UNIT -2

 Burzahom Gulfkral - Pit-

  Ancient History- Indus Valley Civilizations:
 First site excavated – Harappa
 Most of its settlements are found in the valley of Indus River.

Indus Valley Civilisation

 The advent of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also known as the
Harappan Civilization, marks the beginning of Indian history.
 The Indus Valley Civilisation was called after the Indus River system, on
which alluvial plains the early sites of the civilization were discovered
and excavated.
 The Indus Valley Civilization began approximately 3300 BC.
 It thrived between 2600 and 1900 BC (Mature Indus Valley Civilization).
It began to decline around 1900 BC and vanished around 1400 BC.
 This is also known as the Harappan Civilization, after the first city
unearthed, Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan).
 The first evidence of cotton production has been discovered in Mehrgarh,
Pakistan, dating back to the pre-Harappan civilization.
 The Indus Valley was home to the largest of Egypt's, Mesopotamia's,
India's, and China's ancient urban civilizations.
 The Archaeological Department of India conducted excavations in the
Indus valley in the 1920s, unearthing the ruins of two ancient
towns, Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
 In 1924, ASI Director-General John Marshall proclaimed to the world
the finding of a new civilization in the Indus Valley.

 The archaeological discoveries made during the previous eight decades

demonstrate the Harappan culture's progressive growth.
 Pre-Harappan, early-Harappan, mature-Harappan, and late
Harappan are the four major stages or periods of development.
 Eastern Balochistan is the location of the pre-Harappan stage.
 Excavations in Mehrgarh, 150 miles northwest of Mohenjodaro, have
shown the presence of pre-Harappan civilization. At this point, the
nomadic people began to settle down and live a stable agricultural
existence.
 The Early Harappan Phase is associated with the Hakra Phase, which was
discovered in the Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley.
  People lived in huge communities on the plains during the Early
Harappan period. The settlements in the Indus valley grew gradually.
 During this time, there was also a movement from country to urban life.
The sites of Amri and Kot Diji continue to provide evidence for the
early Harappan period.
 Great cities arose during the mature-Harappan era.
 The excavations at Kalibangan, with their intricate town planning and
urban elements, demonstrate this stage of progression.
 The fall of the Indus civilization began in the late-Harappan era. This
stage of progression is revealed by the excavations at Lothal.
 Lothal, with its harbor, was established considerably later. As flood
protection, it was enclosed by a large brick wall.
 Lothal remained a commerce hub for the Harappan civilization and the
rest of India, as well as Mesopotamia.

Date of Indus Valley Civilisation

 Sir John Marshall estimated the length of Mohenjodaro's settlement

between 3250 and 2750 B.C. in 1931.
 As a result, as additional sites are uncovered, the date of the Harappan
civilization is revised.
 The development of the radiocarbon technique allows for the
determination of nearly exact dates.
 On the basis of radiocarbon dates from his finds, Fairservis reduced the
chronology of the Harappan civilization to between 2000 and 1500 B.C.
by 1956.
 D.P. Agarwal concluded in 1964 that the overall period of this
civilization should be between 2300 and 1750 B.C.
 However, these dates are subject to additional change.
Important sites of Indus Valley Civilisation

Site Discovered by Location Features

Harappa Marshall, Rai Bahadur Located in the Located in the
Daya Ram Sahni and Montgomery district Montgomery district
Madho Sarup Vats. of Punjab, on the of Punjab, on the
1921 banks of the Ravi banks of the Ravi
River. River.
Mohenjodaro R.D. Banerjee, E. J. H. Located in the Punjab  Mound of
MacKay and Marshall. district of Larkana on Dead
1922 the banks of the Indus
 Great bath
River
 Granary
Bronze
 dancing girl
 Seal of
Pashupati
Mahadeva
statue
 Steatite of
beard man
 A plethora of
seals have
been
discovered.
 The most
significant
employment
was
agriculture.
Cotton
cultivation
was
pioneered by
the earliest
civilisation.
 Domesticated
animals
included
sheep, goats,
and pigs.
Sutkagendor Stein in 1929 Dast river in Pakistan's  Harappa's
southern Balochistan and
province Babylon's
trading post

Chanhudaro N.G Majumdar in Sindh is located on the  Shop with

1931 Indus River. bead makers
 a dog chasing
a cat's
footprint

Amri N.G Majumdar in On the banks of the  Evidence of

1935. Indus. antelope

Kalibangan Ghose in 1953. Rajasthan, beside the  Altar of fire

Ghaggar River.  Bones from
camels.
 Plough of
wood

Lothal R.Rao in 1953. Gujarat on Bhogva  The first

river near Gulf of artificial port.
Cambay.  Dockyard.
 husk of rice
 Altars of fire.

