:6

• ¼Kli quê pnrslimspnrslims hn tu nitlril hjrnktl tn dustm eís klepmrtjr tus jitnrnsns< ¼Z ¼Z tu
trm`mol< ( Jitjejhmh 
 Jitjejhmh )
................................................................................................
• ¼Kli quê pnrslims dninrmcenitn dninrmcenitn il ccndms m plinrtn hn mkunrhl< mkunrhl< ( Oundl
 Oundl) ¼]uê
klepmrtni nitrn så tlhms y kmhm uim hn nstms rncmkjlins<
................................................................................................
• ¼]uê pnqunýls
pnqunýls bí`jtls cns nikunitrms nikunitrms qun snmi drmkjlsls< drmkjlsls< ¼Kuícns
¼Kuícns klisjhnrms
klisjhnrms
elcnstls< (Pjtumcns )
................................................................................................
• ¼]uê tnems hn hjskusjûi hjskusjûi bms nepnzmhl eís vnkns kli pnrslims hjgnrnitns hjgnrnitns (kûel
(kûel
hnomr hn guemr, ntk.) < (Vmsmtjnepl l oundl)
................................................................................................
• ¼Kuícns sli cls dnstls l cms pmcm`rms pmcm`rms mutleítjkms
mutleítjkms y rnpntjtjvms
rnpntjtjvms qun utjcjzms
utjcjzms kmhm håm
håm
ni nc ejsel sjtjl y/l kli cm ejsem pnrslim< (Pjtumc )
................................................................................................
• ¼Kuícns sli cls cudmrns y cls elenitls hnc håm hurmitn hurmitn cls kumcnskumcns nvjtms
nvjtms
kliskjnitnenitn,, l cjejtms hn eminrm klisjhnrm`cn, nc klitmktl kli vunstrl nitlril
kliskjnitnenitn
pnrslimc l prlgnsjlimc< ( Mjscmejnitl  Mjscmejnitl)
................................................................................................
• Nitrn cms glremsglrems hn nstrukturmr
nstrukturmr tu tjnepl,tjnepl, ¼kuícns pmrnkni snr cms qun tn hnseltjvmi
eís y kuícns sli cms qun, plr nc klitrmrjl, tn eltjvmi eís< ¼Vlr quê (rncmkjlins,
nståeucls, ninrdåm, ntk.) <
................................................................................................

Ni rnsueni
Kmhm eminrm hn nstrukturmr nc tjnepl punhn prnsnitmr vnitmoms n jiklivnijnitns,
punhn klisjhnrmrsn mhnkumhm l il mhnkumhm y punhn snr pnrkj`jhm klel
smtjsgmktlrjm l hnsmdrmhm`cn.

^im tlem hn klikjnikjm hn su hjenisjûi plsjtjvm (y hn cls cåejtns qun ils jihjkmi
kuíihl nstmels m`usmihl hn nccms) ils punhn pnrejtjr rnmcjzmr ncnkkjlins eís
smtjsgmktlrjms.
 :=

 
\\\\\\\\\\\\\
0. Xblems Bmrrjs, H‚mkklrh mvnk slj nt cns mutrns, lp. kjt. , p. ==6.
;. Nrjk @nrin, Mimcysn trmismktjliinccn nt psykbltbêrmpjn,
psykbltbêrmpjn, lp. kjt., p. =6=.
8. Xblems Bmrrjs, H‚mkklrh mvnk slj nt cns mutrns, lp. kjt. , p. ==;.
 :0

Kmpåtucl 7

Cm rncmkjûi kli cls ltrls y kli nc

euihl? cms plsjkjlins vjtmcns

Nitrn cls jistruenitls qun prlplin nc Miícjsjs Xrmismkkjlimc, uil hn cls eís rjkls ns,
sji
bmyhuhm, cm ilkjûi hnsuplsjkjûi
qun kleprnihnr vjtmc. [jiy moustmr
cûdjkm jitnrim ne`mrdl,su pmrm smkmrcnmncclsemylr
mpcjkmkjûi pmrtjhl
íe`jtls qun plsj`cn
bnels
 vjstl mitns.

Cm ilkjûi hn plsjkjûi vjtmc

[ndÿi sus nxpnrjnikjms, y sl`rn tlhl sndÿi nc nitlril gmejcjmr ni cm jigmikjm, nitlril qun
eís l enils bm rnsplihjhl m cms inknsjhmhns y m cms nelkjlins hnc Ijýl Nsplitíinl,
kmhm jihjvjhul mhmptm rípjhmenitn (mitns hn cls sjntn mýls) uim hn cms kumtrl plsjkjlins
 vjtmcns, l mktjtuhns
mktjtuhns «nxjstnikjmcns±.
«nxjstnikjmcns±.
Nstm plsjkjûi vjtmc jigcunikjm nisndujhm cm eminrm ni cm qun ui jihjvjhul pjnism, mktÿm y 
nitrm ni rncmkjûi kli cls hneís. Hntnrejim ni pmrtjkucmr ui kjnrtl guikjlimejnitl hn cls
Nstmhls hnc Zl, cm eminrm kli cm qun sjdun smtjsgmkjnihl sus inknsjhmhns rncmkjlimcns, nc
tjpl hn jitnrkme`jl qun nstm`cnkn kli su nitlril, nc usl qun bmkn hn sus nelkjlins, ntk.
Vlhnels hjstjidujr kumtrl plsjkjlins vjtmcns prjikjpmcns, ns hnkjr kumtrl eminrms hn vnr
cms rncmkjlins qun nstm`cnkn
nstm`cnkn kli cls hneís. Kmhm uil hn cls hls plcls hn cm rncmkjûi punhn
snr pnrkj`jhl plsjtjvmenitn (+) l indmtjvmenitn (‛), hn mbå cms kumtrl kle`jimkjlins qun
klistjtuyni cms kumtrl plsjkjlins vjtmcns.
Grmia Nrist prlpusl rnprnsnitmrcms `mol cm glrem hn uim tm`cm kumhrmhm ccmemhm nc
«klrrmc LA l klrrmc @jni± (cm glremkjûi midclsmolim hn cms mktjtuhns vjtmcns ns LA + LA 
+, LA + LA ‛, LA ‛ LA +, LA ‛ LA ‛).
 :;

M pmrtjr hn nstm tm`cm, plhnels hnskrj`jr kumtrl tjpls l «nstjcls± hn rncmkjûi kuyms
kmrmktnråstjkms
kmrmktnråstjkms dninrmcns sli cms sjdujnitns?
•  ZL + X^ +? ns cm slcukjûi eís klistruktjvm1 ni nstm plsjkjûi, cm pnrslim tlem
kliskjnikjm hn sus prlpjms rnsplism`jcjhmhns, mktÿm hn eminrm rnmcjstm y klistruktjvm.
Kligåm ni sus prlpjms kmpmkjhmhns. Nxpnrjenitm snitjejnitls
snitjejnitls hn mejstmh, hn
uijhmh, hn gunrzm, hn mkunrhl klisjdl ejsem, kli cls ltrls y kli cm vjhm.
•  ZL ‛ X^ +? ns uim slcukjûi cjejtmhlrm y klepcmkjnitn1 mquå, cm pnrslim `uskm sl`rn
tlhl snr qunrjhm plr cls hneís («Nstmrê `jni + + slcl sj…±). [n slentn m cls ltrls y 
hnpnihn hn nccls. [u mgnktl il ns drmtujtl. Kuctjvm y nxmdnrm su snitjejnitl hn
jepltnikjm y hn sugrjejnitl pmrm prnsnitmrsn klel uim våktjem.
[n sjnitn kucpm`cn, jignrjlr, enilsprnkjm`cn, hnprnsjvm, sujkjhm, nstÿpjhm, rnkbmzmhm.
Il sn qujnrn m så ejsem y sn kliglrem kli plkl1 cm smcvmkjûi vjnin hn cls hneís?
«Hn`l tninr gn ni cm `lihmh hn cls hneís.±
Mhejrm nc lrduccl y cm mdrnsjvjhmh hn cls hneís, inknsjtm eukbm myuhm y sus
inknsjhmhns sn klivjnrtni ni hnemihms.
 Xme`jêi tjnin uim gunrtn
gunrtn inknsjhmh hn
hn ccmemr cm mtnik
mtnikjûi
jûi y krnn qun sn mprl
mprlvnkbmi
vnkbmi
 :8

hn nccm.
Il slplrtm nstmr slcm n jitnrprntm cms plsjkjlins vjtmcns ni têrejils melrlsls. Hê`jc,
m eniuhl tjnihn bmkjm cm snisj`cnråm.
•  ZL + X^ ‛? nstm hm smcjhm m cm nxpmisjûi y m cm hlejimkjûi. Cm pnrslim sn jhnitjgjkm
kli cl qun ns drmihn y dclrjlsl. @uskm cm lrjdjimcjhmh, cm pnrgnkkjûi l cm rnvmikbm.
Ns nxknsjvmenitn susknptj`cn m cm kråtjkm, ns mdrnsjvm y `ncjklsm. Il punhn slplrtmr
 vmcnr enils, snr krjtjkmhm,
krjtjkmhm, l snitjrsn jihngnism.
jihngnism.
Cn gmctm klisjhnrmkjûi pmrm kli cls hneís, cls jigrmvmclrm l il kligåm ni nccls.
Jitnrprntm cms plsjkjlins vjtmcns ni têrejils hn plhnr. Ns gunrtn y hjiíejkm pnrl cn
gmctm snisj`jcjhmh. [n prnsnitm mkusmhlrm l smcvmhlrm.
•  ZL ‛ X^ ‛? cm smcjhm rnsjdimhm. Nstm pnrslim sn plin ni plsjkjûi hn nspnktmhlr hn
så ejsem y hn cm vjhm, kli nc l`ontjvl hn qun imhm sn cn mknrqun l cm tlqun.
M eniuhl rntrmåhm y m`urrjhm, ns klepcmkjnitn kli rnspnktl m sus prlpjms
hn`jcjhmhns, hnom sus l`cjdmkjlins pmrm nc håm sjdujnitn l cms lcvjhm. Nstm ppnrslim
nrslim
prngjnrn il nspnrmr imhm mitns qun slplrtmr ui rnkbmzl1 mvnrsjûi mc kme`jl, klen y 
`n`n hnemsjmhl, jikmpmz hn snr gncjz, ns hjstmitn y sujkjhm.
Nvjtm cls jiklivnijnitns hn su bjpnrsnisj`jcjhmh sji kleprlentnrsn iuikm, ns
jeprlhuktjvm, hnstruktjvm y mutlhnstruktjvm.
mutlhnstruktjvm.

M hnstmkmr
Cm ilkjûi hn «plsjkjûi vjtmc±, klel cls ltrls kliknptls hnc Miícjsjs Xrmismkkjlimc,
ns uim bnrrmejnitm, ui jistruenitl hnc pnismejnitl, y il prntnihn hnskrj`jr uim

rnmcjhmh. [n oustjgjkm plr su utjcjhmh klel elhncl hn jitnrprntmkjûi y hn mkkjûi

sl`rn cm rnmcjhmh.

Ns jitnrnsmitn suplinr qun cm emylråm hn cm dnitn il tjnin uim ÿijkm plsjkjûi gjom, sjil
qun tjnini uim plsjkjûi hlejimitn qun m`mihlimi y elhjgjkmi ni guikjûi hn cm
sjtumkjûi, cms pnrslims jepcjkmhms l nc drmhl hn urdnikjm. Vlr nonepcl?
• ^i nepcnmhl hn lgjkjim punhn, ni nc trm`mol, sjtumrsn ni uim plsjkjûi‛ +,
krnyêihlsn plkl klepntnitn y mhejrmihl mc ongn mc qun sn slentn.
• [ji ne`mrdl, mc rndrnsmr
rndrnsmr m kmsm,
kmsm, plhrí klepnismr
klepnismr cm jigrmvmclrmkjûi qun nxpnrjenitm
nxpnrjenitm
ni nc trm`mol
plsjkjûi +‛. tjrmijzmihl m su nsplsm y m sus bjols, hjktíihlcns cl qun hn`ni bmknr ni
 :>

• Kumihl nstí kli sus mejdls

mejdls l ni nc kcu` hn gÿt`lc,
gÿt`lc, punhn sjtumrsn
sjtumrsn ni rncmkjûi
rncmkjûi hn
jdumchmh y hn mejstmh, ni plsjkjûi ++.
• Gjimcenitn, sj sn sjtÿm ni
ni ui pcmil hn
hn rngcnxjûi dninrmc, sn punhn klisjhnrmr
klisjhnrmr ui
grmkmsmhl ni uim slkjnhmh plhrjhm, ni plsjkjûi ‛ ‛.
^im `unim eminrm hn vjsumcjzmr nc msuitl ns klisjhnrmr cm pnrslim ni ui elenitl hmhl
klel cm supnrgjkjn sle`rnmhm `mol cls nons X^/ZL ni nc kumhrmitn hn plsturms vjtmcns?

[ndÿi nstm bjpûtnsjs, kmhm uil hn ilsltrls, ni hjgnrnitns elenitls hn iunstrm vjhm,
punhn vjvjr ni kumcqujnrm hn cms kumtrl plsjkjlins. Nitlikns, hnkjr qun mcdujni nstí ni cm
plsturm vjtmc ‛ + ns mgjremr qun nstí eís m eniuhl ni nstm plsjkjûi qun ni cms ltrms, ni
cms qun nstmrí slcl ni lkmsjlins.
Ni nc hjmdrmem utjcjzmhl eís mrrj`m, plr nonepcl, cm tnihnikjm hlejimitn hn cm pnrslim
mimcjzmhm ns ‛ +.

Iunstrms plsturms vjtmcns

¼Ni quê kjrkuistmikjms y kli quê pnrslims emitnidl kmhm plsturm vjtmc<

  Kjrkuistmikjms Vnrslims

Nstly LA, il nstís LA

Nstly LA, nstís LA

Il nstly LA, il nstís LA

Il nstly LA, nstís LA

 :7

• ¼Vmrm quê plsjkjûi tn klstû klstû eís eís niklitrmr

niklitrmr nonepcls<
nonepcls<
................................................................................................
• ¼Vmrm quê plsjkjûi tn klstû klstû enils
enils bmccmr
bmccmr nonepcls<
................................................................................................
• Pngcnxjlim sl`rn sl`rn cms plsjkjlins
plsjkjlins vjtmcnsvjtmcns hn cms pnrslims qun bms enikjlimhl ni tus
nonepcls. ¼[li sus plsjkjlins vjtmcns klepcnenitmrjms l inutrms ni rncmkjûi m tj<
................................................................................................

Dmimhlrns y pnrhnhlrns
Wnels qun nxjstn uim hjgnrnikjm hn imturmcnzm nitrn cm plsjkjûi vjtmc + + y cms ltrms.
Ni cm plsjkjûi vjtmc + + , nc Mhuctl ns m eniuhl qujni nstí mc emihl. Kumihl cm pnrslim
sn nigrnitm m ui prl`cnem, `uskmrí cm enolr slcukjûi pmrm rnslcvnrcl? «¼]uê bmknr±
[m`n qun bmy vmrjms slcukjlins plsj`cns y qun tlhms cms pnrslims jepcjkmhms punhni
klitrj`ujr m hngjijrcms.
Bmrí prnduitms hnc tjpl? «¼]uê bmknr pmrm...<± l «¼]ujêi bmkn quê<±.
[nrí uim mktjtuh hn rnslcukjûi hn prl`cnems , hn indlkjmkjûi.
Jivnrsmenitn, ni cms plsjkjlins vjtmcns indmtjvms , grnitn m ui prl`cnem cm prnduitm
snrí? «¼Hn qujêi ns cm kucpm<± Nstms plsjkjlins suncni snr rnvncmhlrms hn uim mktjtuh
sje`jûtjkm.
Ni plsjkjûi vjtmc + ‛, cm kucpm snrí hn cls hneís y cm slcukjûi mhlptmhm snrí cm eåm .
Ni plsjkjûi vjtmc ‛ +, snrí ej kucpm, y cm slcukjûi nskldjhm snrí cm tuym , ym qun, plr
hngjijkjûi, cm eåm ns enils `unim.
Ni nstms plsjkjlins vjtmcns, kumihl uil pmrnkn nstmr nvmcumihl slcukjlins ni rnmcjhmh  nstí
  nstí
ni ui prlknsl hn nvmcumkjûi hn pnrslims . Ni ui drupl, plr nonepcl, sn sndujrí nc klisnol
hn cls hneís l hn cm emylråm.
Mhneís, bnels vjstl qun nstms hls plsjkjlins vjtmcns suncni jepcjkmr uim klitmejimkjûi
hnc Mhuctl qun guikjlim `mol nc prnsupunstl «slcl bmy uim slcukjûi plsj`cn±. Hn mbå qun
kli cms têkijkms pmrtjkucmrns hn rnslcukjûi hn prl`cnems?
• ^il hneunstrm qun uim slcukjûi
slcukjûi ns cm `unim, cl kumc ncjejim mutleítjkmenitn
mutleítjkmenitn cms
ltrms.
 :4

• ^il sm`ltnm tlhms

tlhms cms slcukjlins
slcukjlins enils
enils uim. Nstm mpmrnkn nitlikns
nitlikns klel cm ÿijkm
slcukjûi plsj`cn.
Cm plsjkjûi vjtmc ‛ ‛ punhn snr vjvjhm hn eminrms hjgnrnitns?
• mcduils cm klisjhnrmi uim hn cms plsj
plsjkjlins
kjlins vjtmcns
vjtmcns indmtjvms, qun
qun hnsne`lkm ni ui
grmkmsl pnrslimc l slkjmc1
• ltrls, plr nc klitrmrjl, qun nstí ni uim nikrukjomhm ÿtjc
ÿtjc l inknsmrjm
inknsmrjm pmrm cldrmr cm
kllpnrmkjûi hn cm plsjkjûi vjtmc + +.
Nstm lplsjkjûi nitrn cm plsjkjûi vjtmc plsjtjvm y cms plsjkjlins vjtmcns indmtjvms punhn
rnsuejrsn ni cm lplsjkjûi dmimhlrns/pnrhnhlrns.
dmimhlrns/pnrhnhlrns.
Ni ngnktl, cms plsjkjlins vjtmcns nitrmými uim kjnrtm mktjtuh mitn cm vjhm nitnrm, ui kjnrtl
«nsknimrjl±. Bnels vjstl qun cm plsjkjûi + + klisjstn ni mknptmr cm rnmcjhmh tmc kumc ns y,
nitrn ltrms klsms, m mknptmr ui grmkmsl.
Nc dmimhlr sm`n cl qun bmrí sj grmkmsm (mknptm cm bjpûtnsjs hnc grmkmsl, cm tjnin ni kunitm) y 
sn cl dumrhm pmrm så.
Dninrmcenitn, ni cm vjhm, plin nc grmkmsl hn su pmrtn y tlem rjnsdls kmckucmhls,
pnrhjnihl mså mcduims `mtmccms, pmrm plhnr dmimr cm dunrrm.
Nc pnrhnhlr sm`n cl qun bmrí sj dmim y cl hjkn m tlhl nc euihl.
Mktÿm pmrm il tninr qun nigrnitmrsn m ijidÿi grmkmsl? nitlikns il sn mrrjnsdm. Vnrl il
jivnrtjr omeís sjdijgjkm il dmimr imhm1 mså, kli nc tjnepl, nc pnrhnhlr cl mrrjnsdm tlhl y cl
pjnrhn tlhl.

Vlsjkjlins vjtmcns y Nstmhls hnc Zl

Cm plsjkjûi vjtmc + ‛? plsjkjûi hn hlejijl
«[ly enolr qun tÿ, hnom qun tn dmin.±
Hjkn m cls hneís cl qun tjnini qun bmknr, nc Nstmhl hnc Zl hlejimitn ns nc Vmhrn. L,
sndÿi nc nsqunem guikjlimc, sn punhni hjstjidujr hls tjpls hn Vmhrn, nc Vmhrn Ilremtjvl
 y nc Vmhrn Kujhmhlr. Cls hls rnmcjzmi guikjlins plsjtjvms pnrl, mslkjmhms mquå m uim
plsjkjûi vjtmc hlihn sn jigrmvmclrm mc ltrl sl`rnvmclríihlsn m uil ejsel, sn cn punhni
plinr ltrls ile`rns?
• Nc Vmhrn Ilremtjvl
Ilremtjvl indmtjvl sn vuncvn mkusmhlr1
mkusmhlr1 cm pnrslim hjktm cm ilrem il plr
su vmclr jitråisnkl, sjil pmrm klislcjhmr su klitrlc sl`rn cls hneís.
 :2

• Nc Vmhrn Kujhmhlr
Kujhmhlr sn vuncvn
vuncvn smcvmhlr1
smcvmhlr1 cm pnrslim myuhm m cls hneís il pmrm qun
snmi mutûilels (rlc «`unil± hnc Vmhrn Kujhmhlr) sjil, mc klitrmrjl, pmrm qun sjdmi
sjnihl hnpnihjnitns.

M hnstmkmr
Ni nc pcmil hn cls snitjejnitls, kmhm uil tjnin sus nelkjlins prnhjcnktms? nc
Mkusmhlr snitjrí nelkjlins hn hnsprnkjl l kûcnrm, nc [mcvmhlr ui snitjejnitl hn
pnim.

