COLOR IN CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN

Color has a powerful visual impact; it attracts the eye and helps in directing the reader to the
various elements of the map. Color allows greater flexibility in design; it aids in distinguishing
figure–ground, such as land and water, and between categories, such as roads and railroads, rural
and urban, and types of vegetation; it helps in establishing hierarchies within categories.

While categories and hierarchies can be shown on black-and-white maps, the use of even one
color on a map greatly enlarges design possibilities. Color, like typography, is one of the most
frequently criticized aspects of a design. It is one of the most visible elements of a map. Readers
tend to have definite likes and dislikes respecting color. Planning a color map is more complex
than planning a black-and white map; one must consider connotations, conventions, preferences,
and interaction with other colors and with other map elements, such as typography, linework,
and symbols. Registration of colors (alignment) can be a problem for printed maps, and
preparation of the artwork is more complex.

Introducing color into the design of a thematic map can be both exciting and troublesome. On the
one hand, color provides so many design options that designers often quickly seize the
opportunity to include it. Yet the inclusion of color invites many potential problems. Two
individuals may view the same color but perceive it differently. Computer monitors attempt to
produce the same color but generate colors with slight variations because they have various
settings, such as video card resolution, color calibration, and the ambient light conditions that
may impact the color displayed. The paper map printed in color will appear different when
printed on a color laser jet printer than the way it appears on an ink jet printer. The quality of the
paper on which the map is printed can also have an impact on the way the color is perceived by
different users. Color is also affected by the ambient light conditions in which the map is viewed.
In sum, the designer can never be totally certain as to how the reader(s) will respond to the color
in a map.

However, if allowed to choose, most map designers choose color mapping because of its inherent
advantage of greater design freedom. Color in thematic mapping is perhaps the most fascinating
and least understood of the design elements. Color is subjective rather than objective. Another
problem in dealing with color is that it is difficult, if not impossible, to set color rules. This
situation is getting greater attention as the creation of color maps viewed on-screen can be
designed from a palette of thousands of colors. On the other hand, rigid rules can also be
restrictive in design. Color is a complex subject and can be studied in many different ways.
Physicists, chemists, physiologists, psychologists, philosophers, musicians, writers, architects,
and artists approach color from different perspectives, with distinct purposes

LIGHT AND THE COLOR SPECTRUM

Light is that part of the electromagnetic energy spectrum (EMS) that is visible to the human eye.
The electromagnetic spectrum is all energy that moves with the speed of light. It includes radio
waves, x-rays, infrared waves, ultraviolet waves, microwaves, and what we refer to as the visible
spectrum.
Only a very small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum is visible to the human eye. This
portion is called the visible spectrum and includes energy with wavelengths from 0.4 to 0.7
micrometers (μm). Light waves that have a length of 0.45 μm appear blue to us; those that have a
length of 0.65 μm appear red. If a light source emits waves of all these lengths, the combination
appears to have no color and is called white light. If white light is broken into its components, as
with a prism or a raindrop, then we see a rainbow with the hues of the visible spectrum displayed
in spectral order, from the shortest to longest wavelengths of violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow,
orange, and red

EMS

The Visible EMS (we call Light)

Reading thematic maps is a process involving the eyes and brain of the map reader. Light
emitted by the computer monitor or reflected off the map is sensed by the eyes, which report
sensations to the brain, where cognitive processes begin. The sensing and cognitive processing of
color is called color perception.

Physical Properties of Color

The generation of color will occur in either illuminant mode or reflective mode. The illuminant
mode requires a light source and the eye-brain sensing system of the viewer while the reflective
mode, also known as the object mode, requires three elements: a light source, an object, and the
eye-brain system of the viewer.
The illuminant mode applies to virtual maps generated for viewing on-screen with the computer
monitor generating the energy for image display.
The reflective mode occurs when a map is printed and the light striking the map reflects back to
the eye of the map reader.
For printed maps the physical characteristics of color are also affected by the quality of the
object’s surface. Some surfaces permit all light to pass through them, such as acetate film or
laminate. These are called transparent objects.
Surfaces that absorb all light are opaque and appear black. The amount of light that is reflected
from surfaces can be plotted on a diagram that is called a spectral reflectance curve.

COLOR THEORIES

Depending on the whether the map is viewed on-screen or printed, two prominent color theories
apply: additive color theory and subtractive color theory. The former specifically applies to
light generated in the illuminant mode when color images are viewed on-screen, and the latter
applies to the reflected mode.