Surkotada J.P Joshi in 1964. Gujarat.  Horse

skeletons
 Beads

Banawali R.S Bisht in 1974. Haryana's Hisar  Evidence of

district. Beads,
Barley
 Both pre-
Harappan
and
Harappan
cultures have
been
discovered.
Geographical Area:
Flourished between 2500-1500 BC.
2200- 1800 BC was its mature period.
It covered the present Pakistan and North western part of India.

Manda
( J & K)

Sutkagendor
Geographic Alamgirpur
Extent ( Meerut)

Daimabad
(MH)

Features:
 Urban civilization
 Ruled by traders
 Foreign trade
 Barter system
 Craft specialization
 3500 BC – 2500 BC Developed
 Planned cities
 2500 BC- 1800 BC matured
 Literate
 1800 BC – 1500 BC decline
 Boustrophedon and pictographic script, around 400 alphabets

Features of Urban civilization:

 Planned cities
 Uniformity in the planning of cities
 Big buildings
 Covered drainage system
 Use of burnt bricks
  Presence of industries
 Internal and external trade
extent

Economy:
 Harappans practiced barter system
 Produced Wheat, Barley, Peas, Jowar, Ragi, etc.
 Oxen, Buffaloes, Goats, Sheep domestic fowls and Pigs were domesticated.
 The thriving agricultural economy supported a flourishing trade both within the
northern and western area of the sub- continent and between the people of this culture
and those of the Persian and Gulf and Mesopotamia.

Political Life:
There is no idea about the political organization of the Harappans. Perhaps the Harappan
rulers were more concerned with commerce than with conquests, and Harappa was possibly
ruled by the class of merchants.

Religion:
-The chief male deity was the Pashupati Mahadeva represented in seals, as sitting in a
yogic posture on a low and having three faces and two horns. He is surrounded by four
animals (elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo ), each facing a different direction, and two
deer appear at his feet.
-There is sufficient evidence for the prevalence of Phallic worship.
-The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess, who has been depicted in various forms to
please fertility Goddess.
- The worship of fire is proved by the discovery of Fire altars at Lothal, Kalibangan and
Harappa.
- Indus people worshipped Gods in the form of trees Pipal and animals Unicorn etc.
- They believed in ghosts and evils forces and used Amulets as protection against them.

Agriculture in Indus Valley Civilisation

 Harappan communities, which were generally located in river plains,

generated enough foodgrains.
 Wheat, barley, rai, peas, sesame, lentil, chickpea, and mustard were
among the crops grown.
  Millets have also been discovered in Gujarat. While rice was used
infrequently.
 The Indus people were the first to cultivate cotton.
 Whole grain findings suggest the presence of agriculture, reconstructing
real agricultural operations is more challenging.
 The bull was recognized, according to representations on seals and
terracotta art, and archaeologists conclude that oxen were also utilised for
ploughing.
 The majority of Harappan sites are in semi-arid regions where irrigation
was likely necessary for cultivation.
 Canal traces have been discovered in Afghanistan's Shortughai
Harappan site, but not in Punjab or Sindh.
 Although the Harappans were farmers, they also raised animals on a
massive scale.
 A shallow level of Mohenjodaro and a dubious ceramic piece from Lothal
provide evidence of the horse. In any event, Harappan civilization was
not centred on horses

Social Life

 To comprehend the Harappan social life, there is a wealth of evidence.

