qualities of
the self within.
According to Indian tradition…. There areFour stages of life
• The idealized Indian life cycle included 4 stages. Each stage should last 25 years, as the
normal life span was said to be 100 years. Individual should pass through all 4 stages to
achieve realization. Each stage has its own duties
 1. Student, Householder, Forest dweller, Renunciant
Student: serves as trainee, living with a teacher and he teacher’s family. Acquisition of
occupational skills, traditional Indian education, character building through emotional and
spiritual discipline. Goal is to become a mature individual
Householder: after student life person returned to home, and after marrying , enters this stage.
Duty: carrying on the family business and rearing a family, achieving vocational success, acting
as responsible citizen
Forest dweller: gradual retirement from family and occupational affaires. Children have become
old enough to assume family responsibilities. Couples retire to a small, secluded cottage in the
forest
Renunciation: officially dead to all social obligations and personalities and free to pursue self
realization without external demands or restrictions
Obstacles of growth
• Patanjali list 5 major causes of sufferings:
1. Ignorance: ignorance of our true identity
2. Egoism: identification of Self with the body and the thoughts
3. Desire : longing for pleasure
4. Aversion: withdraw from pain
these sufferings tie the individual to the constant change and fluctuations of the
external world.
5. Fear: constant natural terror of death
Structure
• Body: schools of yoga regarded the body in different ways. These attitudes range from
outright rejection of the body, because it is seen as the sources of desires and
attachments. To the appreciation of the body as the main vehicle for spiritual growth
• Social relationships: traditionally yoga associated with isolation from the world but
Bhagvad Gita teaches that each individual has his or her duty in this world and this
obligation must be carried out fully.
• Will: earliest forms of yoga involved severe asceticism and tremendous will. The concept
of tapas, ascetic discipline or austerity still remains central to much of yoga practice
today
– Austerity : refers to the discipline of mind and body as the individual go beyond
comfortable limits and overcomes tendencies of self indulgence and restlessness
 • Emotions: direct their energy to spiritual growth
• Intellect: intellectual development in yoga is not a matter of acquiring new information
but of attaining understanding through experience
• Self: core of human consciousness or awareness and is completely distinct from our
ordinary consciousness
• Teacher: guru- Sanskrit root ‘to uplift’. Spiritual teacher, one who can raise the
student’s consciousness
• Initiation: is the crucial element in yoga practice. Self realization is impossible without
initiation and there can be no real initiation without a qualified teacher initiated into a
lineage himself or herself
Zen and Buddhist Tradition
• Primary concern is to lead others to a direct , personal understanding of Truth. Zen is
school of Buddhism that stresses meditation and spiritual practice. Zen provide practical,
experiential approach to spirituality applicable to all religions
History
• Siddartha Gautama who later became known as “The Buddha,” lived during the 5th
century B.C. Gautama was born into a wealthy family as a prince in present-day Nepal.
Although he had an easy life, Gautama was moved by suffering in the world. He decided
to give up his lavish lifestyle and endure poverty
• Encountered an old man
• Man affected with serious illness
• Corpse being carried in a sorrowful funeral procession
– He realized sickness, old age and death are unavoidable ending even to the
happiest and most prosperous life. Buddhism currently has two major traditions:
Theravada or Hinayana and Mahayana
Zen is the major school of Mahayana Tradition. Zen is said to have brought to China in 6th
century AD by Bodhidharma, an Indian Buddhist monk who emphasized contemplation and
personal discipline over religious ritual
Major concepts
• The 3 characteristics of Existence
1. Impermanence
2. Lack of an eternal Self or soul (selflessness)
3. Dissatisfaction as the essential attribute of this world (dissatisfaction)
 4. Impermanence: everything is an ever changing manifestation of the same reality
. Primary feature of the universe is change. Human beings have strong tendency
to conceive of the world as static, to see things instead of fluid and constantly
changing process. These process are both ever changing and also interdependent
• Selflessness: no immortal soul or eternal, unchanging self exists in each individual. The
individual is seen as a collection of elements, all of which are impermanent and
constantly changing. Individual made up of 5 basic factors- body, perception, sensation,
consciousness and mental activities. Interdependence and coexistence with all things -in
humans life. All things are temporary collection of processes.