Cm plsjkjûi vjtmc ‛ +? plsjkjûi hn hlejimhl

«Hn`nråm snr hn ltrm eminrm. Cls ltrls cl bmkni enolr qun yl.±
Nc Nstmhl hnc Zl ni klitrlc mquå ns nc Ijýl Mhmptmhl, qun sm`nels qun tjnin hls
 vnrtjnitns? nc Ijýl Mhmptmhl
Mhmptmhl [uejsl y nc Ijýl Mhmptmhl
Mhmptmhl Pn`nchn. Nstn Ijýl Mhmptmhl
Mhmptmhl,,
[uejsl l Pn`nchn, punhn rnmcjzmr hls guikjlins plsjtjvms? nc Ijýl Mhmptmhl [uejsl
jitndrm ui kjnrtl iÿenrl hn mutlemtjsels slkjmcns
slkjmcns euy ÿtjcns pmrm cm vjhm slkjmc1 nc Ijýl
Mhmptmhl Pn`nchn sn lplin m vnkns mc nxknsl hn mutlemtjsels pmrm prltndnr mc Ijýl
Nsplitíinl. [ji ne`mrdl, nstmr ni nc Ijýl Mhmptmhl ni uim plsjkjûi vjtmc‛ + ils ccnvmrí
m bm`cmr hn våktjem, plr cl qun bmy hls tjpls hn kleplrtmejnitl, suejsl l rn`nchn.
 ::

M hnstmkmr
Nc Ijýl Mhmptmhl sn kleplrtm il ni guikjûi hn sus prlpjms inknsjhmhns l
nelkjlins, sjil ni guikjûi hnc kleplrtm ejnitl qun sus gjdurms pmrnitmcns
qujnrni qun mhlptn.

Cm våktjem [uejsm tnihnrí m suskjtmr ni nc ltrl kleplrtmejnitl smcvmhlr (ns hnkjr, mktjvm
nc Vmhrn Kujhmhlr + ‛), cm våktjem Pn`nchn tnihnrí m mktjvmr ni cls ltrls ui
kleplrtmejnitl mkusmhlr
mkusmhlr (ns hnkjr, hn Vmhrn Kråtjkl + ‛).

Nc kme`jl
[uncn lkurrjr qun uim pnrslim «mutlrjtmrjm± jitnitm kme`jmr su elhl hn rncmkjlimrsn kli
sus mccndmhls pmrm snr eís «mem`cn±, cl «m`mihlim± y kmn ni nc nxknsl lpunstl.
Vunhn suknhnr cl ejsel m uim pnrslim «tåejhm± qun bm hnsmrrlccmhl plkl sus
klepntnikjms slkjmcns. Mktumr ni pÿ`cjkl sn vuncvn ui kmcvmrjl pmrm nccm, m enils qun
nsklihm su emcnstmr `mol uim «punstm ni nsknim± nxknsjvm y rujhlsm.
Mså, ni cms plsjkjlins vjtmcns, m eniuhl ns hjgåkjc, jikcusl kli euy `unim vlcuitmh, jr hn
uim plsjkjûi indmtjvm (+ ‛, ‛ +, ‛ ‛) m uim plsjkjûi plsjtjvm (+ +).
^i kme`jl hn plsjkjûi vjtmc, l hn nstjcl hn kleuijkmkjûi, il slcl pjhn `unim vlcuitmh,
 =66

sjil mhneís ui trm`mol cmrdl.

Mcduims têkijkms hn kleuijkmkjûi punhni gmkjcjtmr cm tmrnm. Nstms têkijkms klikjnrini
sl`rn tlhl mc Mhuctl, qujni, klel ym bnels vjstl, nstí plkl prnsnitn ni cms plsjkjlins
 vjtmcns indmtjvms.
indmtjvms.
Vlr nonepcl, ns ÿtjc hnsku`rjr cms prnlkupmkjlins y cms inknsjhmhns hn cls jihjvjhuls y hn
cls druypls hn iunstrl nitlril y kleprnihnr cm eminrm ni cm qun hngjini su nitlril y 
pnrkj`ni sus prl`cnems.
Nsl il sjdijgjkm qun hn`mels mhbnrjrils m cm vjsjûi hn ltrl y lcvjhmr cm iunstrm, sjil eís
e ís
`jni qun hn`nels kleprnihnr enolr n jitndrmr vmrjms pnrknpkjlins hjgnrnitns, cm iunstrm
 y cms hn iunstrls jitnrclkutlrns. Vmrm cldrmrcl ns jihjspnism`cn niklitrmrsn ni cm plsjkjûi
 vjtmc «ZL + / tu +±.
[ji ne`mrdl, lkurrn m eniuhl qun nc jitnrclkutlr?
• il sn nxprnsm «cj`rnenitn±1

• il nxprnsm kcmrmenitn sus jhnms1

• il bm rngcnxjlimhl cl `mstmitn
`mstmitn sl`rn su prl`cnem1
prl`cnem1
• il kleuijkm
kleuijkm nxpcåkjtmenitn sus eltjvmkjlins lkuctms.
Mhneís, ilsltrls plhnels nstmr euy niglkmhls ni ilsltrls ejsels y iunstrl l`ontjvl
 y, plr cl tmitl, hjgåkjcenitn
hjgåkjcenitn snr kmpmkns hn nskukbmr y hjmcldmr
hjmcldmr kli ltrm pnrslim.
Ni nc kmpåtucl sjdujnitn ls prlplinels mpcjkmr kjnrtms têkijkms hn kleuijkmkjûi m cm
príktjkm hnc Miícjsjs Xrmismkkjlimc.

Ni rnsueni
Cm ilkjûi hn plsjkjûi vjtmc klikjnrin mc kumhrl hn rngnrnikjm
r ngnrnikjm «nxjstnikjmc± hn cm
plsturm hn ui jihjvjhul ni rncmkjûi mc euihl.

Cm plsturm vjtmc + +, qun klisjstn ni tninr uim mktjtuh dmimhlrm-dmimhlrm ni cm

rncmkjûi kli cls ltrls y nc euihl sn klisjhnrm cm ÿijkm qun, m cmrdl
c mrdl pcmzl, gmvlrnkn
nc êxjtl klel ui krnkjejnitl pnrslimc rnmc.
 =6=

Kmpåtucl 4

Cms têkijkms hn kleuijkmkjûi

Cm pnrslim qun «`uskm slcukjlins± l cm pnrslim «ZL + / X^ +±?

=. Nskukbm.

0. Bmkn prnduitms?
• m`jnrtms, pmrm l`tninr cm emylr kmitjhmh
kmitjhmh hn jiglremkjûi,
jiglremkjûi, lpjijlins
lpjijlins y snitjejnitls1
snitjejnitls1
• knrrmhms, pmrm ccndmr m ui mkunrhl, uim tlem hn plsjkjûi
plsjkjûi kcmrm l uim prnkjsjûi1
prnkjsjûi1
• inutrms, pmrm il jigcujr ni nc snitjhl l nc klitnijhl
klitnijhl hn cm
cm rnspunstm.
rnspunstm.
Vnrl cms prnduitms il `mstmi ym qun nc jitnrclkutlr punhn hmr rnspunstms jismtjsgmktlrjms.
Nstms rnspunstms, ccmemhms «cmtnrmcns±?
• il pnrejtni supnrmr nc klitrmtjnepl1
• il nxprnsmi
nxprnsmi kcmrmenitn
kcmrmenitn nc pnismejnitl
pnismejnitl hnc jitnrclkutlr1
• nsklihni jiknrtjhue`rns, prnlkupmkjlins,
prnlkupmkjlins, prl`cnems1
• rnprnsnitmi mktjtuhns hn bujhm
bujhm l hn hnskligjmizm,
hnskligjmizm, ntk.
Cm pnrslim «LA± nstmrí jitnrnsmhm ni vlcvnr m jitnrmktumr kli su jitnrclkutlr pmrm «sm`nr
eís± sji `clqunmrcl ij jigcunikjmrcl hnemsjmhl,
hnemsjmhl, bmkjêihlcn kleprnihnr qun nc l`ontjvl ns
rnslcvnr nc prl`cnem hn cm eminrm eís gmvlrm`cn pmrm tlhls.
Nitlikns hjsplin hn vmrjls ncnenitls nsnikjmcns qun sli eminrms hn «rnmktjvmr± nc
hjícldl?
=. Pnccmemhms pmsjvms?
• jihjkmkjlins `rnvns hn kleprnisjûi1
• grmsns inutrms1
 =60

• sjcnikjl.
0. Pnccmemhms mktjvms?
• rnsueni (rnglreucmkjûi)1
• rnnxprnsjûi hn snitjejnitls.
Ni cms pídjims sjdujnitns tn prlplinels?
• nxmejimr cms hjgnrnitns têkijkms hn kleuijkmkjûi1
kleuijkmkjûi1
• mprnihnr m utjcjzmrcms enhjmitn nonepcls, miêkhltms
miêkhltms y nonrkjkjls1
nonrkjkjls1
• klinktmrcms m cm tnlråm hnc
hnc miícjsjs trmismkkjlimc ni dninrmc, y ni
ni pmrtjkucmr m cms
inknsjhmhns vjtmcns.

Nskukbmr
Nskukbmr
nskukbmr< m iunstrl jitnrclkutlr, ns mså hn sjepcn. Vnrl, ni rnmcjhmh,¼quê sjdijgjkm
Nskukbmr ns, ni prjenr cudmr, kmccmr. Nsl punhn pmrnknr l`vjl pnrl ¼kuíitms vnkns,
hurmitn uim hjskusjûi, hls pnrslims bm`cmi mc ejsel tjnepl<¼Kuíitms vnkns sn klrtm m
uim hn nccms, jitnrruepjhm su snrjn hn jhnms y klitrmhjkbm kli klikcusjlins prnkjpjtmhms,
mrduenitls mdrnsjvls<
[ji ne`mrdl, nskukbmr il ns slcl kmccmr. ¼Kuíitms vnkns bms klistmtmhl qun tu
jitnrclkutlr il bm nitnihjhl ij uim slcm pmcm`rm hn cl qun bms hjkbl< ¼Il bms mktumhl, m
eniuhl, hnc ejsel elhl< ¼Kli cm km`nzm ni ltrm pmrtn< ¼Vnismihl ni cl qun j`ms m
rnsplihnr< Ni hls pmcm`rms, ¼sji nskukbmr<

M hnstmkmr
Cm nskukbm ngjkmz il ns sjepcnenitn uim nskukbm pmsjvm m cm eminrm hn uim
drm`mhlrm. Vlr nc klitrmrjl, ns uim nskukbm hjiíejkm ni cm kumc mimcjzms
jienhjmtmenitn
jienhjmtmenit n tlhl cl qun hjkn tu jitnrclkutlr, cl suems m cl qun ym sm`åms y
hntnktms cls ncnenitls jeplrtmitns qun tn gmctm`mi. Mc ejsel tjnepl, nicmzms cl
qun hjkn m sus prnlkupmkjlins y m su vjsjûi hnc euihl.

[j cm utjcjzmhm.
pnlr nskukbm ns cm têkijkm hn kleuijkmkjûi eís nvjhnitn y cm eís ngjkmz, ns tme`jêi cm
 =6;

^im emcm nskukbm nstí tmitl ni nc lrjdni hn emcnitnihjhls pnqunýls klel ni cm `msn hn
drmihns kligcjktls hn cm vjhm gmejcjmr y prlgnsjlimc.

Cm nskukbm y nc Mhuctl
Nskukbmr hnsnepným ui rlc nxtrnemhmenitn jeplrtmitn ni cm kleuijkmkjûi l nc
jitnrkme`jl hn jiglremkjûi. Ns, plr cl tmitl, uim hn cms bnrrmejnitms pmrm nc
guikjlimejnitl hnc Mhuctl.
Nc Mhuctl, rnklrhnels, rnkldn, rntjnin y trmtm cms jiglremkjlins tmitl nxtnrims (hnc
nitlril) klel jitnrims (hn su Vmhrn y hn su Ijýl)?

Jdumc qun tlhms cms têkijkms hn kleuijkmkjûi hntmccmhms ni nstn kmpåtucl, nskukbmr ns, ni
prjenr cudmr, ui jistruenitl jeplrtmitn qun punhn nstmr mc mckmikn hnc mhuctl. Cn
pnrejtjrí rnkldnr enolr cls hmtls inknsmrjls pmrm su `uni guikjlimejnitl?
• dnstjlimr enolr cls kligcjktls nxtnrils (nitrn
(nitrn nc jihjvjhul
jihjvjhul jepcjkmhl y su nitlril l
nitrn hls ncnenitls hn su nitlril)1
• dnstjlimr enolr
enolr cls kligcjktls
kligcjktls jitnrils
jitnrils (ncnkkjlins
(ncnkkjlins pnrslimcns,
pnrslimcns, kligcjktls
kligcjktls hn
jitnrnsns, prl`cnems mgnktjvls y nelkjlimcns).
nelkjlimcns).
 =68

Nskukbmr y cms plsjkjlins vjtmcns

Cm nskukbm ngjkmz il ns ÿtjc slcmenitn ni cm rnklpjcmkjûi l nc jitnrkme`jl hn jiglremkjûi
 y ni cm rnslcukjûi
rnslcukjûi hn prl`cnems.
 Xme`jêi ns ui enhjl pmrm, m cm cmrdm, nstm`cnknr uim rncmkjûi y ui kcjem smtjsgmktlrjls
smtjsgmktlrjls
nitrn jihjvjhuls y ni nc jitnrjlr hn drupls.
Ni ngnktl, cm nskukbm rnmc y klepcntm ns uim hn cms enolrns eminrms hn bmknr snitjr mc
ltrl qun nstí «LA±? kumihl nskukbms kli mtnikjûi, tu jitnrclkutlr sn sjnitn mknptmhl
jiklihjkjlimcenitn ni tmitl qun pnrslim. Nskukbmhl plr tj, y drmkjms m cm mtnikjûi
prlguihm qun prnstms, sn snitjrí jeplrtmitn pmrm tj. [n snitjrí qun jeplrtm ni tu uijvnrsl,
qun cl mknptms jiklihjkjlimcenitn.
Hn iunvl, nsl il qujnrn hnkjr qun hn`ms lcvjhmr tus pnismejnitls, tu plsturm, pmrm
mhbnrjrtn m cls hn ltrl. Nskukbms, sl`rn tlhl, pmrm l`tninr eís hmtls pmrm tu Mhuctl, ym
 vnidmi hn hnitrl hn tj l hn gunrm, y m klitjiumkjûi tlemr uim hnkjsjûi kli pcnil
klilkjejnitl hn kmusm.
Vlr nc klitrmrjl, uim emcm nskukbm prl`m`cnenitn bmdm snitjr m tu jitnrclkutlr qun il
nstís «LA±. Vnismrí qun il hms ijiduim jeplrtmikjm m sus lpjijlins l sus hnsnls, qun
ni rnmcjhmh il kunitm ni tu uijvnrsl. Nc rnsuctmhl, ni têrejils hn rncmkjûi l hn
me`jnitn, snrí sl`rn tlhl indmtjvl y ls klstmrí ccndmr kliouitmenitn m vunstrls l`ontjvls,
nstmr ni cm plsjkjûi «ZL + / X^ +±.

M hnstmkmr
Klikrntmenitn, punhns hmrtn nc hnrnkbl m nxprnsmr tus inknsjhmhns ni rncmkjûi m

cm nskukbm hn
nskukbmrtn cls l
`jni, hneís.
punhnsNsrnkbmzmr
hnkjr, punhns pnhjr
nstmr ni uimqun mcdujnihlihn
sjtumkjûi tlenmcdujni
enhjhmsilpmrm
tn
nskukbm. Vlr nonepcl? «¼Vunhns msndurmrtn hn qun il ils jitnrruepjríi hurmitn
plr cl enils hjnz ejiutls<± «Xnidl cm jeprnsjûi hn qun nstís hnemsjmhl
lkupmhl pmrm plhnr nskukbmren `jni, prngjnrl hnomr nstm hjskusjûi pmrm eís
tmrhn, kumihl nstês eís hjsplij`cn.±

Ni cm sjtumkjûi lpunstm, kumihl tn pjhni qun nskukbns, tlem cms enhjhms inknsmrjms pmrm
qun il tn jitnrruepmi, pjhjnihl m tus ijýls, plr nonepcl, qun vmymi m oudmr m ltrm pmrtn.
Mcduim vnz jikcusl punhns cjejtmr nc tjnepl hn klivnrsmkjûi kli uim pnrslim sj sjnitns
qun punhn snr hnemsjmhl m`slr`nitn. Vlr nonepcl?«Vunhl kliknhnrtn hjnz ejiutls,
¼krnns qun snmi sugjkjnitns<± Nsl snrí enils indmtjvl qun hnomrcm bm`cmr sji nskukbmr.
 =6>

Nskukbmr y nc hnshêi
Jdumc qun nc nståeucl klihjkjlimc y indmtjvl, nskukbmr emc ni uim sjtumkjûi hmhm tme`jêi
ns sjdil hn jigrmvmclrmkjûi. Mc nskukbmr plkl l emc, hnshnýms m tu jitnrclkutlr, su vjsjûi
 y su slcukjûi hnc
hnc prl`cnem, cm plsj`jcjhmh
plsj`jcjhmh hn rnslcvnrcl,
rnslcvnrcl, l tlhl m cm vnz.

^im vnz eís,

uim tmrnm, ni têrejils
nc hnshêi, hn me`jnitn,
il jeplrtm hn nsrncmkjûi
m quê ijvnc, ingmstl.y hn ngjkmkjm l`ontjvm ni rncmkjûi m

Ni klikcusjûi
Nskukbmr `jni ns cm têkijkm hn kleuijkmkjûi eís l`vjm y ngjkmz, muiqun mc ejsel tjnepl
ns cm enils kleprnihjhm y cm qun sn utjcjzm pnlr.
Hnstmkmels cm jeplrtmikjm hn cm nskukbm mktjvm mså klel hn cms ltrms têkijkms hn
kleuijkmkjûi hntmccmhms
hntmccmhms eís mhncmitn1 nstms têkijkms rngunrzmi mc Mhuctl y pnrejtni nstmr
eís «LA± klitjdl ejsel y kli nc nitlril. Muenitmi cms prl`m`jcjhmhns hn êxjtl ni nc
euihl hn cmitl
kleuijkmkjûi,
nirjqunkjejnitl
nirjqunkjejn tmitll ni
hn cms rncmkjlins ni ncnchn
ijvnc hn ngjkmkjm
cm enolrm ni nc trm`mol klel m ijvnc hn
hnc me`jnitn.

Cms prnduitms
¼Vlr quê bmknr prnduitms<
Dninrmcenitn bmkns uim prnduitm plrqun inknsjtms uim rnspunstm. Cms rnspunstms qun
l`tjnins m tus prnduitms punhni kleuijkmrtn cl qun ui jihjvjhul sm`n, pjnism l jikcusl
cl qun sjnitn.

Ni ltrls têrejils, mc bmknr uim prnduitm l`tjnins m kme`jl jiglremkjûi l  gnnh`mka hn tu

jitnrclkutlr.
prnduitm + rnspunstm 5  gnnh`mka
gnnh`mka
Mså klepcntms, kli cms prnduitms, cms jiglremkjlins sl`rn tu jitnrclkutlr qun ym bms
l`tnijhl nskukbíihlcn.
nskukbíihlcn. Muenitms cm jiglremkjûi qun rntnihrí tu Mhuctl.
[j, plr nc klitrmrjl, omeís bmkns prnduitms m tu jitnrclkutlr, punhns l`tninr mcdÿi
nnh`mka pnrl snrí plr kmsumcjhmh y klrrns nc rjnsdl hn l`tninr uim vjsjûi pmrkjmc hn cm
sjtumkjûi? tu Mhuctl nstmrí, plr cl tmitl, enils jiglremhl.
Ns jeplrtmitn bmknr prnduitms, muiqun sj il hjsplins hn uim `unim têkijkm pmrm
bmknrcms, sjneprn bm`rí nc rjnsdl hn qun tu jitnrclkutlr klisjhnrn qun nstís slentjêihlcl
m ui jitnrrldmtlrjl plcjkjmc l, mc klitrmrjl, qun il tn jitnrnsm cl `mstmitn.
 =67

¼]uê têkijkm ns `unim pmrm bmknr prnduitms<

Mc bmknr kjnrtl tjpl hn prnduitm, l`tjnins ui kjnrtl tjpl hn rnspunstm. Xn prlplinels cls
kumtrl tjpls hn prnduitm sjdujnitns?
• prnduitms m`jnrtms1

• prnduitms knrrmhms1
• prnduitms lrjnitmhms l dujmhms1
• prnduitms inutrms.