Both men and women wore two pieces of fabric, one for the upper body
and the other for the lower body.
 Both men and women wore beads.
 Women wore bangles, bracelets, fillets, girdles, anklets, ear-rings, and
finger rings, among other things.
 Gold, silver, copper, bronze, and semi-precious stones were used to create
these decorations.
  Cosmetic usage was widespread. At Mohenjodaro, several household
items made of pottery, stone, shells, ivory, and metal have been
discovered.
 Copper is used to make spindles, needles, combs, fish hooks, and
knives.
 Fishing was a popular hobby, while bullfighting and hunting were also
popular.
 Axes, spearheads, daggers, bows, and arrows made of copper and
bronze were among the many weapons on display.

Social Institutions

 In the Indus valley, just a few written items have been uncovered, and
academics have yet to decode the Indus script.
 As a result, determining the nature of the Indus Valley
Civilization's state and institutions is challenging.
 At no Harappan site have temples been discovered. As a result, the
prospect of priests dominating Harappa is ruled out.
 Harappa was most likely dominated by a merchant class.
 Archaeological documents may not give obvious answers when looking
for a power centre or portrayals of powerful people.
 Some archaeologists believe that Harappan culture had no rulers and
that everyone was treated equally.
Art and Crafts

 The Harappans were well-versed in the production and application of

bronze.
 Copper was acquired from Rajasthan's Khetri copper mines, while tin was
likely imported from Afghanistan.
 Several artefacts have been discovered with textile imprints.
 Large brick structures indicate that brick-laying was a valuable skill.
This also confirms the existence of a mason class.
 The Harappans were known for their boat-building, bead-making, and
seal-making skills. Terracotta production was also a significant skill.
 Goldsmiths created silver, gold, and precious stone jewellery.
 The potter's wheel was in full swing, and the Harappans were producing
their own distinctive glossy and gleaming pottery.
Script in Indus Valley Civilisation

 The Harappan script is currently being deciphered in its entirety.

 There are between 400 and 600 signs, with 40 or 60 being fundamental
and the rest being modifications.
 The majority of the script was written from right to left.
 The boustrophedon approach — writing in the opposite way in
alternate lines – was used on a few lengthy seals.
 Dravidian was the language of the Harappans, according to Parpola and
his Scandinavian colleagues. This viewpoint is shared by a group of
Soviet academics.
 Other researchers hold a different perspective on the Harappan and
Brahmi scripts.
 The Harappan writing remains a mystery, and deciphering it will
undoubtedly provide new information on this civilisation.
Burial Methods

 Cemeteries unearthed near towns like Mohenjodaro, Harappa,

Kalibangan, Lothal, and Rupar shed information on the Harappans'
burial habits.
 At Mohenjodaro, both complete burial and post-cremation burial were
prevalent.
 The burial hole at Lothal was lined with charred bricks, indicating that
coffins were used. At Harappa, wooden coffins were also discovered.
 Pot burials have been discovered in Lothal, occasionally with pairs of
bones. However, there is no concrete proof that Sati is practised.

Decline of Indus Valley Civilisation

 There is no universal agreement on what caused the Harappan civilization

to fall. Several hypotheses have been proposed.
 Natural disasters like repeated floods, river drying up, diminishing soil
fertility owing to overexploitation, and periodic earthquakes may have
contributed to the downfall of the Harappan towns.
 The invasion of Aryans, according to some experts, was the ultimate
blow. The Rig Veda mentions the demolition of forts.
 Human bones discovered crowded together at Mohenjodaro further
suggest that the city was attacked by strangers.
  The Aryans possessed stronger weaponry and fast horses, which may
have helped them to conquer this region.

• Thebelieved in hosts and evils forces and used amulets as rotection aainst them.

Vedic and Later Vedic Period: -

The Vedic Civilization was the culture and traditions of the society prevalent
during the Vedic age (1500- 600 BCE). In various examinations which have a
section of general studies, often ask a question or two about the Vedic
civilization. This chapter of the history study material & notes is meant to cover
the essential and exam-worthy details of the ancient Vedic period.

It should be noted here that after the decline of Indus Valley civilization by
1500 BCE, the next wave of civilization began to take shape in form of Aryan
occupation of Indo-Gangetic plain.