Dissatisfaction or suffering: third characteristics of existence: The concept of dissatisfaction
embraces birth, death, decay, sorrow, pain, grief and existence itself. Suffering comes not from
the world around us but from ourselves
The 4 noble truth
1. The existence of dissatisfaction: dissatisfaction is inescapable
2. Craving as the root of dissatisfaction: dissatisfaction is the result of craving or desire
3. Elimination of craving: elimination of craving brings the extinction of suffering. It is
possible to learn to accept the world as it is without experiencing dissatisfaction
4. The eightfold path
• Right understanding
• Right thought
• Right speech 
• Right action
• Right livelihood  
• Right effort
• Right mindfulness
• Right concentration
Obstacles to growth
• Greed: we tend to want more than we have or need- more money, food, pleasure etc.
• Hate: dominant people have sharp tempers and are quick to anger
• Delusion: general state of confusion, lack of awareness vacillation. If delusion is
strongest , find it difficult to make up their minds or to commit to anything
 • Pride: it can result in a lack of respect for one’s teacher and create distortion of the
teachings. A Zen teacher will attempt to lead students to see and acknowledge their own
pride and egoism

Sufism and the Islamic tradition

Sufism: Mystical Islamic belief and practice in which Muslims seek to find the truth of divine
love and knowledge through direct personal experience of God.  Is the mystical core of Islam
and date its appearance to the 7th century AD, within 100 years after Islam emerged as a major
religious force. Is prominent in Middle East. Sufism derives from the Arabic term for a
mystic, ṣūfī, which is in turn derived from ṣūf, “wool,”. The Sufis are also generally known as
“the poor,”  . Belief in pursuing a path that leads to closeness with God, ultimately through
encountering the divine in the hereafter, is a fundamental component of Islamic belief. 
• Islam: Arabic word for peace or surrender.
• Major concepts- four stages of Sufi Practice
1.  Sharia (exoteric path), 
2. Tariqa (the mystical path), 
3. Haqiqa (truth)
4. Marifa (final mystical knowledge,)
•  Sharia (exoteric path): Basic foundation for next 3 stage. Teaches morality and ethics
found in all religions. Provide guidance for us to live properly in the world. Sharia means
road. It is a clear track, a well travelled route that anyone can follow
• Tariqa: inner practice of sufism . Makes us clean and pure from within
• Haqiqa (truth) : Personal understanding of the inner meanings of sharia and tariqa
practices and guidance
• Marifa: deep level of inner knowing beyond haqiqa . It is the knowledge of reality
attained by few-the messengers, the prophets and great saints
Paths of Sufism
• Devotion: Sufism has been called the path of the heart. Service is the sister of devotion.
One of the greatest service is to help heal the injured hearts of others.Remembrance:
remembrance of God fuels our devotion and service. The Sufis seek constant
remembrance never forgetting that we are in God’s presence
• Community: Sufi groups are like families. The teacher is the parent and dervishes are
brothers and sisters. The self: self is living force rather than static structure in psyche. It
refers to a process which comes about from the interaction of body and soul
 • Tyrannical or narcissistic self: seeks to dominate us and to control our thoughts and
actions at this level individual displays no sense of morality or compassion
• The regretful self: this stage resembles Freud’s concept of super ego. It can be highly
judgmental and self blaming
• The inspired self: takes genuine pleasure in prayer, meditation, and other spiritual
activities. They are motivated by compassion, service and moral values
• The serene self: the seeker is now at peace. This level resembles the stage of gratitude
and trust.
• The pleased self: the individual is contented with whatever happens, realizing that even
pain and suffering come from the divine
• The self pleasing to God: realize that all power to act originates in God that they can do
nothing by themselves. These individuals achieved genuine inner unity and wholness
• The pure self: no ego or separate self remains only union with God. This stage
individual realized the truth that there is no God but God
• Two advanced state of consciousness by sufis
1. Annihilation:
 it is a state of union.
 Individual identity seems merged with whole of reality
 Person erects no barriers between the self and God
2. State of return or persistence:
 state of return and persistence in which the individual is part of the world but
unconcerned about his or her rewards or position in it.
 It is the reintegration as the universal self, or the activation of the individual’s totality
Perspectives of Positive Psychology
• Founder of positive psychology
• Martin Seligman, Born august 12, 1942, look at our strengths rather than weaknesses.
• APA President 1996, Psychology split into two camps: Academics more interested in
science, Clinicians interested in practice of psychotherapy. Hoped to bring science and
practice together.
Co-initiators of this development are…
• Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, Christopher Peterson, Barbara Fredickson
 Positive Psychology
• Concerned with the enhancement of happiness and well-being. The scientific study of the
role of personal strengths and positive social systems in the promotion of optimal well-
being.