Cms prnduitms m`jnrtms

^im prnduitm m`jnrtm il hm mc jitnrclkutlr ijiduim jhnm prnkjsm hn cm glrem ni qun
hn`nråm rnsplihnr. Vlr nonepcl? «¼]uê qujnrns bmknr nstm tmrhn<±1 «¼]uê pjnisms hn cm
prlpunstm qun bn vnijhl m bmknrtn<±
^im prnduitm hn tjpl m`jnrtl hm mc jitnrclkutlr cj`nrtmh tltmc pmrm glreucmr su rnspunstm.
Vnrejtn l`tninr jiglremkjûi y lpjijlins eís klepcntms y emtjzmhms y sl`rn tlhl
pnrejtn nxpclrmr cls snitjejnitls. Vlr nonepcl? «¼Vlr quê prngjnrns nstm slcukjûi<±1
«¼]uê lpjims hn Hmijnc<±.
Nstn dêinrl hn rnspunstm mplrtmrí eís hmtls iunvls mc Mhuctl y cn snrí ÿtjc, sl`rn tlhl ni
cls prjenrls elenitls hn uim kbmrcm, hlihn cl qun cn jitnrnsm ns nkbmr uim lonmhm rípjhm
ni ui kmepl tmi mepcjl y ccnil hn plsj`jcjhmhns.

Vrnduitms knrrmhms
^im prnduitm ni cm qun mc jitnrclkutlr sn cn pjhn uim rnspunstm nxpcåkjtm hnc tjpl «[å ‛
Il± ns uim prnduitm knrrmhm. Vlr nonepcl? «¼Nstís hn mkunrhl kli cm prlpunstm qun tn bn
bnkbl<±
Cms ncnkkjlins glrzmhms tme`jêi sli prnduitms knrrmhms. Vlr nonepcl? «¼Kuíc prngjnrns, cm
prjenrm slcukjûi l cm snduihm<±
Ni dninrmc, cms prnduitms knrrmhms il pnrejtni l`tninr eukbms nxpcjkmkjlins l sm`nr quê
pjnism ni prlguihjhmh nc jitnrclkutlr. Kli tlhl, nepuomi mc jitnrclkutlr m plsjkjlimrsn n
jikcusl m mkcmrmr su pnismejnitl.

Mc rnvêsniqun
jikcusl cms prnduitms
cm tlem m`jnrtms, cms knrrmhms sn knitrmi ni ui l`ontjvl, uim tmrnm, l
hn uim hnkjsjûi.
 =64

Il pnrejtni l`tninr eukbm jiglremkjûi. Hn`ni utjcjzmrsn kli pruhnikjm plrqun punhni
pnrkj`jrsn klel emijpucmhlrms.

Vrnduitms dujmhms
^im prnduitm dujmhm jepcjkm l sudjnrn mc jitnrclkutlr quê rnspunstm hn`n hmr. Hjkbm
rnspunstm rmrmenitn klrrnsplihn m uim hn tjpl nsplitíinl l pnrslimc.
¼Kûel sn jhnitjgjkm uim prnduitm dujmhm< Wnmels ui enhjl? sj punhns mhjvjimr kuíc snrm
cm rnspunstm mitns hn qun nc jitnrclkutlr rnmkkjlin, nitlikns nstmrís mitn uim prnduitm
dujmhm. Mhneís, sj uim prnduitm jihjkm nc snitjejnitl l cm lpjijûi hn cm pnrslim qun cm
bmkn, sn trmtm jdumcenitn hn uim prnduitm dujmhm qun sndurmenitn jigcujrí sl`rn cm
rnspunstm.
 Xlhls tnihnels m dujmr iunstrms prnduitms,
prnduitms, jikcusl kumihl
kumihl bmknels prnduitms
prnduitms hn cl eís
milhjims. Vlr nonepcl?
• «¼Il pjnisms qun… <±
• «¼Il hn`nråms… <±
• «¼Il plhråmels… <±
 Xlhms nstms prnduitms jigcujríi ni nc jitnrclkutlr y il cn pnrejtjríi nxpclrmr sus
lpjijlins l sus snitjejnitls vnrhmhnrls.
Nxmejinels nstm prnduitm? «¼Il pjnisms qun nc nurl prnsnitm eís jiklivnijnitns qun
 vnitmoms<± Nvjhnitnenitn
Nvjhnitnenitn nstí euy dujmhm, y, mc gjimc, il sjrvn hn drmi klsm. Vlr nonepcl?
nonepcl?
uim pnrslim mkm`m hn mhqujrjr uim mitjdumccm. Cm nisným m uil hn sus mejdls «qun sm`n
hnc tnem± pmrm sm`nr sj bm bnkbl uim `unim kleprm. ¼Kuíc hn cms hls prnduitms
sjdujnitns hn`nråm bmknr<? «¼Bn bnkbl uim `unim kleprm<± l `jni «¼]uê lpjims hn nstn
l`ontl<±
Imturmcenitn, sj cm pnrslim qun jitnrrldm qujnrn cm lpjijûi vnrhmhnrm hn su mejdl, il
tnihrí ijidÿi jitnrês ni jigcujr sl`rn êc y nskldnrí cm snduihm prnduitm.

M hnstmkmr
Ni dninrmc, cm kunstjûi hjrjdjhm il jitnrnsm mc Mhuctl qun `uskm jiglremkjûi, sjil
mc Vmhrn qun qujnrn jigcujr l mc Ijýl qun qujnrn snr kligjremhl l rnkliglrtmhl. Cm

prnduitm hjrjdjhm
jitnrpnrslimcns hnsnepným
y cms ui hn
sjtumkjlins pmpnc jeplrtmitn
«oundl±, ni cms ni cls kligcjktls kliskjnitns l
emijpucmkjlins
jikliskjnitns.
 =62

Cms prnduitms inutrms

Ni klepmrmkjûi, uim prnduitm inutrm omeís klitjnin su prlpjm rnspunstm y hnom mc
jitnrclkutlr cm plsj`jcjhmh hn nxprnsmr rnmc-enitn su lpjijûi y su eminrm hn vnr cms klsms.
Vlr nonepcl? «¼]uê pjnisms hn cm mepcjmkjûi hn cm ^ijûi Nurlpnm<± l «¼Kleprms
prlhuktls –`jl―<±
^im prnduitm inutrm nxjdn uim drmi prnkmukjûi ni cm ncnkkjûi hn cms pmcm`rms utjcjzmhms y 
cm eminrm ni cm qun sn prnsnitmi.

Cms rnccmemhms
Cm rnccmemhm ns uim têkijkm utjcjzmhm kumihl tu jitnrclkutlr hm uim rnspunstm «cmtnrmc±, ns
hnkjr uim rnspunstm jismtjsgmktlrjm, jiklepcntm l jimhnkumhm. Vmrm plhnr klihukjr uim
`unim kbmrcm,
utjcjzmhms ns ÿtjc
kumihl uil hjsplinr
il l`tjninhncm eminrms
rnspunstmhn rnmktjvmr
prnkjsm m uimcmprnduitm.
klivnrsmkjûi cjstms pmrm snr
Bmy hls tjpls hn rnccmemhm? cms pmsjvms y cms mktjvms.

Pnccmemhms pmsjvms
Nitrn cls tjpls hn rnccmemhms qun uil punhn utjcjzmr, ccmemels pmsjvms m mqunccms qun sli
gíkjcns hn mprnihnr y hn utjcjzmr… y qun punhni klivnrtjrsn rípjhmenitn ni uim snduihm
imturmcnzm hnspuês hn ui klrtl pnrjlhl hn mprnihjzmon.

@rnvns jihjkmkjlins hn kleprnisjûi

Nxprnsjlins klel «cl nitjnihl± l `jni «ym vnl± l jikcusl «Bue Bue± bmkni snitjr mc
jitnrclkutlr qun nitjnihns cl qun hjkn … y qun nstís nskukbmihl.

Cms grmsns inutrms

Ltrm rnccmemhm pmsjvm ns cm grmsn inutrm. Mijem mc ltrl m klitjiumr sji jigcunikjmrcl. Hls
nonepcls? «¼En punhns hnkjr ui plkl eís<± l `jni «En nikmitmråm qun prnkjsmrms ui
plkl eís cl qun pjnisms.±

^i enhjl
uim glrem euy sjepcn hnnsl
jitnrrldmtjvm, rnccmemr enhjmitn
qun mkm`m uimtugrmsn
hn hnkjr inutrm klisjstn
jitnrclkutlr. ni rnglreucmr, `mol
Vlr nonepcl?
 =6:

‛ Êc? «Nsl ns cl qun pjnisl, y pmrm eå cm ncnkkjûi ns sjepcn.±

‛ Xÿ? «¼Cm ncnkkjûi ns sjepcn<± L `jni? «¼]uê nitjnihns plr uim ncnkkjûi sjepcn<±

Vlsturm klrplrmc

Cm
plrplsturm klrplrmc
nonepcl, tme`jêi punhn
l jikcjimrsn bmkjm guikjlimr klel rnccmemhm
nc jitnrclkutlr pmsjvm? jikcjimr
pmrm nxprnsmr jitnrês, cmjigcuyni
km`nzm,
plsjtjvmenitn ni qun klitjiÿn cm kleuijkmkjûi.

Cls sjcnikjls
Cm kumrtm rnccmemhm pmsjvm sn ccmem usl ngjkmz hnc sjcnikjl. ^tjcjzmhm kli snitjhl kleÿi,
bmrí qun nc jitnrclkutlr bm`cn eís mitn ui jijkjl hn rnspunstm qun il ns smtjsgmktlrjl ni så
ejsel y qun punhn hmr cm jeprnsjûi mhneís hn qun rnsplihn «cmtnrmcenitn±.
Cm prnsjûi qun snitjrí nc jitnrclkutlr hnspuês hn vmrjls snduihls hn sjcnikjl snrí cl
`mstmitn gunrtn klel pmrm nepuomrcl m bm`cmr eís.
Vlr nc klitrmrjl, ui sjcnikjl hnemsjmhl prlclidmhl punhn plinr ni tnisjûi mc
jitnrclkutlr y nepuomrcl m cjejtmr su kleuijkmkjûi. Nc sjcnikjl hn`n utjcjzmrsn kli
snitjhl kleÿi, ni guikjûi hn cm sjtumkjûi, hn cls jihjvjhuls jepcjkmhls y hn cm rncmkjûi
prnvjm nitrn me`ls.

Pnccmemhms mktjvms
Cms rnccmemhms mktjvms sli cms eís hjgåkjcns hn utjcjzmr. Eminomrcms hn eminrm ngjkmz nxjdn
nitrnimejnitl y vlcuitmh hn il qunrnr jigcujr ni nc jitnrclkutlr. Nitrn cms rnccmemhms
mktjvms nstíi nc rnsueni y cm rnnxprnsjûi hn snitjejnitls.

Nc rnsueni
Nc rnsueni ns cm såitnsjs hn cl qun nc jitnrclkutlr bm kleuijkmhl ni ui hntnrejimhl
elenitl hn cm klivnrsmkjûi. Nc l`ontjvl hnc rnsueni klisjstn ni rnglreucmr hn mcdÿi
elhl cl qun bm hjkbl sji hnglremrcl ij mýmhjr cls prlpjls pnismejnitls.
 ==6

Ni uim nxprnsjûi ilremc, nitrn M y @ (ni nc nonepcl), M sn nxprnsmrí (=), m klitjiumkjûi

@ rnmkkjlimrí (0) m cm nxprnsjûi hn M, m klitjiumkjûi M rnmkkjlimrí (;) m cm rnmkkjûi hn
@, y sndujrí mså…
Ni ui rnsueni, cm hjskusjûi sn hntjnin y uil hn cls jitnrclkutlrns rnpjtn l rnglreucm cm
nxprnsjûi l cm rnmkkjûi hnc ltrl. Vlr nonepcl, sj M bm`cm (=) m @ y nxplin ui prl`cnem,
eís qun klitnstmr, @ hjrí? «Hêomen qun en msndurn hn bm`nr kleprnihjhl? en bms hjkbl
qun…±
rnsueniZ(0)prnsnitm
prnduitmcm sjnxprnsjûi hn `jni,
cl bm hjkbl M tmcsjybmklel cm bm kleprnihjhl.
kleprnihjhl. Mc gjimcqunhnnstí
[j M (;) kligjrem su
`jni mså, @ punhn rnmkkjlimr (8) mitn ui prl`cnem qun nstí sndurl hn bm`nr kleprnihjhl.
 ===

M y @ rntrlknhni pmrm rnkupnrmr nc klitnijhl hn cm hjskusjûi. Ni nc prlknsl, @ bm

snpmrmhl nc tjnepl hn nskukbmr y hn kleprnihnr nc enismon hn su tjnepl hn rnmkkjlimr.
Nc rnsueni ns, plr ltrl cmhl, uim têkijkm qun tme`jêi punhn snr jijkjmhm, klel ni nc
nonepcl prnknhnitn, plr cm pnrslim qun nskukbm, cm qun mkm`m hn bm`cmr. Vlr nonepcl,
punhns hnkjr, hnspuês hn bm`nrtn nxprnsmhl sl`rn ui tnem l ui prl`cnem? «Il nstly 
sndurl hn bm`nren nxprnsmhl `jni, ¼punhns rnsuejren cl qun bms nitnihjhl<± Ni nsn
kmsl, tn msndurms hn qun cm pnrslim bmym nskukbmhl y kleprnihjhl. [j mkm`ms hjkjnihl
mcdl klel? «Ns kjnrtl, nxknptl qun yl il…±, punhns vlcvnr m pnhjr ltrl rnsueni.
Cm utjcjhmh hn ui rnsueni ns nvjhnitn pmrm hngjijr `jni ui prl`cnem l kumihl sn jijkjm
ui hn`mtn l uim nitrnvjstm. Vnrl tme`jêi punhn snrvjr, ni tlhl elenitl, pmrm nskcmrnknr
mcduils puitls hncjkmhls ni cm kleuijkmkjûi y, gjimcenitn, pmrm prnpmrmr cm klikcusjûi l
nc gji hn ui jitnrkme`jl.
[l`rn tlhl tn pnrejtjrí msndurmrtn hn qun bms kleprnihjhl `jni m tu jitnrclkutlr y qun êc
tn bm kleprnihjhl `jni m tj, klsm inknsmrjm ni kumcqujnr nitrnvjstm. Gjimcenitn, tn
pnrejtjrí ncjejimrsjkjnrtls
jiÿtjcns y vnrjgjkmr mspnktlspjnism
tu jitnrclkutlr hn cm clklivnrsmkjûi
ejsel. qun tn pmrnzkmi snkuihmrjls l

Cm rnnxprnsjûi hn snitjejnitls
Cm rnnxprnsjûi hn snitjejnitls il sn mcnom hnc rnsueni, nxknptl qun ni vnz hn rnsuejr cl
qun bm hjkbl nc ltrl, rnsuens cl qun il bm nxprnsmhl. Vlr nonepcl?
• «Vnrkj`l nilol ni tu mktjtuh.±
• «Nstm sjtumkjûi hn`n snrtn euy jikûelhm.±
Mcduims pnrslims sli rntjknitns m nxprnsmr sus vnrhmhnrls snitjejnitls. [ji ne`mrdl, sj
sudjnrns qun nsls snitjejnitls nxjstni, tu jitnrclkutlr punhn pnismr? «Kleprnihn hn
 vnrhmh cl qun sjnitl±
sjnitl± y plhrí m`rjrsn jienhjmtmenitn
jienhjmtmenitn m tj.
Cls pncjdrls hn cm rnnxprnsjûi hn snitjejnitls klisjstni ni qun nstm têkijkm hnpnihn hn
tu kmpmkjhmh pmrm mhjvjimr. [j il mkjnrtms ni tu suplsjkjûi, tu jitnrclkutlr punhn snitjrsn
jisuctmhl l bnrjhl, l cms hls m cm vnz, sl`rn tlhl sj jisjstns ni tu jitnrprntmkjûi.
Eís vmcn hnomr kcmrl qun nstís bmkjnihl suplsjkjlins y qun il nstís sndurl, ni m`slcutl,
hn cl qun hjkns, pnrl qun cl prlplins plrqun qujzís myuhn m hmr kli cm slcukjûi hn ui
prl`cnem.

M hnstmkmr
 Cm rnnxprnsjûi hn snitjejnitls ns uim têkijkm hjgåkjc qun nxjdn hjstmikjm kli

==0

rnspnktl mc prl`cnem y qun prnsuplin uim `unim rncmkjûi nitrn cls jitnrclkutlrns.

Nonrkjkjl pmrm prmktjkmr cms prnduitms

Kmrmktnrjzm
ni cm qun
cm klcueim imturmcnzm hncmkmhm
tn pmrnkn uim hn nitrn
klrrnktm cms prnduitms
cms kumtrlsjdujnitns
plsj`cns. hj`uomihl uim kruz 

   M`jnrtm Knrrmhm

  Inutrm Dujmhm Inutrm Dujmhm

=. ¼Nrns emylr <

0. ¼]uê lpjims hn nstn mrtåkucl<

;. ¼Mhûihn vms<

8. ¼Ns
¼Nstís
tís hn mku
mkunrh
nrhll kl
klii cm
cm h
hnkj
nkjsjû
sjûii ttlem
lemhm
hm plr nc ddrup
rupl<
l<

>. ¼Vlr quê bms tlemhl nstm hjrnkkjûi<

7.¼Il krnns qun hn`nråmels mprnsurmrils<

4.¼]uê lpjims hn nstm kleprm<

2.
2.¼¼Nrm
Nrm inkn
inknsm
smrjrjll kl
klcl
clkm
kmrr ni ns
nstm
tm pls
lsjk
jkjû
jûii m ns
nstn
tn ji
jiÿt
ÿtjcjc<<

:.¼]uê lpjims hn nstm príktjkm jimhejsj`cn hn su`jr cms

 
tmsms <

=6.¼Jitnitms sjneprn ccndmr puitumc<

==.¼Il hn`nråmi knisurmr cls gjcens nrûtjkls<

=0.
=0.¼Vl
Vlrr q
quuê bbms
ms mk
mktu
tumh
mhll h
hnn e
emi
minr
nrmm tmi
tmi hn
hnsm
smdr
drmh
mhm`
m`cn
cn<<

=;.¼Jrís m kmsm hn Vmuc <

=8.¼[m`ns klitmr bmstm hjnz, plr cl enils<

=>.¼Xn dustmråm tninr bjols <

=7.¼Vlr q
quuê p
prl
rlp
plins sj
sjneprn ssllcukjli
jlins je
jeplsj`
j`ccns<

=4.¼]uê lpjims hn cms emijpucmkjlins hnc pmrtjhl<

 =4.¼]uê lpjims hn cms emijpucmkjlins hnc pmrtjhl<

==;

=2.¼Bms pnhjhl cm lpjijûi m Hurmih<

=:. ¼]uê lpjims hn cls nrrlrns qun sn bmi klentjhl<

06. ¼Il hn`nråm mkm`mr mquå nc nonrkjkjl<

^i nonepcl
«Dnlrdns @PM[[NI[? [m`n, m gunrzm hn rnkjtmr cls plnems ni kcmsn, y hn nskukbmr cms
kmikjlins, uil vn rípjhmenitn kûel sn krnmi.
Mihrê [NWN? ¼Vnrl bm nstuhjmhl vnrsjgjkmkjûi<
vnrsjgjkmkjûi<
D. @.? Cm emylråm hn pnrslims qun nskrj`ni kmikjlins il bmi nstuhjmhl vnrsjgjkmkjûi.
^il imkn pmrm nskrj`jr kmikjlins l il. [j uil bm imkjhl pmrm nccl, il inknsjtm mprnihnr
cms ilrems.
M. [.? ¼Z ustnh cms bms mprnihjhl<
D. @.? [å, eís tmrhn, pmrnkn qun en bn rngjimhl ui plkl, pnrl…
M. [.? ¼Bm klisnrvmhl sus prjenrms kmikjlins<
D. @.? Il. ^il punhn nskrj`jr kmikjlins sji… ¼]un il en nskukbm<
M. [.? Il, plrqun...
D. @.? ^stnh sjdun su pnismejnitl, cl prnsjnitl. Wjnin mquå kli jhnms prnklikn`jhms y 
qujnrn sndujr su kmejil, il nc eål. Kumihl mvmizl sl`rn mcduim jhnm, bm`råm qun
hnomren jr pnrl ustnh en hntjnin. Vlhråm hnkjr enolrns klsms. Vnrl sn inknsjtm tjnepl
pmrm qun vnidmi.
M. [.? Wnihríi.
D. @.? Ij sjqujnrm bmy qun hnkjrcl, cl qun bmkn gmctm ns sndujr bm`cmihl, sji qun sn
lkupn hn cms kunstjlins qun bm krnmhl l qun qujnrn sndujr. ¼]ujnrn @rmssnis l qujnrn
krnmr m @rmssnis< [j sjdl sus jhnms, ustnh pjnrhn cms eåms, m pmrtjr hn mblrm hjrê cl qun
en vnidm …
M. [.? Cls nspnkjmcjstms il bmi m`rmzmhl m`jnrtmenitn sus kmikjlins, ij tmeplkl sus
tnxtls.
D. @.? ^il il sn m`rn sj il qujnrn. Hnspuês hn sus prnduitms cl bn nitnihjhl. Kumihl

nxpcjkl mcdl qun il kljikjhn kli cl qun ustnh qunråm qun hjonrm, kme`jm hn
klivnrsmkjûi.
 ==8

M. [.? ¼Enils mblrm< Hnspuês hn trns håms hn nskukbmr.

D. @. –Hn nskukbm―, sj uil qujnrn. Il, ustnh nspnrm, ustnh nspnrm, y kumihl nsl
kljikjhn kli cl qun nspnrm, plg, bmkn kcjka, en ejrm kli jitnrês, sn m`rn m eå. Vnrl
kumihl il kljikjhn, vnl su rlstrl sji `rjccl, cl vjdjcl, sm`n, mprnihl eukbl hn ustnh
l`snrvmihl su kleplrtmejnitl hn nitrnvjstmhlr. Ccndm mquå kli ui @rmssnis
nitnrmenitn prngm`rjkmhl ni cm km`nzm y qujnrn entnren mbå hnitrl. Cl ÿijkl qun cn
jitnrnsm ns bmknr qun hjdm cl qun, hnspuês hn tlhl, @rmssnis hn`n hnkjr, nsl qun
@rmssnis hn`n snr. Vlhråm tninr mc vnrhmhnrl @rmssnis, y ni tlhl kmsl m ui @rmssnis
hnsmtnihjhl. Vnrl sn bm prnpmrmhl pmrm nc @rmssnis qun qujnrn. [jneprn nspnrmels qun
cls hneís snmi klel qunrnels, il nstmels prnpmrmhls pmrm qun ils slrprnihmi.±>

Ni rnsueni
^i `uni usl hn cms têkijkms hn kleuijkmkjûi pnrejtn jiglremrsn enolr, ns hnkjr
rnglrzmr nc Mhuctl.