The Aryans:

 Typically, the age of Aryans is known as the Vedic age because the four
major Vedas were created in this time.
 The word Aryan is derived from the Sanskrit word “arya” which means
noble, not ordinary.
 They arrived from russian steppes, as is believed and agreed to by
majority historians.
 But various scholars voice different opinion about thier origin. Bal
Gangadhar Tilak argued that Aryans came from the Arctic region
following their astronomical calculations.
 It is generally agreed that they spoke Indo-Aryan Language, Sanskrit.
 They were semi-nomadic, pastoral people, who led a rural life as
compared to the urban Harappans.
Later Vedic Period or Painted Grey Ware Phase (1000 BC – 600 BC)
During this time, the Aryans moved eastwards and occupied western and eastern
UP (Kosala) and Bihar.
Political structure:

 Kingdoms like Mahajanapadas were formed by amalgamating smaller

kingdoms.
 King’s power increased and various sacrifices were performed by him to
enhance his position.
 Sacrifices were Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), Vajapeya (chariot race)
and Ashwamedha (horse sacrifice).
 The Sabhas and Samitis diminished in importance.

Social structure:

 The Varna system of social distinction became more distinct. This became
less based on occupation and more hereditary.
 The four divisions of society in decreasing social ranking were: Brahmanas
(priests), Kshatriyas (rulers), Vaishyas (agriculturists, traders and artisans),
and Shudras (servers of the upper three classes).
 Women were not permitted to attend public assemblies like Sabhas and
Samitis. Their position in society diminished.
 Child marriages became common.
 Sub-castes based on occupation also emerged. Gotras were
institutionalised.

Economic structure:

 Agriculture was the chief occupation.

 Industrial work like metalwork, pottery and carpentry work also was there.
 There was foreign trade with far off regions like Babylon and Sumeria.
Religion:

 Prajapati (creator) and Vishnu (preserver) became important gods.

 Indra and Agni lost their significance.
 Importance of prayers diminished and rituals and sacrifices became more
elaborate.
  The priestly class became very powerful and they dictated the rules of the
rites and rituals. Because of this orthodoxy, Buddhism and Jainism
emerged towards the end of this period.
Vedic Literature

 The word ‘Veda’ originated from the root ‘vid’ which means spiritual
knowledge/subject of knowledge/means of acquiring knowledge.
 The four Vedas are: Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva.
 Rig Veda was composed during the Early Vedic Age. The other three were
written in the Later Vedic Age.
 Rig Veda – this is the oldest religious text in the world. It contains 1028
hymns and is classified into 10 mandalas.
 Yajur Veda – these deals with the ways to perform rituals.
 Sama Veda – deals with music. Indian music is said to be originated from
Sama Veda.
 Atharva Veda – contains spells and magical formula.
 Other Vedic texts were the Brahmanas (explains the meaning of sacrifices);
Upanishads (also called Vedantas, 108 in number, source of Indian
philosophy); and Aranyakas (books of instructions).
 The great Indian epics of Mahabharata and Ramayana were also composed
during this period.
Classification of Vedic Period:
The period of Vedic Civilization (1500-500 BCE) is divided into two broad
parts –

1. Early Vedic Period (1500-1000 BC), also known as Rig Vedic Period.
2. Later Vedic Period (1000- 600 BC).

Vedic Civilization – Early Vedic Period (EVP) and Later Vedic Period (LVP)

Political Organisation in Vedic Age:

In Early Vedic Age:

 ‘Kula ‘was the basic unit of political organization.

 Multiple families together of kinship formed a ‘grama ‘.
 Leader of ‘grama’ was ‘Gramani‘.
 Group of villages were called ‘visu’, headed by ‘vishayapati‘.
 The highest political and administrative unit was ‘jana ‘or tribe.
 There were several such tribal kingdoms – Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus and
Purus.
 The head of kingdom was ‘Rajan ‘or king.
 The Rig Vedic polity was hereditary monarchy normally.
  There were two bodies- Sabha (council of elders) and Samiti (general
assembly of people).