• “Positive psychology is the scientific study of what makes life most worth living.”
(Peterson, 2008)
• Positive psychology is the study of the conditions and processes that contribute to the
flourishing or optimal functioning of people, groups, and institutions.”(Gable et al.)
• Positive psychology is a scientific approach to studying human thoughts, feelings, and
behavior with a focus on strength instead of weakness, building the good in life instead of
repairing the bad (Peterson, 2008).
• Positive Psychology Focuses…… Or it covers:
– Positive experiences (happiness, joy, inspiration, and love)
– Positive states and traits (gratitude, resilience and compassion)
– Positive institutions (applying positive principles within entire organizations and
institutions)
• Seligman and Peterson developed a twenty-four virtues that they claim are universal and
divided into six basic types:
• Wisdom and Knowledge: creativity, curiosity, open-mindedness, love of learning,
perspective
• Courage: bravery, persistence, integrity, vitality
• Humanity: love, kindness, social intelligence
• Justice: citizenship, fairness, leadership
• Temperance: forgiveness and mercy, humility and modesty, prudence, self-regulation
• Transcendence: appreciation of beauty and excellence, gratitude, hope, humor,
spirituality
CORE CONCEPTS UNDERPINNING POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
1. AUTHENTICITY: Authenticity is about reliability, genuineness and trustworthiness; you
are not trying to be something you are not. For the individual, it should result in increased
feelings of gratification and wellbeing as a result of being able to exercise talents and strengths.
When thoughts, feelings and behaviours are out of alignment, cognitive dissonance results and
discomfort occurs, which pushes us back towards equilibrium.
2.SELF-EFFICACY : Self-efficacy is the belief that one has the capabilities to execute the
actions needed to deliver results. It is important here to understand the distinction between self
esteem and self efficacy. Self esteem relates to a person’s sense of self-worth, whereas self
efficacy relates to a person’s perception of their ability to reach a goal.
3. RESILIENCE : Describes the positive capacity of people to deal with stress and adverse
events. It is also used to indicate a characteristic of resistance to future negative events.
Resilience is a dynamic quality, not a permanent capacity. In other words, resilient individuals
demonstrate dynamic self-renewal, whereas less resilient individuals find themselves worn down
and negatively impacted by life stressors.
4.FLOW : Flow is a mental state of operation in which the person is fully immersed in what they
are doing, characterized by a feeling of energized focus, full involvement, and success in the
process of the activity.
5.POSITIVE EMOTIONS: two types of emotions Negative and Positive
• Negative emotion: Negative emotions such as fear, anger or disgust prepare us mentally
and physically to take an immediate action against an object or situation that poses a
threat. For example, fear prepares us to run away from a ferocious animal……. Negative
emotions protect us from life threatening situations but when used excessively and
inappropriately, these very life saving emotions can become life threatening.
• Positive emotion: Positive emotions such as joy, hope, optimism, love, contentment and
gratitude help us to grow as a person, energize us for positive action, solve problems,
improve the quality of our relationships and increase our sense of emotional well-being.
When we engage in positive emotions habitually, over time, they can become life
enhancing.
6. POSITIVE PERSONAL TRAITS : Different personal traits that contribute to positive
psychology:
1. Subjective Well-Being:  refers to what people think and feel about their lives – to the
cognitive and affective evaluation they draw when they assess their existence.
2. Optimism: One of the traits that mediates external events and a person’s interpretation
of them is optimism. Optimism to entail cognitive, emotional and motivational
components. To understand the mechanisms of optimism and answer questions like: Can
we increase optimism? When does it begin to distort reality? How does an overly
pessimistic culture affect the well-being of its citizens?
3. Happiness (Authentic Happiness Theory) : Seligman’s beginning theory discussed
authentic happiness. He described that people can feel happiness from different types of
experiences.
a.. The pleasant life: we savor and appreciate the basic pleasures of
companionship, the natural environment and our bodily needs
 b. The engaged life: Engagement is characterized by flow. Flow refers to the
experience of completely loosing oneself in an activity. Individuals become totally
absorbed in what they are doing and lose track of time. They are not thinking, but in
essence unified with what they are doing. Individuals could experience this in many
activities, such as at work, dancing, playing baseball, or even solving a crossword puzzle.
c. The Meaningful Life – taking our deep sense of fulfillment and employing the
unique strengths we have cultivated to find a purpose greater than ourselves.