Nstls eêtlhls ym nxpcjkmhls punhni mprnihnrsn gíkjcenitn y mpcjkmrsn ni tlhms

iunstrms rncmkjlins pnrslimcns y prlgnsjlimcns.
 ==>

 
\\\\\\\\\\\\\
>. Nxtrmåhl hn Xlutn uin vjn plur cm kbmisli, M. [nvn jitnrrldn Dnlrdns @rmssnis, Cn Kniturjli, Vmrjs, =:4>.
 ==7

Xnrknrm pmrtn

CM[ B^NCCM[ EÍ[ VPLG^IHM[

 ==4

Kmpåtucl 2

Cls enkmijsels hn mutlemijpucmkjûi

Cls kbmitmons
¼Bms tnijhl cm jeprnsjûi hn qun mcduims pnrslims nxjdni mtnikjûi y il nstíi omeís
smtjsgnkbms< ¼Kuíitms vnkns cns bms hmhl cm rmzûi, l kuíitms vnkns bms knhjhl m sus
pntjkjlins, y mui mså il `mstm, sjduni pjhjnihl sjneprn eís<
Bms nstmhl sji huhm, y sji sm`nrcl, ni klitmktl kli nc kbmitmon.

M hnstmkmr
^i kbmitmon, ni Miícjsjs Xrmismkkjlimc, ns cm sustjtukjûi hn cm nxprnsjûi hn ui
snitjejnitl l uim nelkjûi, prlguihm y mutêitjkm, plr cm nxprnsjûi hn ltrl
snitjejnitl l nelkjûi «eís mknptm`cn± hnshn nc puitl hn vjstm slkjmc.

Nc lrjdni hn ui kbmitmon sn punhn rnelitmr cnols ni nc tjnepl? nc ijýl pnqunýl, plr ui

cmhl, y nc Ijýl Nsplitíinl ni cls mhuctls, plr ltrm, punhni nxprnsmrsn sji tninr ni
kunitm m cls hneís.
Vrlitl, sji ne`mrdl, sli slentjhls y nitlikns mpmrnkn nc Ijýl Mhmptmhl. Ni eukbls
kmsls, nstm mhmptmkjûi klisjstn ni rnnepcmzmr cm nxprnsjûi hn nelkjlins nsplitíinms plr
mcduims eís mknptm`cns pmrm nc nitlril hnc ijýl. Vlr nonepcl? ui ijýl sn nigmhm y su
emhrn hjkn? «Il ns imhm, slcl nstí kmismhl±. Nsn ijýl punhn mprnihnr m rnnepcmzmr su
kûcnrm kli kmismikjl?
• Kleplrtmejnitl mutlrjzmhl? gmtjdm.
• Nelkjûi prlbj`jhm? kûcnrm.
 ==2

Cm ejsem pnrslim, kumrnitm mýls hnspuês, sjnitn uim gmtjdm sÿ`jtm kumihl sn nigmhm.
Ltrl nonepcl? snjs pnrslims ni uim ejsem sjtumkjûi nxpnrjenitmi nelkjlins l
snitjejnitls hjgnrnitns.
hjgnrnitns. Mså, ni ui vmdûi hn entrl ccnil ni blrm puitm?
• cm pnrslim i¶ = sn sjnitn
sjnitn trjstn mitn
mitn tlhm nstm
nstm euctjtuh vjsj`cnenitn
vjsj`cnenitn kmismhm1
kmismhm1

• sjdujnitn1
cm pnrslim i¶ 0 tjnin ejnhl
ejnhl hn il plhnr
plhnr smcjr kumihl
kumihl cl inknsjtn,
inknsjtn, l ni cm
cm nstmkjûi
• cm pnrslim i¶ ; nstí
nstí klitnitm hn mblrrmrsn
mblrrmrsn nc trígjkl y cls mtmskls1
mtmskls1
• cm pnrslim i¶ 8 sn sjnitn euy knrkm hn tlhm nstm dnitn1
• cm pnrslim i¶ > mprlvnkbm
mprlvnkbm dustlsm
dustlsm nc tjnepl cj`rn pmrm cnnr nc pnrjûhjkl1
pnrjûhjkl1
• cm pnrslim i¶ 7 klitrlcm
klitrlcm su nigmhl eureurmihl
eureurmihl ni vlz `mom «entrl,
«entrl, trm`momr,
hlrejr… entrl, trm`momr, hlrejr…±.
Wnels qun nc sjstnem pmrm hjsgrmzmr nelkjlins, surdjhl klel uim mhmptmkjûi inknsmrjm
ni nc me`jnitn
Hnshn nitlikns,lrjdjimc (gmejcjmr),
cm pnrslim m eniuhl
sn vn glrzmhm hnsne`lkm
m emijpucmr ni uim pmrm
su nitlril jimhmptmkjûi plstnrjlr.
qun rnsplihm m sus
nelkjlins lkuctms tmc y klel bmkåm ni nc me`jnitn lrjdjimc. [j cl klisjdun, nsl cn
pnrejtjrí sndujr nxprnsmihl, ni su hjsgrmz bm`jtumc, sus nelkjlins vnrhmhnrms y emitninr
su kumhrl hn rngnrnikjm sje`jûtjkm.
Nstn tjpl hn kleplrtmejnitl suncn klepmrmrsn mc hn cls díistnrns qun lgrnkni uim
prltnkkjûi qun hnspuês mprlvnkbmi pmrm nxtlrsjlimr (kbmitmons).

M hnstmkmr

Cls kbmitmons, ni Miícjsjs Xrmismkkjlimc, sli nelkjlins l kleplrtmejnitls

hjsgrmzmhls qun `uskmi snr rnklilkjhls.

Il jeplrtm quê nelkjûi ns susknptj`cn hn rnepcmzmr m ltrm, y qun nsl hê glrem m ui

kbmitmon (nelkjûi hjsgrmzmhm) qun il ns ngjkmz. Cm pnrslim kbmitmojstm, muiqun
pnrpntumenitn jismtjsgnkbm,
jismtjsgnkbm, nxpnrjenitm ui snitjejnitl hn sndurjhmh? il klrrn nc pncjdrl
hn nxprnsmr nelkjlins «il mutlrjzmhms± y hn suskjtmr rnkbmzl plr pmrtn hnc Vmhrn jitnrjlr.
Hn tlhls elhls, il tlhls cls kbmitmons kliccnvmi nc rnnepcmzl hn uim nelkjûi plr ltrm.
Bnels vjstl mitnrjlrenitn nc nonepcl hn uim nelkjûi (kûcnrm) rnnepcmzmhm plr uim
rnmkkjûi gjsjlcûdjkm hn `msn, cm gmtjdm.
Nsl il hnom hn snr ui kmsl pmrtjkucmr hn ui enkmijsel dninrmc? cm mhmptmkjûi hn cm
 ==:

pnrslim m su nitlril. Ni ngnktl, ni uim sjtumkjûi hmhm, plhnels ncndjr nitrn eÿctjpcns
ijvncns hn rnmkkjûi y, m su vnz, nitrn eÿctjpcns rnspunstms plsj`cns ni kmhm uil hn cls
ijvncns. Cls hjstjitls ijvncns punhni snr hnskrjtls hn cm eminrm sjdujnitn?

Ijvnc Xjpls hn rnspunstms

Inknsjhmhns `jlcûdjkms `ísjkms [unýl, bme`rn, snxl, kmclr, grål, rnspjrmkjûi…

Nelkjlins Mcndråm, trjstnzm, ejnhl, kûcnrm...

[nitjejnitls (nelkjlins slkjmcenitrn Hnsprnkjl, pnim, vnrdónizm, mhejrmkjûi, lrduccl,

prldrmemhms) pmtrjltjsel…

Vnismejnitls Pmzlimejnitl, rngcnxjûi, miícjsjs, jhnm, prnvjsjûi...

Pntrmjejnitl, rjtl, pmsmtjnepl, mktjvjhmh, oundl,

Nstrukturmkjûi hnc tjnepl
jitjejhmh...

Cls kbmitmons
hnstruktjvm klisjstni
pmrm ni hjsgrmzmr
cm pnrslim. uim nelkjûi
Vlr nonepcl? ni cmkli ltrm y hn
`ucjejm, uim eminrm
nc bme`rn plsj`cnenitn
lkuctm nigmhl l
trjstnzm. Ni nc mkusmhlr, nc enilsprnkjl y nc nigmhl lkuctmi ejnhl, jdumc qun cm rngcnxjûi
m vnkns punhn snrvjr pmrm rntrmsmr cm mkkjûi, y il pmrm prnkjsmrcm l bmknrcm eís ngjkmz.
Bnels vjstl qun nc bnkbl hn rnnepcmzmr uim rnspunstm plr ltrm punhn rnsuctmr hn uim
mhmptmkjûi plsjtjvm hn cm pnrslim m su nitlril, ni nc kmsl hnc kbmitmon, nstn enkmijsel
snrí utjcjzmhl prjikjpmcenitn pmrm hjsgrmzmr cm rnspunstm jijkjmc y il pnrejtjrí, nitlikns,
rnslcvnr vnrhmhnrmenitn nc prl`cnem.
[ji ne`mrdl, jihjkmi qun ns ÿtjc sjepcjgjkmr, rnhukjr, sjneprn qun snm plsj`cn, cm ilkjûi
hn kbmitmon m? hjsgrmzmr uim nelkjûi kli ltrm. Nstm ns, ni ngnktl, cm hngjijkjûi bm`jtumc
hnc kliknptl hn kbmitmon, punstl qun ns cm eís gíkjc hn usmr.
Ns hnsnm`cn rnpmrmr ni cls kbmitmons prlpjls, cls hn uil ejsel, y ni nc kmsl hlihn
punhmi mpcjkmrsn, ni cls ltrls, punstl qun?
• [j cm pntjkjûi
pntjkjûi nstí hjsgrmzmhm,
hjsgrmzmhm, cm rnspunstm
rnspunstm il snrí
snrí omeís smtjsgmktlrjm,
smtjsgmktlrjm, snm
snm kumc snm
snm cm
ninrdåm qun hnhjqunels m klisndujrcl. Vlr nonepcl? cm dcltlinråm punhn snr
nxprnsjûi hn uim inknsjhmh eís nelkjlimc. [j nc prl`cnem rnmc il sn bm rnsunctl, cm
ejsem misjm punhn rnpntjrsn ui plkl eís tmrhn, punstl qun slcl sn bm trmtmhl nc
såitlem, il cm inknsjhmh rnmc.
• Cls kbmitmons,
kbmitmons, kumihl grmkmsmi, cl kumc lkurrn
lkurrn m eniuhl,
eniuhl, hmi pmslpmsl m oundls
oundls
pnrvnrsls (vnr nc kmpåtucl :. Cls enkmijsels hn emijpucmkjûi hn cns hneís? cls
 oundls), qun punhni
punhni snr kcmrm y hjrnktmenitn
hjrnktmenitn pnrouhjkjmcns pmrm
pmrm cms pmrnoms
 =06

rnspnktjvms.
Gjimcenitn, km`n snýmcmr qun cls kbmitmons rncmkjlimcns utjcjzmi, ni ui elenitl u ltrl, nc
kbmitmon mgnktjvl y qun ni nsl sn mplym cm jhnm hn qun nc ltrl ns rnsplism`cn hn cls prlpjls
snitjejnitls,, jdumc qun tÿ nrns rnsplism`cn hn cls hn cm ltrm pnrslim. Vlr nonepcl?
snitjejnitls

• «Ejrm cl qun en bms bms bnkbl bmknr.±

• «[jneprn bmkn
bmkn qun en nigmhn1
nigmhn1 ¡ns eís gunrtn
gunrtn qun yl!±
• «Il, il en mtrnvl,
mtrnvl, il qujnrl bmknrcn hmýl.±
• «¼Ni quê tn bmkn pnismr –nstl―<±
Jhnitjgjkmr y kleprnihnr nc kmríktnr nrrûinl hn nstm krnnikjm ns nc prjikjpmc enhjl hn
nvjtmr cls kbmitmons y cls oundls pnrvnrsls.

Kbmitmons y trmisglremkjûi
• «¡Mtnikjûi, uim nelkjûi punhn nsklihnr ltrm!±
Nc Miícjsjs Xrmismkkjlimc myuhm m uim pnrslim m rnklilknr sus kbmitmons (nelkjlins
hjsgrmzmhms) y m rnniklitrmr ni sus nelkjlins vnrhmhnrms cm pcnijtuh hn su ninrdåm y su
krnmtjvjhmh.
 =0=

¼Kûel hntnktmr ui kbmitmon (nelkjûi supnrgjkjmc) <

• Cm nelkjûi sn nxprnsm sji rncmkjûi
rncmkjûi hjrnktm kli cm sjtumkjûi
sjtumkjûi prnsnitn.
prnsnitn.
• [n nxprnsm
nxprnsm hn eminrm plkl
plkl imturmc
imturmc l plkl klivjiknitn.
klivjiknitn.
• Cm pnrslim sjneprn nxprnsm
nxprnsm cms ejsems nelkjlins,
nelkjlins, y muiqun
muiqun cms nikunitrm
hnsmdrmhm`cns, sjneprn cms emitjnin.
• Nc kleplrtmejnitl
kleplrtmejnitl hn cm pnrslim
pnrslim pmrnkn
pmrnkn klitrmhjktlrjl
klitrmhjktlrjl (plr nonepcl, slirån
slirån
ejnitrms kunitm sus hnsdrmkjms).
• [n sjnitn jikûelhl, jrrjtmhl,
jrrjtmhl, m`usmhl, y nsm
nsm snismkjûi sn rnmgjrem kli cm rnpntjkjûi.
rnpntjkjûi.

¼Kûel nvjtmr cls kbmitmons<

• Mknptmr cm rnsplism`jcjhmh hn cls prlpjls mktls
mktls y nelkjlins?

- «En bn nilomhl± (ni vnz

vnz hn «En bm…±).
- «Bn klentjhl
klentjhl ui nrrlr± (ni vnz hn «Bm bnkbl
bnkbl qun…±).
qun…±).
• Il bmknrsn rnsplism`cn hn cls mktls y cms nelkjlins
nelkjlins hn ltrls?
- «Cn bm bnkbl hmýl±
hmýl± (ni vnz hn «Cn bn bnkbl hmýl…±).

Cm klcnkkjûi hn kuplins
• «Nstly bmrtl.±
• «Xlel iltm… tlel iltm…±
• «¡Zm `mstm!±
• «Cl tnidl nitrn knom y knom…±
• «Cm kbjspm qun niknihjû cm pûcvlrm.±
• «Cm dltm qun klceû nc vmsl.±
• «Bmy nsquncntls
nsquncntls ni nc mremrjl.±
Nstms nxprnsjlins tjnini eukbl ni kleÿi ni nc Miícjsjs Xrmismkkjlimc. Nc ngnktl hn
mkueucmkjûi mc qun bmkni rngnrnikjm mpmrnkn ltrm vnz ni nc kliknptl qun ccmemels «cm

klcnkkjûi
Knrkmim mchn kbmitmon,
kuplins±. cm mkueucmkjûi hn kuplins ns ui sjstnem hn mkueucmkjûi hn
 =00

nelkjlins klepmrm`cn mc sjstnem hn «puitls± l `lijgjkmkjlins qun vnels ni cms tjnihms?

mc bmknr tlhms cms kleprms ni cm ejsem tjnihm, mc utjcjzmr sjneprn cm ejsem emrkm hn
dmslcjim, mc klenr sjneprn nc ejsel kblklcmtn…, vms mkueucmihl sugjkjnitns kuplins
pmrm `ningjkjmrtn hn rndmcls drmtjs? m kme`jl hn hjnz puitls, tjnins hnrnkbl m…1 m kme`jl
hn kjikunitm puitls, tjnins hnrnkbl m…ntk.
Cms nxprnsjlins kjtmhms mitnrjlrenitn nvlkmi uim klcnkkjûi hn «kuplins± psjklcûdjkls1 m
kme`jl hn hjnz grustrmkjlins, mcduims pnrslims sn pnrejtni «hnspltrjkmr±, m kme`jl hn
kjikunitm ui mtmqun hn kûcnrm, m kme`jl hn lkbnitm, uim pncnm, m kme`jl hn kjni, ui
msnsjimtl. Cm ÿctjem grustrmkjûi ns «cm dltm qun klceû nc vmsl±. Nstn sjstnem hn
mkueucmkjûi hn nelkjlins il nxprnsmhms suncn nstmr sndujhl hn uim cjqujhmkjûi dcl`mc, m
eniuhl `rutmc, y nxjstn tme`jêi pmrm cms nelkjlins plsjtjvms1 ni cudmr hn kuplins
emrrlins (indmtjvls), uil mkueucm kuplins hlrmhls qun sn jitnrkme`jmi plr uim `unim
knim, kleprms, ui vjmon hn pcmknr l vmkmkjlins.
Cm mkueucmkjûi hn kuplins hn ui jihjvjhul m eniuhl nstí euy klinktmhm kli su l sus
kbmitmons? ni ngnktl, tlhm nelkjûi prlbj`jhm slcl cl ns bmstm kjnrtl cåejtn.

M hnstmkmr
[mtjsgmknr nsms nelkjlins hjsgrmzmhms (kbmitmon) il ns eís qun ui elhl hn
prlsndujr kli cm prlbj`jkjûi y cm rnprnsjûi hn cm nelkjûi prlbj`jhm. Nc prlknsl
pnrslimc klisjstn ni mkueucmr sugjkjnitns nelkjlins rnprjejhms pmrm plhnr
nxprnsmrcms sji snitjrsn kucpm`cn. Vlr nonepcl, hnspuês hn kjikl mýls hn
buejccmkjlins klitjiums l hn nigmhls mkueucmhls, ui emrjhl mklsmhl plr su
nsplsm sn hm nc hnrnkbl hn pnhjr nc hjvlrkjl1 ui vnihnhlr jisuctm m ui kcjnitn
jislplrtm`cn1 ui nepcnmhl rniuikjm kli ui plrtmzl.

Cls prjikjpjls qun rjdni cm klcnkkjûi hn kuplins

Mcduims hngjijkjlins hjvnrtjhms hn cls kleplrtmejnitls hn cm snrjn hn kuplins sjduni
bmkjnihl nc pmrmcncjsel kli uim mkueucmkjûi hn vmcns hn hnskunitl?
• ^i jihjvjhul slcl punhn klcnkkjlimr ui tjpl hn kupûi (kûcnrm, plr nonepcl) l, plr
nc klitrmrjl, klcnkkjlimr tlhls cls tjpls hn kuplins (klcnrm, vnrdónizm, ejnhl, ntk.)
• mcduims pnrslims
pnrslims gm`rjkmi
gm`rjkmi sus kuplins kli pjnzms hjgnrnitns1ltrls
hjgnrnitns1ltrls elhjgjkmi
slcmenitn su vmclr1
• klel cls klcnkkjlijstms,
klcnkkjlijstms, mcduils qujnrni nisnýmr
nisnýmr su klcnkkjûi ejnitrms
ejnitrms ltrls cm
 =0;

tjnini knclsmenitn dumrhmhm1

• tme`jêi nxjstni
nxjstni klcnkkjlins
klcnkkjlins kleuijtmrjms?
kleuijtmrjms? cm klcnkkjûi hn pnsmrns hn cls bm`jtmitns
hn uim kleuijhmh (klcnkkjûi qun pnrtninkn m kmhm bm`jtmitn y mc drupl) kunitm kli
nc rnspntl hnc mckmchn.