Additive Color Theory

Although visible light is composed of a myriad of colors at various wavelengths, we consider

white light to be made up of three primary colors —red, green, and blue (RGB) — because
these cannot be made from combinations of other colors. However, when combined we can
generate any number of other colors

Additive theory

In that area where all three colors overlap, we will see white; whereas in those areas where two
colors overlap, we will see magenta, cyan, or yellow. Red, green, and blue are called the
additive primary colors because they can, in various combinations, produce any other hue in
the visible part of the energy spectrum.
Colors produced by computer monitors, television screens, or movie films are the result of
additive primaries of emitted light.
Subtractive Color Theory

Color produced by printing is not based on the additive primaries of emitted light but on inks or
pigments laid down on paper. These inks reduce the wavelength of the energy being reflected,
thus subtracting the energy being absorbed by the ink and reflecting the remaining energy. For
example, red ink absorbs the blues and greens and reflects the red to the reader’s eye. Thus the
color of the paper or other ink is perceived by the reader. Process color printing uses the inks
magenta, cyan, and yellow, which together can create any hue or recreate a continuous tone color
image. These pigment colors are called the subtractive primary colors

Subtractive theory

Color Mixing Using Additive and Subtractive Primaries

COMPONENTS OF COLOR/ Dimensions of Color

The term hue was used frequently in the previous discussion instead of color. Color actually has
three dimensions, of which hue is only one. Hue refers to the sensation we perceive when light of
a specific wavelength strikes the eye. Thus, red, green, blue, and violet are hues. But we
recognize that there are many variations of red or blue.
We commonly speak of ―light blue‖ or ―deep blue,‖ ―greenish blue‖ or ―purplish blue.‖ Some
shades of blue seem somehow ―bluer‖ than others. These descriptions represent attempts to
describe the other two dimensions of color: lightness and saturation.
Lightness is also called value, but when working with quantitative data that may have high or
low numerical value the term can be confusing.
If we create a sequence of grays ranging from white to black with a series of progressively
darker grays in between, we have produced a gray scale. The closer a gray is to white, the lighter
it is or the higher its value; the closer to black, the darker it is and the lower its value.
Saturation, also called purity, intensity, or chroma, refers to the ―colorfulness‖ of a hue. It is the
extent to which the color deviates from a gray of the same value. A pure spectral color has a high
intensity; it is fully saturated

The gray scale

Hue

Hue is the name we give to various colors: the reds, greens, blues, browns, red-oranges, and the
like. Each hue has its own wavelength in the visible spectrum. The relationships to other hues
may be illustrated in many ways using the color wheel.
Theoretically, a color wheel can contain an almost infinite number of hues, but most include no
more than 24. Eight or 12 are more common. Although the color wheel normally contains 12
hues, the human eye can theoretically distinguish millions of different colors.

Saturation

Saturation is also called chroma, intensity, or purity. This color dimension can be thought of as
the vividness of a color. With the addition of more and more pigment of a color, it will begin to
appear less and less gray, fi nally achieving a full saturation or brilliance. For any given hue,
saturation varies from zero percent (neutral gray) to 100 percent (maximum color). At the
maximum level, the color is fully saturated and contains no gray.

Value

Value is the quality of lightness or darkness of achromatic shades and chromatic colors.
Conceptually easy to grasp, value can be thought of as a sequence of steps from lighter to darker
displays of gray. The lowest value, specifi ed as zero, will produce a light neutral gray, and 100
percent gray will produce black. This provides us with shades of a particular color—for example,
dark red compared to light red. It is this increase in value that cartographically presents
increments of a hue in the design of choropleth maps.
In art, value is controlled by the addition of white or black pigment to a hue. If white is added to
a hue, a tint results. When black is added a shade is produced. A tone results from adding
amounts of a hue, white, and black.
COLOR MODELS

In the various GIS, mapping, and artistic software, color is selected based upon a particular color
model. The model is named using the key letters of the models components. Color models that
are applicable for designing maps for computer displays include HSV, HSB, HSL, RGB, and
CIE LAB. The color model that is selected within the software when the final product is a
printed map is that of the CMY(K) model. The use of a grayscale model can be applied to both
the printed and projected image maps.

HSV

This model refers to the components of color described above: hue, saturation, and value. This
model may be visualized as an inverted cone. Around the circumference of the conical disc,
color hues are arranged in wavelength sequence beginning with red, as the circle’s origin, and
progressing around the 360-degree space with the remaining hues. Thus, hues are distributed
such that complementary colors are 180 degrees apart. Most observers are able to differentiate
approximately 150 steps around the disc.