4. Self-Determination: The self-determination theory has three related human needs: 
• The need for competence
• The need for belonging
• The need for autonomy 
• When people meet these needs their personal well-being and their social development
are optimized. When this happens, people are intrinsically motivated, able to achieve
their potentialities and to seek ever expanding challenges. 
7.FLOURISHING: Refers to the state we are in when we pay attention to each aspect of the
PERMA model and build up a solid sense of well-being. We flourish when we cultivate our
talents and strengths, develop deep and meaningful relationships, feel pleasure and enjoyment,
and make a meaningful contribution to the world. We flourish when we find fulfillment in life
along with achieving more traditional objectives related to success when we are truly living the
“good life” (Seligman, 2011).
PERMA Model
• It  is a widely recognized and influential model in positive psychology. Seligman
proposed this model to help explain and define well-being in greater depth. “PERMA” is
an acronym for the five facets of well-being according to Seligman:
P – Positive Emotions: It is the ability to be optimistic and view the past, present, and
future from a positive perspective. This positive view of life can help you in
relationships, work, and inspire you to be more creative and take more chances.
• E – Engagement: It is important in our lives to be able to find activities that need our full
engagement.  Engagement in the activities in our lives is important for us to learn, grow
and nurture our personal happiness.
• R – (Positive) Relationships: Relationships and social connections are one of the most
important aspects of life. Humans are social animals that thrive on connection, love,
intimacy, and a strong emotional and physical interaction with other humans. Building
positive relationships with your parents, siblings, peers, and friends are important to
spread love and joy. Having strong relationships gives you support in difficult times.
• M – Meaning: Having a purpose and meaning to why each of us is on this earth is
important to living a life of happiness and fulfillment. Rather than the pursuit of pleasure
 and material wealth, there is an actual meaning to our life. Such meaning gives people a
reason for their life and that there is a greater purpose in life.
• A – Accomplishment / Achievement: Having goals and ambition in life can help us to
achieve things that can give us a sense of accomplishment. You should make realistic
goals that can be met and just putting in the effort to achieving those goals can already
give you a sense of satisfaction when you finally achieve those goals a sense of pride and
fulfillment will be reached. Having accomplishments in life is important to push
ourselves to thrive and flourish.
 How to apply PERMA model:
 Adopt positive perspective as you can
 Find the things that make you happy and engaged
 Focus on your relationship
 Search for meaning-lead a life of purpose
 Savor your accomplishment and strive for further achievements
Positive psychology discuss the topics like
• character strengths, optimism, life satisfaction, happiness, well-being, gratitude,
compassion (as well as self-compassion), self esteem, self confidence, Hope,
fullnessness.
Positive Psychology in Practice
• The use of the experience sampling method (or ESM), also referred to as a daily
diary method: Notice what you were thinking, feeling, and doing in that moment, and
writing it all down. This is often used in positive interventions to help people realize how
much of their day is actually quite positive.
• The practice of keeping a gratitude journal: write down three things they are grateful
for each day, with the only stipulation being that they need to be different each day.
Within a week, many people experience a boost in well-being along with an increase in
gratitude. 
• Making a gratitude visit: A gratitude visit (or letter) is an exercise in which an individual
identifies a person to whom he or she is grateful and why; once they have these in mind,
they can write a letter to this person expressing and explaining their gratitude. If the
person lives close enough to visit, they are encouraged to drop off the letter in person and
visit with them 
• Focusing on building personal strengths instead of weaknesses: identifying one’s
strengths and working to provide yourself with more opportunities to use them.
• Well-being therapy:  This holistic approach to therapy is similar to CBT, but focuses on
both promoting the positive and alleviating the negative in the client’s life. Recognizes
 six factors of well-being: mastery of the environment, personal growth, purpose in life,
autonomy, self-acceptance, and positive relationships
• Positive psychotherapy:  This therapy is similar to well-being therapy. Its focus is on
building positive emotions, character strengths, and a sense of meaning in life
Benefits of positive psychology:
1. It teaches us the power of shifting one’s perspective.
2. People overestimate the impact of money on their happiness by quite a lot. It does have
some influence, but not nearly as much as we might think, so focusing less on attaining
wealth will likely make you happier
3. Gratitude is a big contributor to happiness in life, suggesting that the more we cultivate
gratitude
4. 4. People who perform acts of kindness towards others not only get a boost in well-being,
they are also more accepted by their peers
5. 5. A more well-defined idea of what “the good life” is.

Criticism on the Movement in Perspective

• Research findings are often invalid, overstated, and misleading.
• There is too much emphasis on self-report and cross-sectional survey data.
• The field is too individualistic.