• íc`ue
mcduilshnhjsgrutmi
hjsgrutmi myuhmihl
ui mejdl m cls qun
(«Il hnomrís hneís y rípjhmenitn
lkurrm sn ¼il<±)1
mså klel mså, mhunými hn ui kupûi hnc
• mcduils rnnikunitrmi
rnnikunitrmi plr
plr kmsumcjhmh
kmsumcjhmh ui vjnol
vjnol íc`ue lcvjhmhl y cl rntlemi kli
jitnrês rnilvmhl1
• mcduils bnrnhmi
bnrnhmi ui íc`ue pmrkjmcenitn
pmrkjmcenitn klepcntmhl
klepcntmhl plr ui gmejcjmr,
gmejcjmr, ui mejdl l ui
klepmýnrl hn trm`mol1
• mcduims klcnkkjlins punhni snr m`mihlimhms1
• mcduils, hnspuês
hnspuês hn bm`nr rnkj`jhl su cltn, klisnrvmi
klisnrvmi su klcnkkjûi
klcnkkjûi kli cm nspnrmizm
nspnrmizm
hn qun cns pmduni uim snduihm vnz.
[ji snr nxbmustjvls, nstls prjikjpjls prlplini uim `msn hn rngcnxjûi mpcjkm`cn m cm vjhm
kltjhjmim y prlplini, mc ejsel tjnepl, mcduils enhjls hn mkkjûi m ijvnc hn cms
klcnkkjlins.
Vmrm il hnomrsn ccnvmr plr nstms klcnkkjlins hn kuplins indmtjvls, ns mklisnom`cn?
• mimcjzmr hn knrkm cl qun ils nstí
nstí prlbj`jhl nxprnsmr1
• tlemr kliskjnikjm
kliskjnikjm hn cms klcnkkjlins
klcnkkjlins qun
qun tninels nepnzmhms y cjqujhmrcms ni
pnqunýms hlsjs ni ui nitlril sndurl (hnsmrrlccl pnrslimc), l ncndjr rniuikjmr m nccms
 y lptmr plr hnstrujrcms1
hnstrujrcms1

• inknsjtm1
hmrsn m uil ejsel, ni jitnrvmcls
jitnrvmcls rnducmrns,
rnducmrns, cms hjstjitms
hjstjitms «våms hn nskmpn± qun uil
• `uskmr cms eminrms eís
eís jidnijlsms,
jidnijlsms, eís prlvnkblsms,
prlvnkblsms, hn l`tninr clscls nståeucls
nståeucls qun
inknsjtm? mepcjmr su rnpnrtlrjl hn klihuktms, hn snismkjlins,
snismkjlins, hn nelkjlins1
• nxprnsmr nc
nc sugrjejnitl
sugrjejnitl sji rntrmsl
rntrmsl ij «mcemknimon±, sjneprn
sjneprn qun nc nitlril cl
pnrejtm.

Ni rnsueni
«Vlr quê hnomr pmrm emýmim cl qun plhnels nxprnsmr mblrm ejsel± ns nc rngríi
qun ils pnrejtjrí «vmkjmr iunstrm elkbjcm± y trmtmr iunstrms nelkjlins kltjhjmims
m enhjhm qun vmymi mpmrnkjnihl.
 =08

Cm ilkjûi hn klcnkkjûi hn kuplins klikjnrin m cm mkueucmkjûi hn snitjejnitls

indmtjvls il nxprnsmhls qun, ni ÿctjel têrejil, pnrejtni qun ils mprlvnkbnels
hn uim ÿctjem «dltm hn mdum± pmrm cms nxjdnikjms plkl rmzlim`cns.
 =0>

Kmpåtucl :

Cls enkmijsels hn emijpucmkjûi hn

cls hneís? cls oundls

• «¼Kûel punhns kleplrtmrtn mså kli ilsltrls< ¡Hnspuês¡Hnspuês hn tlhl cl qun bnels
bnels
bnkbl plr tj!±
• «¡Cl sm`åm! ¡Xn cl bm`åm hjkbl!
hjkbl! ¡[li jiÿtjcns!
jiÿtjcns! ¡Ns cm ÿctjem
ÿctjem vnz qun
qun cns ccnvmrê
ccnvmrê nc
klkbn m rnpmrmr!±
Cm prjenrm grmsn, prliuikjmhm plr ui pmhrn elrmcjstm, y cm snduihm plr ui kcjnitn gunrm
hn så sli jihjkmhlrns hn mqunccl qun ccmemels oundl l, jikcusl, oundl pnrvnrsl. Eunstrmi
cl qun sn ccmem «dlcpn hn ngnktl±1 nc Vmhrn qun mitns nstm`m hjsplij`cn y «kujhm`m± sn
rnvncm ni rnmcjhmh elrmcjzmhlr y «kråtjkl±. Nc kcjnitn qun bm «hnelstrmhl± su kligjmizm sn
 vuncvn mutlrjtmrjl
mutlrjtmrjl n jepmkjnitn.
jepmkjnitn.
Hn bnkbl, me`ls bmi kme`jmhl sÿ`jtmenitn su mktjtuh ni rncmkjûi kli sus
jitnrclkutlrns,
jitnrclkutlr ns, y ns nstn kme`jl hn rlc nc qun bmkn mpmrnknr nc oundl.

Nc trjíiducl hrmeítjkl
Ni ngnktl, sn punhni hjstjidujr trns rlcns plsj`cns ni ui oundl? Mkusmhlr, [mcvmhlr y 
Wåktjem [uejsm l Pn`nchn. Cm uijûi hn cls trns rlcns, mhlptmhls plr uim pnrslim (nitrn
sus Nstmhls hnc Zl) l plr vmrjls jihjvjhuls klel ni uim nsknim hn tnmtrl, kliglrem nc
trjíiducl hrmeítjkl.
 =07

Cls oundls sli rncmkjlins klepntjtjvms? plr cl tmitl tjnini eukbm rncmkjûi kli cms
plsjkjlins vjtmcns hn cls oudmhlrns. Wnels qun nc Vnrsndujhlr y nc [mcvmhlr sli m eniuhl
trmiskrjpkjlins hn cm mktjtuh vjtmc + ‛ m pmrtjr hnc Vmhrn Ilremtjvl y hnc Vmhrn Kujhmhlr.
Msjejsel, cm Wåktjem suncn snr uim trmiskrjpkjûi hn cm plsjkjûi ‛ + m pmrtjr hnc Ijýl
Mhmptmhl. Nstm våktjem snrí rn`nchn l suejsm sndÿi sj mktjvm su Ijýl Pn`nchn l su Ijýl
Mhmptmhl [uejsl.
Nitnihnels rípjhmenitn qun ij nc Mhuctl ij nc Ijýl Nsplitíinl nstíi prnsnitns l
mktjvls kumihl nxjstn ui oundl nitrn vmrjls jihjvjhuls1 lkurrn cl ejsel ni cm plsjkjûi
 vjtmc + +.

M hnstmkmr
Cm «slcukjûi± m cls oundls, l cm eminrm hn nskmpmr hn nccls, klisjstn
prjikjpmcenitn ni mktjvmr uil hn cls Nstmhls hnc Zl il mktjvls l il utjcjzmhls l
pmsmr m cm mktjtuh vjtmc + + y, hn nstm eminrm, smcjr hnc trjíiducl hrmeítjkl.

Mcduims «gûreucms± ni nstm hjrnkkjûi sn hntmccmi ni nc kmpåtucl 4. Cms têkijkms hn

kleuijkmkjûi.

Kbmitmons y oundls, ui nonepcl

Cls oundls sn `msmi, plr cl enils, ni ui kme`jl hn mktjtuh vjvjhl plr uil hn cls hls
ejne`rls hn cm pmrnom kli nc gji hn nvjtmr nc grmkmsl hngjijtjvl hn su kbmitmon. Xn
prlplinels nc nonepcl sjdujnitn hn ui oundl nitrn uim kbjkm olvni y su prlentjhl.
 =04

=. Mprnihnr m kbmitmonmr
^im kbjkm olvni mprnihn, hn cm rncmkjûi kli su pmhrn, qun kumihl qujnrn qun cn prnstni
mtnikjûi il punhn rnkurrjr m cm kûcnrm, qun nstí prlbj`jhm (sn nikjnrrm ni su kumrtl), sjil
qun hn`n rnkurrjr m cm trjstnzm, så pnrejtjhm (su pmhrn cm klisuncm)? mså mprnihn m

rnnepcmzmr cm kûcnrm plr cm trjstnzm pmrm l`tninr cm mprl`mkjûi hn su pmhrn.

Mc bmknrcl, nitrm ni nc trjíiducl hrmeítjkl ni plsjkjûi hn Wåktjem [uejsm y sn sjnitn
smtjsgnkbm kmhm vnz qun su pmhrn mktjvm nc [mcvmhlr y cm klisuncm, cl qun rnnstm`cnkn cm
sje`jlsjs lrjdjimc.

0. Grmkmsl hnc kbmitmon

Mýls eís tmrhn, cm kbjkm, qun ym ns uim euonr olvni, utjcjzm nc ejsel kbmitmon pmrm
rnkj`jr cm mtnikjûi hn su prlentjhl. Êc il rnmkkjlim m sus eÿctjpcns suspjrls, mså qun nccm
sn nikjnihn y ui håm sn nkbm m cclrmr. Nc prlentjhl, mvnrdlizmhl, il sm`n kûel
rnmkkjlimr, sn hjstmikjm hn nccm y nccm sn nikunitrm slcm. Nvjhnitnenitn, su kbmitmon
«grmkmsm± plrqun su «ilvjl± il rnsplihn m su hnsnl nsklihjhl, hnc qun hn`nråm bmknrsn
kmrdl nc Vmhrn Kujhmhlr.

;. Niknihnrsn y kme`jmr hn rlc

Ni clshjgjkuctmhns
krnmi håms sjdujnitns,
ni cmcmrncmkjûi.
euonr olvni mkueucm
Ni nstn vmrjms
pnrjlhl, krjsjs hn olvni
nc ble`rn kncls ysnhnsnitjrí
mkusmkjlins
våktjemqun
hn
 su prlentjhm, qun tlemrí nc rlc hn Mkusmhlrm.

=02

8. Pnstm`cnkjejnitl hnc kbmitmon

Vmrm rnenhjmr nstm sjtumkjûi, nc ble`rn olvni cm jitnrrldm sl`rn cl qun nstí emc. Nccm sn
nkbm m cclrmr y êc hnhjkm tlhm uim tmrhn m klislcmrcm. Mså nccm rntlem su pmpnc hn Wåktjem,
pnrl
nc nstm vnz tjnin mitn så mc [mcvmhlr qun nccm `uskm`m. Mså bm tnijhl êxjtl mc rnstm`cnknr
kbmitmon.

>. @ningjkjl indmtjvl

Hnsdrmkjmhmenitn, kumihl cm euonr l`tjnin cl qun pmrnkn qunrnr, cls hls prltmdlijstms
tjnini nc snitjejnitl hn qun mcdl il vm `jni ni su rncmkjûi. Hn nstn elhl mýmhni uim
iunvm kûcnrm rnprjejhm m su klcnkkjûi hn kuplins, prnpmríihlsn qujzís pmrm uim rupturm
eís hrmeítjkm.
 =0:

Cms trns kmtndlråms hn oundl

Bmy uim kmitjhmh jiiuenrm`cn hn oundls hjgnrnitns, hnsjdimhls sndÿi cm sjtumkjûi ni qun
sn prlhukni, l nc l`ontjvl rnmc (nc kbmitmon) hn cm pnrslim qun pmrtjkjpm.
 Xme`jêi, y hn eminrm eís sjepcn, nstls oundls punhni snr kcmsjgjkmhls sndÿi nc rlc qun
myuhmi m kligjremr (Vnrsndujhlr, [mcvmhlr, Wåktjem). Nc nonepcl prnknhnitn ns ui kmsl
hn «pl`rn hn eå± (oundl hn Wåktjem) oudmhl plr cm euonr olvni, y mklepmýmhl hnc oundl
klepcnenitmrjl hn su prlentjhl, qun tme`jêi ns klrrnsplism`cn hnc prlknsl.
Kcmsjgjkmkjûi hn cls oundls?
•  Wåktjem? pmtêmen nc trmsnrl ‛ pmtm hn pmcl ‛ hns`lrhmhl hn trm`mol ‛ hnsmyuimr ni
ui pnrjquntn ‛ ¼Vlr quê en pmsm sjneprn m eå< ‛ pl`rn hn eå‛ il ns tmi tnrrj`cn ‛
jitnitmrê bmknrcl cl enolr qun punhm ‛ så, pnrl…
• Vnrsndujhlr? cls hngnktls ‛ jibj`jhl ‛ mblrm tn tnidl, `mstmrhl ‛ nc vjlcmhlr ‛ så,
pnrl... ‛ pncnmrls cls hls ‛ tn bm`åm hjkbl ‛ nstmccjhl hn rm`jm ‛ nc eål ns enolr qun
nc tuyl ‛ plr quê snrí qun tÿ sjneprn…
• [mcvmhlr? slcl qujnrl myuhmr ‛ cl bmrê ni tu cudmr ‛ sn mcndrmríi hn bm`nren
klilkjhl ‛ klitnitl hn plhnr myuhmr ‛ kuêitmen tus emcns ‛ tûemtn uim klpm ‛ ni
tu cudmr yl…

Cls trns drmhls hn oundl

[n punhn pmrtjkjpmr hn cls oundls kli trns drmhls hjgnrnitns hn jitnisjhmh?
• Vrjenr drmhl? sn oundm ni slkjnhmh, y surdn hn sjepcns hnsmkunrhls mgnktjvls l
gåsjkls.
• [nduihl drmhl? ni ui oundl hn snduihl drmhl cls oudmhlrns mkm`mi emrkmhls
elrmcenitn plr ui cmrdl pnrjlhl hn tjnepl. Hmhm su jitnisjhmh, mc enils uim
pmrtn hnc oundl sn hnsmrrlccmrí ni prjvmhl.
•  Xnrknr drmhl? nstls oundls jepcjkmi ui hlejijl gåsjkl y psjklcûdjkl jeplrtmitn y 
hurmhnrl y punhni mkm`mr ni nc blspjtmc, ni prjsjûi, ni ui blspjtmc psjqujítrjkl,
psjqujítrjkl, ni
cm elrdun.

Xrmismkkjlins
^i oundl ns uim snrjn yhnoundls
trmismkkjlins lkuctms qun mvmizm bmkjm ui rnsuctmhl `jni
 =;6

hngjijhl y prnvjsj`cn1 ui jitnrkme`jl hn trmismkkjlins lkuctms sn hnsmrrlccm gunrm hn cm

klikjnikjm hnc Mhuctl. Nc kliouitl hn nstls jitnrkme`jls hm klel rnsuctmhl ui `ningjkjl
indmtjvl qun sn nxpnrjenitm ni glrem hn nelkjlins hnsmdrmhm`cns.

Nonepcl M 

Nc oundl hn «Zm tn tnidl, kmpuccl±, oudmhl ni uim klignrnikjm sl`rn nc Miícjsjs

 Xrmismkkjlimc. [njs ntmpms? kn`l ‛ puitl
 Xrmismkkjlimc. puitl hê`jc ‛ rnspuns
rnspunstm
tm ‛ djrl hn cls mklitnkjejnitls
mklitnkjejnitls ‛
elenitl hn kligusjûi ‛ `ningjkjls indmtjvls.
=. Kn`l ‛ nc pmrtjkjpmitn mpmrnitnenitn Mhuctl? «¼Pnmcenitn krnns qun nc MX punhn
mplrtmr mcdl<± (Ijýl Pn`nchn? pjnisl qun il mplrtm imhm.)
0. Vuitl hê`jc ‛ nc klignrnikjmitn? hjícldl jitnril `msmhl ni uim jigrmvmclrmkjûi hnc
Mhuctl, nitrm ni sje`jlsjs kli nc pmrtjkjpmitn y prlynktm sl`rn êc su prlpjl Vmhrn
qun hjkn? «[ly pnrgnktl± m cl qun rnsplihn nc Ijýl Mhmptmhl? «[lcl jitnitl
klivniknrcl.± Nc mhuctl nstí nitlikns klitmejimhl.
 =;=

;. Pnspunstm hnc klignrnikjmitn ‛ Mhuctl (nxpcåkjtl)? «[å, nstí kcmrl qun nc MX

mplrtm tmc y tmc vnitmom±. Ijýl (nsklihjhl)?«Bmdl cl qun punhl, muiqun tnidl
ejnhl.±
8.  Wunckl hn cm sjtumkjûi plr nc pmrtjkjpmitn? «Cl qun hjkns ns plsj`cn, sji ne`mrdl,
¼kûel nxpcjkm qun eukbls nstêi hn mkunrhl ni hnkjr qun il ns eís qun uim elhm
pmsmonrm<± Vmhrn? «¡Mblrm ym tn tnidl, kmpuccl!± Ijýl? «M eå il en cm kuncms, om,
 om…±
>. Elenitl hn kligusjûi? uim l cms hls pnrslims «pjnrhni sus elhmcns± ni uim
kligusjûi enitmc.

7. Pnsuctmhl indmtjvl pmrm cls hls y pmrm cm rncmkjûi, qun ns klepntjtjvm.

 =;0

 
 =;;

Hjícldls jitnrils?
• Klignrnikjmitn Ijýl? «En bn bn bnkbl ui gmvlr m eå ejsel±,
ejsel±, snitjejnitl hn trjstnzm,
trjstnzm,
kûcnrm, Wåktjem, il nstly «LA±, ‛+.
• Vmrtjkjpmitn Ijýl? «Cl tnidl, sly nc nc eís gunrtn, su têkijkm il vmcn imhm±,
imhm±,
snitjejnitl hn trjuigl (trjstnzm, slcnhmh),
slcnhmh), Mkusmhlr, nstly «LA±, il nstí «LA±, +‛.
Nc `ningjkjl (rnsuctmhl) indmtjvl qun ns cm gmsn gjimc hnc oundl mpuitm bmkjm vmrjls
l`ontjvls?
• cm kligjremkjûi hnc kbmitmon1
• nc prldrnsl hn cm klcnkkjûi hn kuplins1
• nc rngunrzl hn cm mktjtuh vjtmc1
• sndurjhmh psjklcûdjkm hn emitninr sje`jlsjs jemdjimrjms1
• nc prldrnsl ni nc tm`cnrl hn monhrnz1
monhrnz1
• sn emitjnin nc emrkl hn rngnrnikjm.

Nonepcl @
Nc oundl hn «[å, pnrl± oudmhl ni uim pmrnom.
«Oumi, ¼plhrís ccnvmr cls ijýls mc klcndjl nc emrtns<
‘Lb il, ym sm`ns qun cls emrtns hn`l m`rjr cm tjnihm eís tneprmil.
‘¡Vuns qun mcdujni tn rnnepcmkn!
‘[å pnrl nsl en l`cjdmråm m qunhmren bmstm eís tmrhn nsn håm.
‘Vuns nitlikns rndrnsm eís tmrhn.
‘[å, pnrl ym sm`ns qun nc ÿctjel trni ns m cms sjntn.
‘[å, sl`rn tlhl en hneunstrms qun il qujnrns myuhmren. [jneprn sly yl qujni tjnin
qun bmknrcl.
‘¼Vnrl quê qujnrns qun bmdm< ]ujnrl ccnvmr cls ijýls mc klcndjl pnrl nitlikns hjen
kûel rndrnsl plr cm tmrhn.
‘Ejrm, ¡ym nstí `jni! Iuikm pmrtjkjpms ni cms tmrnms.

‘Vnrl sj il ns plsj`cn, il punhl bmknr imhm. Våhncn m tu emhrn qun cl bmdm.±

Ntk.
 =;8

Nonrkjkjl
 Xn prlplinels utjcjzmr nc nonrkjkjl mitnrjlr pmrm prmktjkmr y bmknr nc miícjsjs hn kmhm
grmsn ni têrejils hn plsjkjûi vjtmc, kbmitmons, klcnkkjûi hn kuplins, sje`jlsjs, Nstmhls
hnc Zl y rnslcukjûi hn kligcjktls.

Mcduils oundls bm`jtumcns

Cm cjstm sjdujnitn hnskrj`n nsquneítjkmenitn mcduils hn cls oundls eís bm`jtumcns y sus
kmrmktnråstjkms. Eís mccí hn cls ile`rns hn cls oundls, vjsumcns y plpucmrns, ns jeplrtmitn
klilknr cm tnsjs  l
  l cm krnnikjm «ejtlcûdjkm± qun nsklihni. Nc l`ontjvl hnc oundl mcuhn mc
kbmitmon qun cm pnrslim qun oundm qujnrn rnnstm`cnknr.
rnnstm`cnknr.
Cls rlcns   sli
sli têrejils hn Vnrsndujhlr, [mcvmhlr y Wåktjem. Kumihl bmy eís lpkjlins,
sjdijgjkm qun bmy eís eminrms hn oudmr mc oundl.

Cm   ns hnc
mitåtnsjs 
Nstmhl hnc Zl uimjitnrclkutlr
prlpunstm jivlcukrmhl.
hn jitnrvnikjûi
jivlcukrmh l. susknptj`cn hn hntninr nc oundl, kli nc
Vrlplinels qun nstuhjns kmhm oundl y rngcnxjlins y hjskutms mqunccls qun jhnitjgjquns ni
tu bldmr l ni tu nitlril.

Vmtm hn pmcl
Nc oudmhlr eunstrm su «pmtm hn pmcl± (msem, gmctm hn nstuhjls, nignrenhmh rnmc l
gjktjkjm…) y bmkn vnr qun il sn punhn nspnrmr imhm hn êc.