In Later Vedic Age:

 Larger kingdoms by amalgamation formed

‘Mahajanapadas or rashtras‘.
 Therefore, the power of king increased and he performed various rituals
and sacrifices to make his position strong like Rajasuya (consecration
ceremony), Asvamedha (horse sacrifice) and Vajpeya (chariot race).
 The kings assumed titles of Rajavisvajanan, Ahilabhuvanapathi(lord of
all earth), Ekrat and Samrat (sole ruler).
 But, importance of the Samiti and the Sabha diminished.
Society in Vedic Civilization:
In Early Vedic Age:

 The Rig Vedic society was basically patriarchal.

 The basic unit of society was ‘graham’ or family, its head was called as
‘grahapathi’.
 Monogamy was practiced while polygamy among royal and noble
families was observed.
 Women had equal opportunities as men for their spiritual and intellectual
development. Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra were women
poets.
 Women could attend the popular assemblies.
 No child marriage, sati practice.

 Social divisions were not rigid.

In Later Vedic Age:

 The Varna system became prevalent- four divisions of society: Brahmins,

Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras.
 A Brahmin and Kshatriyas occupied a higher position than others.
 Various sub-castes on the basis of occupation emerged.
 Women were considered inferior and subordinate to men now and also
lost their political rights of attending assemblies.
 Child marriages became common.

Economic Conditions in Vedic Civilization:

In Early Vedic Age:

 The Rig Vedic Aryans were pastoral, cattle rearing people.

 After they permanently settled in North India, they began agriculture.
 Carpenters produced chariots and ploughs.
 A variety of articles with copper, bronze and iron were made by workers.
  Spinning was an important occupation – cotton and woolen fabrics.
 Goldsmiths made ornaments.
 The potters made different kinds of vessels for domestic use.
 Trade was conducted by barter system in begining but later shifted to use
of gold coins called ‘nishka ‘for large transactions.
 Rivers acted as means of transport.

In Later Vedic Age:

 More land was put under cultivation by clearing forests. Knowledge of

manure saw development.
 Hence, Agriculture became the chief occupation of people
growing barley, rice and wheat.
 Industrial activity became specialized with metal work, leather work,
carpentry and pottery advancement.
 Internal trade as well as foreign trade also became extensive (they traded
with Babylon through sea).
 Hereditary merchants (vaniya) came into existence as a different class.
 Vaisyas indulged in trade and commerce organized themselves into
guilds known as ‘ganas‘.
 Coins: Beesides ‘nishka’, ‘satamana’– gold coins and ‘krishnala‘ –
silver coins were also used as a media of exchange.

Religion in Vedic Period:

In Early Vedic Age:

 Rig Vedic Aryans worshiped natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain and
thunder by personifying them into many gods.
 Some important Rig Vedic gods
– Prithvi (Earth), Agni (Fire), Vayu (Wind), Varuna (Rain)
and Indra (Thunder). And ‘Indra’ was most popular. Next came ‘Agni’ –
an intermediary between the gods and the people.
 ‘Varuna’ – the upholder of natural order.
 Female Gods – ‘Aditi’ and ‘Ushas’.
 No temples and no idol worship.
 Prayers were offered to gods for rewards.

In Later Vedic Age:

 Indra and Agni lost their importance.

 Prajapathi (the creator), Vishnu (the protector) and Rudra (the
destroyer) became.
 Sacrifices and the rituals became more elaborate.
  But the importance of prayers declined.
 Priesthood became a hereditary profession. They dictated the rules for
these rituals and sacrifices.

Differences between Early Vedic Age and Later Vedic Age :-

Early Vedic Period Later Vedic Period

The caste grouping was
compromising and based on
the occupational group rather
than birth.
There was no conception of
untouchables or Shudra.
Women were granted a larger
degree of freedom during this
period. They were allowed to
take part in Samitis and Sabha.
The young Vedic society was
semi-nomadic and pastoralist
in nature.
Rigveda, this passage, is cited
as the simple text from this
time.
The caste grouping became more stiff or
inflexible during this time.
The Shudras became the pillar in the later
Vedic Period. The main and sole aim was
to serve the high caste or the upper caste.
The women were cut back from the
activities happening in society.
The society was suited to be more
accomplished, as it became centred on
agriculture practices.
In the later Vedic period, the barter
system was still in exercise. It was
majorly supplanted by the interchange of
silver and gold coins.