HSV COLOR MODEL CONE

RGB

The RGB color model specifically relates components of additive color theory. The color model
is visualized using a RGB color cube. The cube has black as its origin with three axes radiating
outward at 90°. Each axis represents one of the three color primaries. Numerically, each primary
is specified in steps of 256 increments ranging from 0 to 255. A value of 255 represents the
maximum amount of illumination intensity or saturation of color. This is because computer
software specifies color steps using 8-bit color. As a reminder, the additive color theory tells us
that a combination of these three primaries at their maximum will generate a combined color of
white (255, 255, 255), while the absence of the three generates black (0, 0, 0). A given color is
indicated by this sequence of three numbers representing the numerical component of red, green,
and blue sequentially. GIS, mapping, and artistic software also provide a similar color mixer for
selecting color using the RGB model.

RGB COLOR CUBE: The cube represents a visualization of the way in which the color
primaries are combined.

CMYK

The models described above all pertain to additive color theory or those colors viewed on your
computer monitor. When color is printed on a paper medium, the subtractive color theory
applies. The primary model for printed maps is that of the subtractive primary colors of CMY
(cyan, magenta, yellow). See the CMYK color cube. Each primary is specified according to
percentage increments between 0 and 100. The combination of 100 percent of all three primaries
produces the color black. The absence of these primaries produces white (although, in reality, the
absence of the primaries results in the color of the paper).
In the printed medium too many other variables come into play which limit the number of colors
you can reliably create. Such variables include the paper quality and color of the paper, purity of
the printer ink, and ambient light conditions of the viewing mode. The quality of the paper can
determine the receptivity of ink and thus impact the density of the ink being applied.

RGB COLOR CUBE: The cube represents a visualization of the way in which the color
primaries are combined

Grayscale

The grayscale uses an achromatic approach to presenting differences in shades of black. It is

most applicably used for maps to be photocopied or printed in black and white on a laser printer
or printing press. The incremental steps in selecting different levels of gray are similar to those
discussed for printing in color.
One should limit the number of grayscale levels to five or six on a given map. Beyond that, the
ability of the map user to differentiate between gray levels is diminished.

Color Preferences

Warm colors are those of the longer wavelengths (red, orange, and yellow), and cool colors , at
the opposite end of the spectrum, have shorter wavelengths (violet, blue, and green). Warm and
cool, of course, are psychological descriptions of these color ranges. Children about the age of
four or five years prefer warm colors. Red is most popular, with blues and greens next. Young
children also prefer highly saturated colors, but this preference begins to drop off after about the
sixth grade.
Consider this;

1. As children are aware only of small ranges in hue, colors should be chosen from within
the basic spectrum colors—blue, green, yellow, orange, and red.
2. Children appear to dislike dull unattractive colors, so color choice should avoid these.
 Children generally reject achromatic color schemes— the gray scale. These reduce the
attractiveness of the map.
3. Choosing colors that have greater compatibility with what is expected yields greater
comprehension. Thus, for example, blue is better than red for water.

Connotative Meaning and Color

Perhaps the most interesting design aspect of color is that people react differently to spectral
energies. Two people look at the same red wavelength, but their responses may be entirely
different. Psychologists suggest that reds, yellows, and oranges are usually associated with
excitement, stimulation, and aggression; blues and greens with calm, security, and peace; black,
browns, and grays with melancholy, sadness, and depression; yellow with cheer, gaiety, and fun;
and purple with dignity, royalty, and sadness.

Connotative Meanings and Color

The Functions of Color in Design

This can be summarized as follows:

1. Color functions as a simplifying and clarifying agent.

In this regard, color can be useful in the development of figure and ground organization on the
map. Color can unify various map elements to serve the total organization of the planned
communication.
2. Color affects the general perceptibility of the map.
Legibility, visual acuity, and clarity (of distinctiveness and difference) are especially important
functional results of the use of color.
3. Color elicits subjective reactions to the map. People respond to color, especially the hue
dimension, with connotative and subjective overtones. Moods can be created with the use of
color.

Thus, structure, readability, and the reader’s psychological reactions can be affected by the use
of color. A summary of the functions of color in cartographic applications would include:

1. To establish figure-ground organization

2. To establish a visual hierarchy
3. To develop a balance in the map
4. To capture the user’s attention
5. To identify and name locations
6. To identify categories
7. To provide emphasis
8. To show order and structure in layout
9. To enhance physical properties of the map
10. To reveal information for better communication

Choosing Colors

Color should not be used indiscriminately on maps. It should serve a purpose. Color should be
anticipated in the stages of map design, not added as an afterthought. The reasons for the use of
color in cartography:

 It acts as a clarifying and simplifying element. It increases the number of visual levels
and acts as a unifying agent.
 The use of color seems to have remarkable effects on the subjective reactions of the map
reader.
 It has a marked effect on the perceptibility on the map.
 It attracts attention.
 It leads the eye.