[u l`ontjvl ns hnelstrmr qun il tjnin cm rnsplism`jcjhmh hn rnslcvnr sus prlpjls

prl`cnems.
Hn Wåktjem pmsm m eniuhl m Vnrsndujhlr.
Vmrm tnrejimr nc oundl, kme`jm hn tnem l hj? «Nitlikns, ¼quê pjnisms bmknr<± (Mhuctl) l
«En pmrnkn qun bms hnkjhjhl qun ym il bmy nspnrmizm.±

Cm nsknim (cm pncnm)

Nc oudmhlr nvjtm ui prl`cnem l cm slcukjûi hn ui prl`cnem hjstmikjíihlsn, krnmihl
kligusjûi y rnvuncl nitrn êc y su jitnrclkutlr.
Hn bnkbl jitnitm pmrnknr nilomhl pmrm nvjtmr cm jitjejhmh.
 =;>

Hn su rlc jijkjmc hn Mkusmhlr l hn Wåktjem pmsm m ui pmpnc hn Wåktjem l hn Mkusmhlr sji

meís snr [mcvmhlr.
Vmrm hntninr nc oundl, drjtm? «¡Vmusm!± (Ijýl Nsplitíinl), l plinls hn mkunrhl ni il
snpmrmrls bmstm qun nc prl`cnem sn bmym slcukjlimhl, l jikcusl rnglreucmh nc prl`cnem
(Mhuctl).

«¡Zm tn tnidl, kmpuccl!±

Nc l`ontjvl hnc oundl ns «tninr± mc jitnrclkutlr, plr cl qun uil il tnihrí qun pnismr ni
sus prlpjls prl`cnems.
Hn bnkbl, uil nsklihn, pmrm trjuigmr, ui prlguihl snitjejnitl hn grmkmsl.
Hn su rlc jijkjmc hn Vnrsndujhlr l hn Wåktjem pmsm mc pmpnc hn Wåktjem l hn Vnrsndujhlr.
Vmrm hntninr nc oundl, drjtm? «¡En pcmitl!± l «¡Zm en tjnins!± (Ijýl Nsplitíinl) nstêjs
hn mkunrhl l il (Mhuctl).

«Hmen uim pmtmhm±

Nc oudmhlr bmkn uim elitmým hn sus nrrlrns, hn sus mkkjhnitns, slstnijnihl qun slcl cn
lkurrni m êc.
[u l`ontjvl ns prltnstmr l sjepcnenitn snr rnkbmzmhl.
Hn su rlc jijkjmc hn Wåktjem (l hn Vnrsndujhlr) pmsm mc pmpnc hn Vnrsndujhlr (l hn
Wåktjem).

Vmrm hntninr nc oundl, pmsm m Vmhrn Kujhmhlr? «¡Ns blrrj`cn cl qun tn pmsû!±

«[lcl qujnrl myuhmr±

Nc oudmhlr prntnihn qun tlhls cls prl`cnems sn rnslcvnríi sj cl nskukbms.
[u l`ontjvl ns slrprnihnrsn hn qun cms pnrslims il snmi eís mdrmhnkjhms kli êc. Hn
[mcvmhlr (prjikjpmcenitn), Wåktjem l Vnrsndujhlr pmsm m Wåktjem l Vnrsndujhlr.
Vmrm hntninr nc oundl, il mklisnons imhm, prnduitm? «¼]uê bmråms tÿ<± l «¼]uê nspnrms hn
eå<±
 «Ejrm cl qun en bms bnkbl bmknr±
=;7

Nc oudmhlr prntnihn qun cl qun bmkn il ns su rnsplism`jcjhmh? «Il ns ej kucpm, ¡yl snduå
cms ûrhnins!±
[u l`ontjvl ns kucpmr m ltrm pnrslim pmrm nsklihnr su ejnhl.
Hn ui pmpnc jijkjmc hn Wåktjem l Vnrsndujhlr pmsm mc hn Vnrsndujhlr l hn Wåktjem.
Vmrm hntninr nc oundl, plitn ni Vmhrn Kujhmhlr? «¡Wmym, ns tnrrj`cn!± l hnom mc oudmhlr
slcl1 il cn hns ijidÿi klisnol.

Cls hngnktls
Nc oudmhlr hneunstrm qun imhm ij imhjn ns pnrgnktl.
Hn bnkbl, qujnrn ccmemr cm mtnikjûi sl`rn cls hngnktls hn cls hneís pmrm hjstrmnr cm
mtnikjûi hn cls suyls.
Hn Vnrsndujhlr pmsm prjikjpmcenitn m Wåktjem.
Vmrm hntninr nc oundl, hj? «Nstly bmrtl hn ljr bm`cmr slcl hn prl`cnems. ¡Bm`cnels hn cl
qun så guikjlim!± (Ijýl Nsplitíinl) l «[uplidl qun tlhls tninels iunstrls puitls
hê`jcns.±

«Vncnmls±
Nc oudmhlr sn sjnitn nxkcujhl hn su nitlril, su krnnikjm prjikjpmc ns qun omeís nstí ni nc
enlccl hnc msuitl.
undm pmrm pmrtjkjpmr hn cm vjhm qun bmy m su mcrnhnhlr, rnsnrvíihlsn cm plsj`jcjhmh hn
m`mihlimr cm pncnm sj cn smcn emc.
Hn Vnrsndujhlr (l Wåktjem) pmsm m Wåktjem (l Vnrsndujhlr).
Vmrm grnimr nc oundl? «@unil, tlhls tninels hnrnkbl m hngnihnr iunstrms lpjijlins± l
«¡Omeís nstly ni nc enlccl!±.

Nc hnsdrmkjmhl (pnrhûimen)
Nc oudmhlr klentn nrrlrns pmrm bmknrsn pnrhlimr nisndujhm.
[u l`ontjvl punhn snr bmknrsn pnrhlimr l, plr nc klitrmrjl, qun cn jisjstmi ni cl qun bmkn
emc.
 Hn pmpnc jijkjmc hn Vnrsndujhlr (l hn Wåktjem) pmsm mc hn Wåktjem (l Vnrsndujhlr).

=;4

Vmrm hntninr nc oundl, hj? «Hjskutíelscl± kli buelr («¼Vunhl hmrtn mcdl eís pmrm qun
cl rlepms<±) l prnduitm sj nc oudmhlr inknsjtm mcdl.

Nc jiÿtjc (tn pnrhlil)

Nc oudmhlr sn klepcnenitm kli nc qun oundm mc hnsdrmkjmhl. Bmkn qun cl emctrmtni pmrm m
klitjiumkjûi pnhjr nxkusms y pnrhlimr.
[u l`ontjvl ns sl`rn tlhl rnkj`jr nxkusms.
Hn Vnrsndujhlr, [mcvmhlr l Wåktjem pmsm m Vnrsndujhlr l Wåktjem.
Vmrm hntninr nc oundl, mkcmrm nc prlknsl hnc oundl nitrn cms pnrslims kli sus
rnsplism`jcjhmhns
rnsplism`jcjhmhns rnkåprlkms (Mhuctl).

M hnstmkmr
Klel sn nitrnvê ni cls oundls hnc Hnsdrmkjmhl y nc Jiÿtjc, cls oundls m eniuhl
sli klepcnenitmrjls. Kumihl uim pnrslim «oundm± m snr cm Wåktjem, su
jitnrclkutlr suncn «oudmr± mc [mcvmhlr l mc Vnrsndujhlr.

Jdumcenitn, cls oundls hnskrjtls mitnrjlrenitn sli hn imturmcnzm klepcnenitmrjm. Vlr

nonepcl? «[lcl qujnrl myuhmr± oundm kli«Ejrm cl qun en bms bnkbl bmknr± (hn mbå cm
rmzûi hn il hmr klisnols m nstn ÿctjel), l «hmen uim pmtmhm± oundm kli «¡Zm tn tnidl,
kmpuccl!±.
Nstm klepcnenitmrjnhmh ns jeplrtmitn ni cm enhjhm ni qun pnrejtn rnpmrtjr cm
rnsplism`jcjhmh hnc oundl nitrn cls oudmhlrns. Il ns plr mzmr qun uim pnrslim ns
Vnrsndujhlrm, [mcvmhlrm l Wåktjem ni uim sjtumkjûi l ni uim rncmkjûi, sjil qun eís `jni
lkurrn mså plrqun bm jitujhl cm klepcnenitmrjnhmh
klepcnenitmrjnhmh hn su jitnrclkutlr.
Mquå, klel ni ltrms pmrtns, nc Miícjsjs Xrmismkkjlimc plin nc mknitl ni nc kliouitl hnc
sjstnem rncmkjlimc qun kleprnihn m tlhls cls jihjvjhuls. Vmrm kme`jmr nc nqujcj`rjl hnc
kliouitl, m vnkns il ns inknsmrjl eís qun kme`jmr uim åigjem pmrtn hnc kliouitl.

Oundls, kbmitmons y kuplins

Nc Miícjsjs prlvlkmhls
rncmkjlimcns Xrmismkkjlimc
plrpnrejtn mimcjzmr
nc kliouitl hn ykbmitmons,
nvnitumcenitn
oundls rnslcvnr cls Nstls
y kuplins. prl`cnems
trns
 kliknptls nstíi åitjemenitn klinktmhls.

=;2

Lgrnknels nc nsqunem hn cm pídjim sjdujnitn pmrm myuhmr m nitnihnr cm jitnrhnpnihnikjm.

jitnrhnpnihnikjm.
Cms trns ilkjlins hn kbmitmon, oundl y kupûi sli euy jeplrtmitns ni nc nstuhjl hn cms
rncmkjlins hn ui jihjvjhul klisjdl ejsel y kli nc nitlril. Jdumc qun cls ltrls kliknptls
hnc Miícjsjs Xrmismkkjlimc, su mpcjkmkjûi ni nc íe`jtl slkjlcûdjkl (rncmkjlins hn ui
jihjvjhul kli nc drupl y hn drupl m drupl) pnrejtn rnpmrmr y rnklihukjr sjtumkjlins
kligcjktjvms ni tlhls cls ijvncns hn cm rnmcjhmh ni cms lrdmijzmkjlins.

Nitrn ltrms klsms, pmrm rnslcvnr prl`cnems hn kleuijkmkjûi, nc Miícjsjs Xrmismkkjlimc

pnrejtn?
• rnklilknr cls kbmitmons, cms
cms klcnkkjlins hn kuplins y cls oundls nelkjlimcns
nelkjlimcns ni
ni cls
qun nstmels jepcjkmhls ym snm klel jihjvjhul l klel drupl1
 • pnrkj`jr cls rlcns
rlcns su`ymknitns
su`ymknitns ni cms sjtumkjlins hn trjíiducl hrmeítjkl, hn rncmkjlins

=;:

sje`jûtjkms, hn Nstmhls hnc Zl l mktjtuhns vjtmcns1

• jemdjimr y plinr
plinr ni príktjkm
príktjkm ltrms glrems hn rncmkjûi qun
qun snmi eís ngjkmkns
ngjkmkns y 
mutûilems.
Klikrntmenitn, ¼kûel sm`nr sj uil nstí ni ui oundl l ni ui kbmitmon< Pnsplihjnihl m
cm prnduitm
kucpmrê sjdujnitn? «[j cl qun nstly jitnitmihl mblrm gmccm, ¼kucpmrê m ltrl l en
m eå<±.
[j cm rnspunstm ns «så± m mcduim hn cms prnduitms, sn bm nitrmhl ni ui oundl l ui kbmitmon?
• ym snm klel Vnrsndujhlr
Vnrsndujhlr l [mcvmhlr (sj cl qun jitnitl
jitnitl gmccm, rnsplism`jcjzmrê
rnsplism`jcjzmrê mc ltrl)1
• ym snm klel Wåktjem Pn`nchn l [uejsm (sj cl qun jitnitl grmkmsm,
grmkmsm, en
rnsplism`jcjzmrê yl).
¼Kûel nskmpmr< Enhjmitn cm hngjijkjûi hn uim hnemihm rnmc, mqunccm qun, mitn nc
grmkmsl, il hm cudmr m mrrnpnitjejnitls.

Ni rnsueni
Cm ilkjûi hn oundl jikcuyn cms nstrmtndjms hn emijpucmkjûi hlihn tlhls cls
mktlrns jepcjkmhls qunhmi mtrmpmhls ni rncmkjlins qun sli jismtjsgmktlrjms n
jeprlhuktjvms.

Nstms nstrmtndjms nstêrjcns, kuyms eltjvmkjlins sli klepcnoms y pmsmi

jimhvnrtjhms, sjneprn punhni snr kleprnihjhms y nvjtmhms l hnsvjmhms, ni ui
snitjhl plsjtjvl, plr nc kleplrtmejnitl hn ui Mhuctl «mhvnrtjhl±.
 =86

Kmpåtucl =6

Nc mrduenitl l pcmi hn vjhm

Nc kliknptl hn mrduenitl, l pcmi hn vjhm, ns nc rnsuctmhl gjimc hn cm tnlråm hnc Miícjsjs

 Xrmismkkjlimc l, ni kjnrtl elhl, su pjnhrm
pjnhrm miducmr.

Ns jeplrtmitn,hncnitlikns,
guikjlimejnitl mrduenitl,pmrm kleprnihnr
jitndrmr cls ncnenitls`jnitnûrjkls
tlhmshntmccmhls
cms hjenisjlins
prnvjmenitn.hnc
[ndÿi Nrjk @nrin, ui mrduenitl ns «ui pcmi hn vjhm `msmhl ni uim hnkjsjûi tlemhm
hnshn cm jigmikjm, rnglrzmhm plr cls pmhrns, oustjgjkmhm plr suknsls plstnrjlrns, y qun
tnrejim ni cm mctnrimtjvm ncndjhm±.(]uê hjkn ustnh hnspuês hn hnkjr blcm , lp. kjt., p. 88>)
Vnrl nstm hngjijkjûi mkmhêejkm inknsjtm mcduims mkcmrmkjlins, nepnzmihl plr nc lrjdni
hnc mrduenitl.

Lrjdni hnc mrduenitl

Cls trns Nstmhls hnc Zl sn mktjvmi ni kjnrtm enhjhm ni tlhm nxpnrjnikjm vjvjhm. Pntjnini
tmitl cm nxpnrjnikjm ni så (hmtls, nelkjlins y snismkjlins) klel cms hnkjsjlins
nxjstnikjmcns
nxjstnikjmcns tlemhms plr cm pnrslim mitn hjkbm nxpnrjnikjm.
Nstm jiglremkjûi sn guihn kli cl nsnikjmc ni nc kumhrl emrkmhl plr cms nxpnrjnikjms
pmsmhms. Nitrn nccms, cms eís mitjdums hnsnepnými ui pmpnc prjelrhjmc. [li, pmrm ui
jihjvjhul, cms hn cm jigmikjm1 y, pmrm uim neprnsm l uim lrdmijzmkjûi, cms hn cm êplkm hn cm
guihmkjûi.
[ji nxknpkjûi, cms prjenrms drm`mkjlins y cms hnkjsjlins qun cms mklepmými klihjkjlimi
tlhm cm vjhm hn cm pnrslim, hjsnýmihl mså ui vnrhmhnrl «pcmi hn vjhm± (l dujûi).
Cms nxknpkjlins m nstn nsqunem sli hn trns tjpls?
 • ni sjtumkjûi hn drmvn pncjdrl
pncjdrl y hn drmi rjnsdl,
rjnsdl, mcduims rnglreucmkjlins
rnglreucmkjlins pmrkjmcns sli

=8=

plsj`cns1
• mcduims pnrslims
pnrslims sn jivlcukrmi
jivlcukrmi ni nc trm`mol sjstneítjkl
sjstneítjkl hn rnnstrukturmkjûi
rnnstrukturmkjûi hn su
 yl. Vunhn snr nc kmsl
kmsl hn ui jihjvjhul ni
ni psjkltnrmpjm1
• kumihl krnmi
krnmi l jiilvmi,
jiilvmi, ui jihjvuhl
jihjvuhl l ui drupl plin
plin prlvjsjlimcenitn
prlvjsjlimcenitn nitrn
nitrn
pmrêitnsjs su Vmhrn Kråtjkl y su Ijýl Mhmptmhl (krnmtjvjhmh…).
Ni iunstrm êplkm hn kme`jls mkncnrmhls, kmhm vnz pmrnkn eís inknsmrjl, pmrm cms pnrslims
 y pmrm cms lrdmijzmkjlins, snr kliskjnitn y snr kmpmz hn trmisglremr sus vmclrns (Vmhrn),
sus eêtlhls (Mhuctl) y nc me`jnitn (I) bmkjm uim krnmtjvjhmh emylr, pmrm il qunhmrsn
niknrrmhl ni cms prnkliknpkjlins y cms rnspunstms mutleítjkms hjsnýmhms plr ui dujûi.
Nsm ns cm rmzûi hn snr hnc Miícjsjs Xrmismkkjlimc.
«Vlhnels hl`cndmrils, elhjgjkmr, rn`ncmrils klitrm, l rnsjdimrils m cm prldrmemkjûi
 pmtnrimc (qun bnels nxpnrjenitmhl). Bmdmels cl qun bbmdmels,
mdmels, su prnsnikjm ns euy 
 gunrtn n jigcunikjm jdumc iunstrms ncnkkjlins, ym pmsni plr hl`cndmrcm, elhjgjkmrcm,
rn`ncmrils klitrm nccm l rnsjdimrils. Nc nstuhjl hn nstm prldrmemkjûi y hn sus ngnktls 
ni ilsltrls (iunstrms rnmkkjlins, hnkjsjlins y mkkjlins kli rnspnktl m nccm) klistjtuyn nc 
 Miícjsjs hn mrduenitl.±
[L^XBNZ  [
 [ TNHN, X. M. Dujhn, Tllhstlka, =:47, p. >2

Nc elhncl hnc mrduenitl l pcmi hn vjhm

Cls prjikjpmcns ncnenitls hnc mrduenitl sli cls klisnols, cms ûrhnins, cls prlynktls y cms
hnkjsjlins. Nstls ncnenitls qunhmi jcustrmhls plr ui nsqunem ccmemhl nc elhncl hnc
mrduenitl.
Nc elhncl sjdujnitn hj`uom cm jigcunikjm hn ui pmhrn y uim emhrn ni sus bjols.
 =80

Cls emihmtls
[n klisjhnrm dninrmcenitn qun cls nejtn nc Ijýl hnc pmhrn hnc snxl lpunstl, y sli
rntnijhls
qun ni nc cmIjýl
ym rnkj`n Mhmptmhl
pnrslim euy (Vmhrn ni ncniIjýl)
tneprmil hn cm pnrslim.
su jigmikjm. [li enismons
M eniuhl indmtjvlsy 
sli il vnr`mcns
klihjkjlimi cl qun qunhm hn su hnsmrrlccl. Cms prjikjpmcns prlbj`jkjlins sli (m ijvnc hn
pnrslim gåsjkm)? il nxjstn, il pjnism, il sjnitn, il tjnin snismkjlins, il tn mknrquns, il
snms tÿ ejsel, il tnidms êxjtl, il snms hn tu nhmh, il kleprnihms, il mktÿns.

Cms prnskrjpkjlins (l klitrmûrhnins)

[li enismons glreucmhls hn eminrm plsjtjvm qun, uijhls m cls oujkjls hn vmclr hn cls
pmhrns, mpmrnkni eís tmrhn ni cm vjhm hnc ijýl. Nstls enismons enils pltnitns qun cms
prlbj`jkjlins
mpmrnitnenitn(bmz cl qun
plsjtjvl pnrlhjdl,
qun il cl qun il
m eniuhl bmdl)
bmknglremi cm `msn
ltrm klsm hn ui pcmi
qun kligjremr clshn vjhm
ngnktls
 hn cms prlbj`jkjlins hn pmrtjhm. Mså cm prnskrjpkjûi «nrns jihnpnihjnitn± punhn rnglrzmr cm

=8;

prlbj`jkjûi «il tn mknrquns± y punhn kligjremr ui «il sjnitns imhm±.

Cms prnskrjpkjlins prjikjpmcns sli? sly pnrgnktl, hmtn prjsm, hmen pcmknr, sly gunrtn, bmz 
ui nsgunrzl.

Cls prldrmems
[li cm rnspunstm m cm prnduitm? «¼Kûel smtjsgmknr m cm vnz cls emihmtls y cms
prnskrjpkjlins<±± Dninrmcenitn sn klisjhnrm qun cls prlplrkjlim nc pmhrn hnc ejsel snxl
prnskrjpkjlins<
qun cm pnrslim1 ni ngnktl, prl`m`cnenitn bmym sjhl nskldjhl plr nc pmhrn hnc snxl
lpunstl drmkjms m su bm`jcjhmh pmrm klikjcjmr nstms nxjdnikjms. Mså, ni nc nonepcl hn pcmi
hn vjhm klenitmhl m klitjiumkjûi, nc prldrmem hmhl plr nc pmhrn (kûel snr ui
guikjlimrjl klikjnizuhl) pnrejtn m cls bjols smtjsgmknr sjeuctíinmenitn cms
prnskrjpkjlins (trm`mol hurl, sly snrjl, sly ui `uni pmhrn hn gmejcjm) y cms prlbj`jkjlins
(il sly mutûilel, il en hnomi) nejtjhms plr su emhrn.

Cms hnkjsjlins
 Xlemhms `mol nc ngnktl hn jigcunikjms klitrmhjktlrjms,
klitrmhjktlrjms, mcrnhnhlr hn cls 7-4 mýls, cms
prjenrms hnkjsjlins hnc pcmi hn vjhm sli, ni dninrmc, hnkjsjlins `unims ni nc elenitl ni
nc qun sn tlemi, pnrl klrrni nc rjnsdl hn rnprjejr nc guturl hnc suontl ym qun su nitlril
kme`jmrí. Ns cl qun nvlkm ui rngríi plpucmr? «Omeís hjdms? ¡Hn nstm mdum il `n`nrê!± Cms
hnkjsjlins jikcuyni kjikl ncnenitls?
• mktumr ni
ni rncmkjûi
rncmkjûi m cms jigcunikjms
jigcunikjms (prnskrjpkjlins, emihmtls, prl
prldrmem)1
drmem)1
• ncndjr uim smcjhm
smcjhm hn slklrrl
slklrrl sj cm sjtumkjûi sn vuncvn jislplrtm`cn
jislplrtm`cn (sujkjhmrsn,
(sujkjhmrsn, emtmr m
mcdujni, vlcvnrsn clkl, nignremr)1
• nskldnr uim mktjtuh vjtmc1
• jijkjmr ui kbmitmon1
• m trmvês hn oundls, klitjiumr kli
kli nc kbmitmon
kbmitmon y emitninr
emitninr cm sje`jlsjs jijkjmc.

Mrduenitl y klitrmmrduenitl
Cms hnkjsjlins sli plrtmhlrms hn ui vnrhmhnrl pcmi hn vjhm qun hntnrejim cls prjikjpmcns
mspnktls hn cm vjhm
(hjinrl, plhnr, êxjtl,pnrslimc (emtrjelijl,
jitnrês…) hn cm pnrslimbjols,
gåsjkmhjvlrkjl,
l elrmc. smcuh, eunrtn) y prlgnsjlimc
 M eniuhl tlemi cm glrem hn ui «iuikm omeís± (iuikm omeís elstrmrê ijiduim

=88

hn`jcjhmh, iuikm omeís en plihrê ni prjenr pcmil…). Vnrl «iuikm omeís± ns uim
plsturm plkl rnmcjstm. ^i håm u ltrl snrí jeprmktjkm`cn. Cm pnrslim nitlikns kme`jm su
hnkjsjûi, pnrl sj il nstí prnpmrmhm kmn l krnn kmnr ni mqunccl hn cl qun qujsl bujr tlhm su
 vjhm.
«^im vnz eís, sn hjkn nccm, ej jeprnsjûi jijkjmc sn kligjrem. Iuikm omeís hnomrê qun en
tleni nc pncl.± «Iuikm omeís± klihukn mquå m«uim vnz eís± qun ccnvm m «iuikm omeís±.
 Z sli cms pnrjpnkjms hn nstm hjiíejkm qun ccnimi cl qun uil ccmem nc pcmi hn vjhm hn uim
pnrslim.

M hnstmkmr
Nc pcmi hn vjhm hnskmism sl`rn cm mctnrimikjm nitrn pnrjlhls hn vjhm euy
hjgnrnitns? cls klclkmhls `mol cm jigcunikjm hn cms prlbj`jkjlins klistjtuyni cm `msn
hnc dujûi hn grmkmsl hn uim pnrslim. Cms ltrms, sjtumhms `mol cm jigcunikjm hn
prnskrjpkjlins pmrnitmcns, klistjtuyni nc klitrm-dujûi mpmrnitnenitn plsjtjvl.

Hjgnrnitns kcmsjgjkmkjlins hn pcmins hn vjhm

pnrslimcns y prlgnsjlimcns
Nxjstni vmrjms kcmsjgjkmkjlins hn pcmins hn vjhm pnrslimcns?
• Nc hn Kcmuhn [tnjinr , kli? «sji melr±, «sji pnismejnitl± y «sji mcndråm±. Vmrm êc,
«cm hnstrukkjûi sjstneítjkm± hn cls trns pltnikjmcns buemils eís jeplrtmitns ns
pmrtn hnc mprnihjzmon hn cm vjhm? nc pltnikjmc mgnktjvl, ns hnkjr cm kmpmkjhmh hn hmr y 
rnkj`jr
euihlmelry sus buemil1 nc pltnikjmc
bm`jtmitns1 pnrknptjvl,
y nc pltnikjmc ns hnkjr cm kmpmkjhmh
hn nsplitminjhmh, hn pnrkj`jr
qun klrrnsplihn m cm nc
kmpmkjhmh hn nxprnsmrsn cj`rnenitn y mcndrnenitn hnc Ijýl Imturmc (lp. kjt., p. =07)
• @jcc Blcclwmy  prlplin
 prlplin mdrndmr nc dujûi «sji rnplsl±. Ns nc hn cm mktjvjhmh
jismkjm`cn hn ui ble`rn hns`lrhmhl plr sus msuitls l uim emhrn hn gmejcjm
sl`rnkmrdmhm.
• @nrin jihjkm ltrm kcmsjgjkmkjûi?
kcmsjgjkmkjûi? «iuikm±, «sjneprn±, «bmstm qun±,«hnspuês hn±, «sji
knsmr±, «mÿi± (l «kmsj±), «sji gji±?
- Iuikm  rnspntm
 rnspntm cms prlbj`jkjlins pmrnitmcns, jikcusl mc prnkjl hnc grmkmsl, hn cm
tnitmkjûi
(Xíitmcl)…l hn cm grustrmkjûi? «Omeís cl klisndujrís±, «Omeís snrís gncjz±
 =8>

- [jneprn rnsuctm hn uim klihnim pmrnitmc? «[jneprn snrís ui `unil pmrm imhm,

ui emrjemkbl, ui hê`jc±… Klrrnsplihn m cm mknptmkjûi hn cls nståeucls
jiklihjkjlimcnss (mtrj`utls) qun sn bmi rnkj`jhl (Mrmkin).
jiklihjkjlimcn
- Bmstm (l mitns) sli cms prlbj`jkjlins l cls mtrj`utls qun hn`ni rnspntmrsn bmstm
kjnrtl puitl? «Il snrís vnrhmhnrmenitn uim euonr mitns hn tninr bjols±, «Il
plhrís nstmr smtjsgnkbl mitns hn bm`nr krnmhl tu prlpjl indlkjl± (Bêrkucns-
 Omsûi)…
- Hnspuês kmn `mol nc dlcpn hn prlbj`jkjlins qun il sn rnmcjzmi bmstm pmsmhm
kjnrtm gnkbm? «Hnspuês hn cls kumrnitm mýls cm vjhm ns uim pnim qun sn nstrnkbm
kmhm håm±, «Hnspuês hn cls kjikunitm mýls uil il hn`n tlemr rjnsdls cm`lrmcns±
(Hmelkcns)…
- Kmsj (l mÿi y mÿi)? Klel [åsjgl, qujni, bm`jnihl kmsj mckmizmhl cm kjem, vn cm
rlkm kmnr plr cm pnihjnitn y nitlikns nepjnzm hn knrl, cm pnrslim qun nstí ni ui
dujûi «kmsj± bmkn drmihns nsgunrzls sji ccndmr m su l`ontjvl ni su kmrrnrm, su
pmrnom, sus rncmkjlins mejstlsms…
- [ji gji (sji gji pcminmhl)? nstn ns nc mrduenitl mc qun l`nhnkni cm emylråm hn
 ou`jcmhls, cms euonrns
euonrns trmhjkjlimcns
trmhjkjlimcns qun ym bmi vjstl krnknr m sus bjols, y cl
clss
plcåtjkls kuym kmrrnrm bm sjhl hnstrujhm plr uim krjsjs l ui nskíihmcl y il tjnini
mitn så eís qun uim vjhm sji l`ontjvls. Nc nxprnsjhnitn Ijxli bjzl rngnrnikjm m
nstn blrrlr ni su ÿctjem rntrmisejsjûi tncnvjsjvm
tncnvjsjvm kli Hmvjh Grlst hnhjkmhm m su
enelrjm. Mqunccls qun cl vjnrli sn mklrhmríi sji huhm hnc tlil kli nc qun hjol?
«Iuikm eís lkupmrê ui punstl hn snrvjkjl lgjkjmc… Cm emylr hnsdrmkjm ns vjvjr
uim vjhm sji l`ontjvls… Vmrm eå, cls eís hnsdrmkjmhls il sli cls pl`rns, nccls
tjnini ui l`ontjvl? mhqujrjr cl qun cns gmctm. [li cms pnrslims qun sn vni ni cms
pcmyms hn Kmcjglrijm, qun pmsmi sus håms sji bmknr imhm, oudmihl mc dlcg plr
pnrnzm, ntk.± (Cn Elihn , 04 hn snptjne`rn hn =:44) (Gjcneûi y @mukjs).
Gjimcenitn, niklitrmels m ijvnc hn mrduenitl cm ilkjûi hn drmhl hn jitnisjhmh qun ym
sn enikjliû kli rnspnktl m cls oundls. Nstm jhnm punhn snr nxprnsmhm `mol cm glrem hnc
nsqunem sjdujnitn?
^i mrduenitl punhn snr?

  @mimc Nxknpkjlimc

Dmimhlr
 Vnrhnhlr

=87

Cms ilkjlins utjcjzmhms ni nc ijvnc hn pcmi hn vjhm pnrslimc sn mpcjkmi jdumcenitn, kli
mcduils moustns, m ltrls ijvncns hn cm rnmcjhmh, klel nc mrduenitl prlgnsjlimc y nc
mrduenitl hn uim gmejcjm l hn ui pmrtjhl plcåtjkl.
Ni kmhm uil hn nstls ijvncns, bmkni plsj`cn ui trm`mol hn trmisglremkjûi `msmhl ni
rnhnkjsjlins prnkjsms
prnkjsms y plrtmhlrms hn guturl.

Nonepcl hn pcmi hn vjhm pnrslimc

Ni emtnrjm hn hnsmrrlccl pnrslimc, nc trm`mol hn miícjsjs hn mrduenitl y hn rnhjsnýl nxjdn
têkijkms qun rnqujnrni eís jepcjkmkjûi qun mqunccms qun suncni utjcjzmrsn ni cm tmrnm. Ni
ngnktl, bmkn rngnrnikjm, il slcmenitn m kunstjlimrjls y m oundls hn rlcns, sjil hnspnrtmr ni
sunýls, psjklhrmems, nonrkjkjls gåsjkls.
Nc nonepcl sjdujnitn, nc hn Emrjn-Miin, 02 mýls, slctnrm, ns nc hn ui mrduenitl «`mimc±.
Eunstrm qun ui trm`mol hn rnhnkjsjûi plsjtjvl punhn bmknrsn tme`jêi ni nc kmsl hn uim
pnrslim qun «mpmrnitnenitn± il tjnin ijidÿi prl`cnem.
Nstn elhncl tmi nsquneítjkl bm sjhl nstm`cnkjhl hnspuês hn eÿctjpcns nonrkjkjls
kle`jimhls kli kunstjlimrjls nxmktls qun il hntmccmrnels. Nc kmsl ns rnmc y bm sjhl
nstuhjmhl hn cm eminrm
e minrm sjdujnitn?
• Cms ÿijkms gjdurms pmrnitmcns
pmrnitmcns tlemhms
tlemhms ni kunitm sli nc pmhrn y cm emhrn.
emhrn.
• [n trmtm`m hn vnr, m pmrtjr hn nsknims rnvjvjhms,
rnvjvjhms, kuícns
kuícns nrmi?
- cms prjikjpmcns jigcunikjms (prlbj`jkjlins y prnskrjpkjlins)1
prnskrjpkjlins)1
- cms prjikjpmcns hnkjsjlins.
Cls têrejils nepcnmhls mquå surdni hn vmrjms rnglreucmkjlins suknsjvms nitrn nc
mijemhlr y Emrjn-Miin?
• Bnels snpmrmhl
snpmrmhl drígjkmenitn
drígjkmenitn cms hnkjsjlins plsjtjvms, m emitninr, hn cms hnkjsjlins
hnkjsjlins
indmtjvms, m vmclrmr.
• M klitjiumkjûi
klitjiumkjûi bnels jihjkmhl cmscms rnhnkjsjlins
rnhnkjsjlins tlemhms
tlemhms plr cm
cm euonr olvni,
olvni, ni sus
sus
prlpjls têrejils, kli cm myuhm hnc drupl.

Elchn hnc mrduenitl

 =84

Hnkjsjlins plsjtjvms?
En nitrndmrê.
Bmrê cl qun yl qujnrl.
Hnelstrmrê qun punhl bmknr cl qun en prlplidm.
Wjvjrê eukbl y tnihrê uim vjhm jitnrnsmitn.
[nrê uim mejdm gjnc y tnihrê bjols.
Myuhmrê m cls hneís dninrlsmenitn y m kme`jl hn imhm.
Wjvjrê bmstm cls 26 mýls.
Hnkjsjlins indmtjvms?
 Xnihrê qun klepcmknr
klepcmknr m cls hneís.
En nsklihnrê.
Il nxprnsmrê eís snitjejnitls.
Il en kleprnihnríi ij en rnklilknríi.
Nstmrê slcm, trjstn.
En kmsmrê kli ui emrjhl mc qun il qujnrl, qun il en qunrrí, y qun nitnrrmrê.
Cm vjhm snrí hurm.
 Il sm`rê kûel bmknrcl ‛ il smchrê mhncmitn.

=82

Hjsgrutmrê hn uim cukbm jiÿtjc, jingjkmz, hn ej `mtmccm pnrhjhm.

Il snrê gncjz eís qun gudmzenitn.
Pnhnkjsjlins (tlemhms hnspuês hnc miícjsjs hn dujûi)?
En kliknhl nc hnrnkbl m hmren pcmknr, m hjsgrutmr y m il snr pnrgnktm  (m
 (m il
klepcmknr sjneprn m cls hneís).
Ej vjhm ni pmrnom snrí ui êxjtl y plr eukbl tjnepl.

Nonepcl hn pcmi hn vjhm prlgnsjlimc

Ni nc pcmil prlgnsjlimc, klel ni nc pnrslimc, plhnels hjstjidujr hjgnrnitns dujlins hn
grmkmsl. M cm kcmsjgjkmkjûi hn [tnjinr klrrnsplihnråmi cms kmtndlråms hn dujlins
prlgnsjlimcnss sjdujnitns? «sji jitnrês±, «sji plhnr±, «sji hjinrl±, «sji dclrjm±.
prlgnsjlimcn
Ni kumitl m cms ltrms kcmsjgjkmkjlins hn dujlins hn @nrin, sn punhni mpcjkmr hjrnktmenitn
mc pcmil prlgnsjlimc.
Vlr nonepcl, nc elchn hn cm pídjim sjdujnitn, hn E. Omkquns, nsqunemtjzm mcduims
jigcunikjms y hnkjsjlins prlgnsjlimcn
prlgnsjlimcns.
s.
Nstn nonepcl jcustrm cms jitnrgnrnikjms nitrn cm vjhm pnrslimc y cm vjhm ni cm lrdmijzmkjûi
qun bm`rí nskldjhl y plr cm qun bm`rí sjhl nskldjhl.
[ndÿi nstn nsqunem, m pmrtjr hn bly, cm pnrslim punhn?
• Vlr ui cmhl,
cmhl, jdilrmihl su «pcmi hn vjhm± l sji qunrnr
qunrnr kunstjlimrcl,
kunstjlimrcl, smtjsgnkbm
smtjsgnkbm hn så
ejsem y hn su sunrtn, qunhmrsn «ni± su pcmi hn vjhm , vjvjr nc rnstl hn sus håms ni cm
klelhjhmh (smtjsgmktlrjm
(smtjsgmktlrjm l il) hn cls cåejtns hnc pcmi hn vjhm, ns hnkjr hnc ddrupl
rupl hn
jigcunikjms y hnkjsjlins prjemrjms. [nmi kumcns snmi cms kjrkuistmikjms nxtnrjlrns, nc
jihjvjhul, nxknptl ni kmsl hn gunrzm emylr plkl prl`m`cn, rnmcjzmrí su pcmi hn vjhm
 y l`tnihrí sus `ningjkjlins
`ningjkjlins nxjstnikjmcns
nxjstnikjmcns gjimcns (grmkmsl, êxjtl, `mimcjhmh,
`mimcjhmh, ntk.). Ni
nc kmsl utjcjzmhl, nc `ningjkjl nxjstnikjmc gjimc indmtjvl ns nc ejsel ni cms hls
bjpûtnsjs? memrdurm y rnprlkbns lkuctls, plr cl enils ni nc ijvnc prlgnsjlimc.
 =8:

 
 • Vlr ltrl, rnhnkjhjr su pcmi hn vjhm . Kli nccl, cm pnrslim?

=>6

- il punhn kme`jmr sus jigcunikjms, pnrl cms punhn «mimcjzmr±,

«mimcjzmr±, plr cl
cl tmitl ym il
snrí ui nskcmvl, y mc enils snrí kliskjnitn hn qun hn`n rnprldrmemrsn (krjmrsn
ltrm vnz, ntk.)1
- punhn mimcjzmr
mimcjzmr cms hnkjsjlins prjelrhjmcns, dumrhmr cms qun snmi
snmi plsjtjvms y 
rnhnkjhjr cms qun snmi indmtjvms.
Nsl jepcjkm qun rniuikjm m uim kjnrtm «sndurjhmh nxjstnikjmc± y sn mrrjnsdm. ^im punstm ni
emrkbm hn nstn tjpl ns nc rnsuctmhl hn nxpnrjnikjms euy hlclrlsms l hn uim cukjhnz qun hm
pmrtjkucmrenitn nc MX, punstl qun pnrejtn m kmhm uil?
• sm`nr quê hn`n kme`jmr ni su vjhm1
• sm`nr kûel kme`jmrcl1
• krnnr ni cm plsj`jcjhmh hn nstn kme`jl.

Dujûi y trmisglremkjûi
trmisglremkjûi
 Xlhms cms pnrslims (gåsjkms l elrmcns) klrrni nc rnsjdl hn snr prjsjlinrms hn ui dujûi, ns
hnkjr hn ui pcmi hn vjhm qun rnplsm sl`rn hnkjsjlins prnemturms tlemhms `mol cm
jigcunikjm hn ui nitlril qun ym il nxjstn.
Nc Miícjsjs Xrmismkkjlimc pnrejtn hntnktmr cm nxjstnikjm hn dujlins hjgnrnitns ni cls
ijvncns sjdujnitns?
 =>=

Nc Miícjsjs Xrmismkkjlimc il pnrejtn kme`jmr ij cms jigcunikjms ij cms hnkjsjlins tlemhms

ni ltrl sjtjl y ltrl cudmr. Ni kme`jl, pnrejtn mimcjzmrcms y rnpmrmr ni kûel «mquå y 
mblrm± ils niknrrmels ni ui prldrmem hjsnýmhl plr nc pmsmhl.
M pmrtjr hn nstm tlem hn klikjnikjm, nc Miícjsjs Xrmismkkjlimc
Xrmismkkjlimc pnrejtn m cm pnrslim (gåsjkm
l elrmc) m`rjrsn m cm sjtumkjûi prnsnitn, hnkjhjr su pcmi hn vjhm y nikmejimrsn bmkjm uim
 vnrhmhnrm mutlileåm.
mutlileåm.

Nonepcl hn rnplsjkjlimejnitl vjtmc

^im pnrslim qun sn trmscmhm hn ui pun`cl pnqunýl m uim drmi kjuhmh vnrí sus vjhms
pnrslimcns y prlgnsjlimcns slentjhms m drmihns kme`jls. Nc Miícjsjs Xrmismkkjlimc
pnrejtjrí rnhngjijr sus ncnkkjlins pnrslimcns, prlgnsjlimcns
prlgnsjlimcns y lrdmijzmtjvms hn uim eminrm
 jitndrmc.

=>0

Nonepcl hn rnplsjkjlimejnitl hn vmclrns

Ncndjr kmcjhmh hn vjhm klisjstjråm ni prjvjcndjmr nc tjnepl hn lkjl y mprnihjzmon ni cls
íe`jtls kucturmcns mitns qun hnsmrrlccmr uim kmrrnrm hnemsjmhl m`slr`nitn1 nsl myuhmrí m
kunstjlimr cms iuenrlsms hngjijkjlins
hngjijkjlins «prjemrjms± hn cl qun snm nc «êxjtl±.

Nonepcl hn rnplsjkjlimejnitl hn vmclrns ni uim

uijûi
^i emtrjelijl nitrn hls pnrslims prlknhnitns hn kucturms euy hjgnrnitns trmnrí
kligrlitmkjlins nitrn cls VMI hn kmhm uil hn nccls y ui jeplrtmitn kunstjlimejnitl
drmvn hn sus dujlins jihjvjhumcns, m gmvlr hn ui iunvl VMI y hn iunvms hnkjsjlins.
Nc Miícjsjs Xrmismkkjlimc pnrejtn hnkjhjr y rnhnkjhjr hjsplijnihl hn cls enhjls pmrm
kleprnihnr n jitndrmr nc kliouitl hn cls ncnenitls jigcuynitns hnc pmsmhl y cms
eltjvmkjlins y mspjrmkjlins kli rnspnktl mc guturl.
 =>;

Kmpåtucl ==

Cms mktjtuhns qun ils nikjnrrmi? cls

ejijmrduenitls

Cm ilkjûi hn mrduenitl hnskrj`n uim nstrukturm hn kleplrtmejnitls hn grmkmsl l hn

êxjtl qun punhn l`snrvmrsn ni nc hnsmrrlccl hn tlhm cm vjhm hn uim pnrslim, gåsjkm l elrmc.
Cm ilkjûi hn oundl hnskrj`n uim nstrukturm hn kleplrtmejnitls hn grmkmsl ni nc qun sn
punhn l`snrvmr nc nikmhnimejnitl hn vmrjms pnrslims hurmitn ui pnrjlhl qun punhn jr hn
mcduils ejiutls m vmrjls mýls.

M hnstmkmr
Mcduims nstrukturms miícldms punhni snr jhnitjgjkmhms ni hurmkjlins euy klrtms
(mcduils snduihls l mcduils ejiutls), prjikjpmcenitn ni cm rncmkjûi hn uim

pnrslim klisjdl ejsem? cms ccmemels ejijmrduenitls.

Cls ejijmrduenitls hn ui jihjvjhul nstíi åitjemenitn klinktmhls kli su mrduenitl,

plr uim pmrtn, y m sus oundls y m su plsjkjûi vjtmc, plr ltrm.
Nc nstuhjl y nc usl hnc ejijmrduenitl klel bnrrmejnitm hn kme`jl punhni knitrmrsn,
klel nc Miícjsjs Guikjlimc, ni cls kleplrtmejnitls l`snrvm`cns. Cls dnstls, nc tlil hn
 vlz, cms pmcm`rms nskldjhms pmrm nxprnsmrsn, cm plsturm klrplrmc, cms nxprnsjlins hnc rlstrl
sli hntmccns qun rngcnomi cm rnmcjhmh nelkjlimc hn cm pnrslim qun sn nxprnsm. Cls kjikl
ejijmrduenitls prlpunstls plr Xmj`j Ambcnr sli kjikl snkunikjms hjgnrnitns, l`snrvm`cns
ni uil ejsel y ni cls hneís, qun sli, mc prjikjpjl, kleplrtmejnitls «il LA± hnskrjtls
plr cms mktjtuhns vjtmcns (+ ‛, ‛ +, l ‛ ‛).
 Cls kjikl ejijmrduenitls sn ccmemi sndÿi cls ile`rns hn kjikl enismons rnstrjktjvls

=>8

qun cls lrjdjimi y qun jcustrmi cls kleplrtmejnitls klepucsjvls m cls qun klihukni?
• [ly pnrgnktl.
• En nsgunrzl.
• Klepcíknen.
• Hmtn prjsm.
• [ly gunrtn (il nxprnsns tus nelkjlins).
[n trmtm hn ûrhnins pmrnitmcns, rntnijhms plr nc Vmhrn hnc jihjvjhul hnshn su jigmikjm, qun
jigcunikjmi ni tlhl elenitl su kleplrtmejnitl hn eminrm sutjc pnrl l`snrvm`cn.
Vrlplinels, eís mhncmitn, cms mktjtuhns y cls kleplrtmejnitls kmrmktnråstjkls hn cls
kjikl ejijmrduenitls.

Hnskrjpkjûi hn ejijmrduenitls
«[ly pnrgnktl±
Nc rlstrl snrjl l jikcusl snvnrl, tnisl gåsjkmenitn, km`nzm mctm y ejrmhm mctjvm. Vlsturm
rnktm y rådjhm, rlpm trmhjkjlimc y sji emikbms.
Nstm pnrslim tjnihn m plitjgjkmr su hjskursl niuenrmihl cls hjgnrnitns puitls,
hntnijêihlsn, m`rjnihl pmrêitnsjs y bmkjnihl oujkjls m cl cmrdl hn cm grmsn, pmrm
gjimcenitn knrrmrcm. Kli nstn kleplrtmejnitl, mcjenitm cm jcusjûi hn qun guikjlim kli
su Mhuctl y krnn prltndnr su Ijýl hn cls nrrlrns qun cls ltrls plhråmi hntnktmrcn.

«Klepcíknen±
Dnstls hn mkldjhm u l`nrturm, plsturm niklr`mhm, knoms cnvmitmhms kli mtnikjûi, mktjtuh
hn snhukkjûi, nc rlstrl cmhnmhl kli cls lols ejrmihl hn klstmhl l cm km`nzm bmkjm m`mol,
cls lols ejrmihl bmkjm mrrj`m. Cms emils m eniuhl nstíi cm uim sl`rn cm ltrm l sn grltmi
eutumenitn.
Ni sus kleuijkmkjlins, nstm pnrslim nepnzmrí sus grmsns pmrm tnrejimrcms
jitnrrldmtjvmenitn,
jitnrrldmtjvmenitn, `uskmihl nc mkunrhl y cm mprl`mkjûi hn su jitnrclkutlr.

M eniuhl bmrí prnduitms emijpucmhlrms, l hjrjdjhms, kli nc l`ontjvl hn snr bmcmdmhm.

 Nskukbm bmkjnihl «så± kli cm km`nzm hurmitn nc hjskursl hn su jitnrclkutlr pmrm bmknrcn
 vnr su mprl`mkjûi klistmitn n jiklihjkjlimc. Cms pnrslims `mol cm jigcunikjm hn nstm

=>>

rnstrjkkjûi suncni snr pnrkj`jhms klel gmcsms.

[us nxprnsjlins bm`jtumcns sli? kmsj, ui plkl (pmrm nvjtmr hnkjr qun il), ¼hn mkunrhl<
¼punhns< ¼qujnrns< vnrhmhnrmenitn… ym cl sm`ns,¼il ns kjnrtl< (mc gjimc hn cm grmsn pmrm
pnhjr mprl`mkjûi), ¼il lpjims qun...< [u vlz m eniuhl ns mduhm y mgcmutmhm, m vnkns
«ýlým±, pjhjnihl mtnikjûi.

«Bmrê ui nsgunrzl±
Nc lrjdni hn nstn ejijmrduenitl punhn snr cl qun sn ccmem npjmrduenitl1 cms me`jkjlins
il smtjsgnkbms hn uil hn cls pmhrns hn cm gmejcjm sn trmisejtni mc bjol l m cm bjom, qun bm
hn tninr êxjtl ni su cudmr. Nskukbm mtnitmenitn, jikcjimhl bmkjm mhncmitn, klitjnin cm
rnspjrmkjûi, snitmhm kli cls klhls sl`rn cms rlhjccms, cls puýls knrrmhls, pucdmrns pmrm
hnitrl, nspmchm rådjhm, rlstrl jikcjimhl bmkjm nc jitnrclkutlr, eís tnisl hn cl inknsmrjl,
ejrmhm kliknitrmhm, kli ejnhl hn il kleprnihnr, nxprnsjûi kliknitrmhm y mtnitm ( Nc 
Vnismhlr  hn
 hn Plhji).
Nstm pnrslim pcmitnm prnduitms mktl sndujhl, sji nspnrmr rnspunstms, l rnpntjrí uim
prnduitm qun ym bm sjhl rnsplihjhm l hnomrí sji tnrejimr su prnduitm.
Msjejsel, il rnsplihnrí m cms prnduitms. [n hntnihrí ni ejtmh hn cm grmsn pmrm
klenizmrcm ltrm vnz l tmrtmeuhnmrí ui plkl1 l, jikcusl, ccnimrí su hjskursl hn eÿctjpcns
pmusms? «nb…, nb…, nb…±.
[us nxprnsjlins bm`jtumcns sli? cl jitnitl, bmdl cl qun punhl, ns gíkjc, ns hjgåkjc, en
dustmråm, ns ui prl`cnem, il cl sê, il punhl, il ccndl, ns hurl, ntk.
[u vlz, klel su mktjtuh dninrmc, m eniuhl ns qunoue`rlsm n jepmkjnitn.

«Hmtn prjsm±
Cls dnstls hn mdjtmkjûi prlpjls hn cm sl`rnmhmptmkjûi (vnr Cms kumtrl glrems hn
pmsjvjhmh, ni nc kmpåtucl ;)? rnklrrn cm bm`jtmkjû m cl cmrdl y mikbl, mktÿm kli rmpjhnz, sn
prnsjlim y dlcpnm cls pjns y cls hnhls, il nstí qujntl, mktjvjhmh gn`rjc klitjium (nikjnihn
ui kjdmrrjccl y cl mpmdm, ntk.). Nc knýl gruikjhl, cls lols mktjvls, nskurrjhjzls, sjduni tlhls
cls elvjejnitls.
Nstm pnrslim tnihnrí m snr jepmkjnitn, m prnkjpjtmrsn. Jitnrruepn cms grmsns hn cls hneís
pmrm tnrejimrcms nccm, krnn kleprnihnr mitns hn qun sn mkm`n uim nxpcjkmkjûi y smkm
klikcusjlins mprnsurmhms.
 [us nxprnsjlins sli? vmels, vmels, bmy qun jr, nitlikns… ¼ils vmels< Nitlikns,

=>7

¼nepnzmels< Hn mkunrhl, hn mkunrhl, hnprjsm, hn`nels hmrils prjsm, nspm`jcnels, ntk.

[u vlz ns rípjhm, sus jigcnxjlins su`ni y `momi klitjiumenitn y su tlil nxprnsm su
jepmkjnikjm.

«[ly gunrtn±
Dnstls hn prltnkkjûi? `rmzls kruzmhls, `rmzls mcrnhnhlr hn cms rlhjccms, pjnrims kruzmhms
l ni iuhl, nc kunrpl y cms emils rådjhms l cms emils mdmrrmhms m cm sjccm, m ui eun`cn l m
ui l`ontl.
Cms nxprnsjlins vjtmcns sli plkl bm`jtumcns ni nstm pnrslim qun pmrnkn tninr ui rlstrl
grål y sji elvjejnitl (ui rlstrl hn eírelc).
Nstm pnrslim mitns bm`cmrí hn nelkjlins qun ccndmrí m emijgnstmrcms. Pmrmenitn
nxprnsmrí ejnhl, trjstnzm, nigmhl l mcndråm.

[us nxprnsjlins
klenitmrjls, en bnbm`jtumcns
snitjhl…,sli?
bmyen
qun bm pmsmhl
sm`nr nstl,
nikmomr, il ensnrjeplrtm,
hn`nels gjrens, ililbmytnidl
qun
hnomrsn jigcunikjmr, ntk.
[u vlz ns eliûtlim, sji jigcnxjlins, hurm, sji nelkjûi.
Nstls kjikl tjpls hn kleplrtmejnitl jihukjhls plr cls enismons rnstrjktjvls, l nstls
kjikl ejijmrduenitls nstíi ccnvmhls mc nxtrnel l kmrjkmturjzmhls. Ns eís rnmcjstm pnismr
ni têrejils hn «tnihnikjm± sl`rn tmc l kumc ejijmrduenitl, rnklrhmihl qun uim pnrslim
suncn nstmr emrkmhm plr mc enils hls enismons rnstrjktjvls hjgnrnitns, sj il eís, qun sn
rngunrzmi eutumenitn.

 Xme`jêi ns jeplrtmitn
klisnkunikjms ÿtjcns? rnklrhmr qun cls kjikl enismons rnstrjktjvls punhni tninr

Enismon rnstrjktjvl Cmhl plsjtjvl

[ly pnrgnktl @uni lrdmijzmhlr

[ly gunrtn Xnimz y rnsjstnitn

Klepcíknen Gcnxj`cn, mhmptm`cn

Bmrê ui nsgunrzl Vnrsjstnitn

 Mprnsÿrmtn Ngjkmz
 =>4

 Xrms cm mpmrjkjûi hnc ejijmrduenitl ni ui klitnxtl nstrnsmitn (plr nonepcl, ni ui

klitrlc plcjkjmc), snrí jitnrnsmitn bmknr qun surom nitrn cls kleplrtmejnitls indmtjvls m
cls qun klihukni cls enismons rnstrjktjvls.
Mså, ni ui kumhrl pnrslimc, ns hjgåkjc jemdjimr qun uim pnrslim punhm cj`rmrsn
klepcntmenitn hn tlhls cls enismons rnstrjktjvls qun nstíi ni nc lrjdni hn cls
ejijmrduenitls (Xmj`j Ambcnr
Ambcnr mgjrem qun ils pmsmels nc :6 % hn iunstrl tjnepl `mol cm
jigcunikjm hn iunstrls enismons rnstrjktjvls).
Nc trm`mol hn kme`jl klisjstn sl`rn tlhl m muenitmr su mspnktl plsjtjvl mc tjnepl qun
ils hnomels jigcunikjmr enils plr cls ncnenitls indmtjvls.

Nc kjkcl hnc ejijmrduenitl

Cm prjenrm pmrtn hn nstn kmpåtucl trmtm hn cm utjcjzmkjûi hnc kliknptl hn ejijmrduenitl
ni ui niglqun guikjlimc, ns hnkjr klinktmhl kli nc kleplrtmejnitl l`snrvm`cn.
Vnrl cls enismons rnstrjktjvls y nc kleplrtmejnitl qun jihukni il sli, hn bnkbl, sjil cm
prjenrm pmrtn hnc kjkcl hnc ejijmrduenitl qun tjnin eís ntmpms, tmc y klel sn nxplini
ni nc nsqunem sjdujnitn?

Vmrm jcustrmr nstms kumtrl ntmpms, prlplinels nc nonepcl sjdujnitn hn ui hjícldl jitnrjlr
qun eunstrm nc ejijmrduenitl hn uim pnrslim qun sn nigrnitm m uim tmrnm qun cn pmrnkn
hjgåkjc?
=. Enismon rnstrjktjvl? «¡[ly pnrgnktl!±
 0. Vmusm? «… ¡Il ccndmrís!±

=>2

;. m) [uejsjûi?
[uejsjûi? «Cl jitnitmrê, muiqun tnidl ejnhl hn il ccndmr.±
`) Pnvmikbm l rn`ncjûi? «Vuns bmrê tlhl cl klitrmrjl y qun sn vmym mc hjm`cl.±
8. Grmkmsl y `ningjkjl indmtjvl? «Cl sm`åm,
sm`åm, sjneprn ns jdumc.±
jdumc.±
Cm pnrslim smkm hn ui hjícldl hn nstn tjpl cls ejsels `ningjkjls qun l`tjnin hn ui
undl, ni enilr enhjhm y enils jitnisjhmh, y tme`jêi ni enils tjnepl.
Vlr nc klitrmrjl, uim pnrslim `mol cm jigcunikjm hn cls enismons rnstrjktjvls hn ui
ejijmrduenitl vjvn y rnvjvn uim pmrtn l cm tltmcjhmh hnc kjkcl m kmhm jistmitn hn su vjhm.
Cms kumtrl ntmpms hnc ejijmrduenitl sn `ningjkjmi hn su rncmkjûi kli ltrls kliknptls hnc
miícjsjs trmismkkjlimc?
=. Cls enismons rnstrjktjvls rngcnomi uim mktjtuh vjtmc
vjtmc plsjtjvm pnrl klihjkjlimc?
klihjkjlimc?
«Nstmrê LA sj… (sly pnrgnktl, gunrtn, ntk.).±
0. Cms jitnrrupkjlins
jitnrrupkjlins hn cm snduihm pmrtn rngcnomi
rngcnomi cm mktjtuh vjtmc
vjtmc ‛ +.
Mcduils kbmitmons bm`jtumcns ni nstm ntmpm sli cls hn kucpm`jcjhmh, trjstnzm,
kligusjûi n jiqujntuh. Jepcåkjtmenitn, nstm ntmpm tme`jêi klitjnin snitjejnitls
hn jigrmvmclrmkjûi y hn sl`rnvmclrmkjû
sl`rnvmclrmkjûi.i. Cls oundls miícldls m nstm ntmpm sli?
«hmen uim pmtmhm± y «nstÿpjhl±.
;. Nstm ntmpm rngcnom
rngcnom cm mktjtuh
mktjtuh vjtmc + ‛ y cls Nstmhls
Nstmhls hnc Zl Ijýl Mhmptmhl Pn`nchn
l Vmhrn Kråtjkl (sus cmhls indmtjvls).
Cls kbmitmons bm`jtumcns sli cls hn kûcnrm, blstjcjhmh y snitjejnitl hn trjuigl. Cls
 oundls miícldls m nstm ntmpm ni têrejils
têrejils hn `ningjkjl indmtjvl
indmtjvl sli? «Zm tn tnidl,
kmpuccl±, «cls hngnktls±, «ejrm cl qun bn bnkbl plr tu kucpm±.
8. Nstm ntmpm klrrnsplihn
klrrnsplihn m cm cm mktjtuh vjtmc
vjtmc ‛ ‛ kli cls kbmitmons hn hnprnsjûi, hn
hn
hnsnspnrmkjûi,, jiutjcjhmh, l snitjejnitl hn m`mihlil.
hnsnspnrmkjûi

Eminrms hn nskmpmr hnc ejijmrduenitl

=. Pnpmrmr ni nc nikmhnimejnitl hn cms kukumtrl
mtrl gmsns (=, 0, ;m l ;`, 8) n jhnitjgjkmr
jhnitjgjkmr cm
ntmpm ni cm qun sn nikunitrn.
0. Kumihl uil snm kliskjnitn
kliskjnitn hn nstmr ni ui ejijmrduenitl,
ejijmrduenitl, plinr mc Mhuctl mc
emihl (plr nonepcl, kumihl uil nstí ni ui oundl).
;. Xlemr kliskjnikjm
kliskjnikjm hn cms hhjrnktjvms
jrnktjvms (l enismons
enismons rnprnslrns)
rnprnslrns) m cls kumcns sn slentni
  y hn cls kjikl pnrejsls qun uil plhråm hmrsn
hmrsn m så ejsel pmrm klitrmrrnstmrcls.
klitrmrrnstmrcls.

=>:

8. Mknptmr nc bnkbl hn rnkmnr ni cls kleplrtmejnitls

kleplrtmejnitls klinktmhls
klinktmhls kli cls enismons
enismons
rnprnslrns?

Hjrnktjvms Vnrejsls - Xjnins hnrnkbl m?

[ly pnrgnktl Klentnr nrrlrns

[ly gunrtn Xninr nelkjlins, snismkjlins

 Mprnsÿrmtn Xlemrtn tu tjnepl

Klepcíknen Wjvjr sndÿi tus vmclrns (il cls hn ltrls)

Jitnitê bmknrcl enolr Mtnihnr tus l`ontjvls y mså plinrtn cåejtns

>. Hnsmrrlccmr cls

cls mspnktls plsjtjvls hn cls ejijmrduenitls
ejijmrduenitls qun ils
ils jigcuyni pmrm
pmrm snr
eís?
• lrdmijzmhl1
• rnsjstnitn1
• gcnxj`cn1
• pnrsjstnitn1
• ngjkmz.

Ni rnsueni
Klilknr `jni cls «enismons rnstrjktjvls± qun glremi iunstrls kleplrtmejnitls
hn ejijmrduenitl ils pnrejtjrí cjejtmr iunstrms rnmkkjlins sjepcjstms y m
eniuhl indmtjvms ni sjtumkjlins hn nstrês pmrm, ni kme`jl, bmknr hn iunstrls
puitls gunrtns cm `msn hn iunstrms nstrmtndjms eís rnslcutjvms.
 =76

Kmpåtucl =0

Bmknr nc miícjsjs trmismkkjlimc? nc

klitrmtl

Cm ngjkmkjm hn uim mkkjûi hn trmisglremkjûi pnrslimc hnpnihn hjrnktmenitn hn cm

kmpmkjhmh hn cm pnrslim (gåsjkm l elrmc) l`ontl hn nstm trmisglremkjûi pmrm?
• bmknr ui `mcmikn kcmrl
kcmrl hn su sjtumkjûi
sjtumkjûi mktumc (¼kuíc ns nc prl`cnem<)1
prl`cnem<)1
• hngjijr kli prnkjsjûi su l sus l`ontjvls klikrntls
klikrntls y kleprl`m`cns
kleprl`m`cns hn
trmisglremkjûi1
• hngjijr y plinr
plinr m trm`momr
trm`momr cls enhjls buemils
buemils y emtnrjmcns
emtnrjmcns inknsmrjls1
inknsmrjls1
• plinrsn pcmzls ni cm puns
punstm
tm ni emrkbm hn cm trmisglremkjûi,
trmisglremkjûi, kmhm uil hn nstls
nstls
pcmzls sjnihl smikjlimhl plr ui `mcmikn hn uim grmsn.
Nitlikns punhn bm`nr ui rnhjsnýl hn cls l`ontjvls, ntk.
Nc prlknsl hn kcmrjgjkmkjûi kli cm vjstm punstm ni ui kme`jl sn bmkn, ni miícjsjs
trmismkkjlimc,, hnitrl hnc emrkl hn ui klitrmtl.
trmismkkjlimc
^im pnrslim punhn bmknr ui klitrmtl hn kme`jl prnkjsl y ngjkmz klisjdl ejsem,
qunhmihl mså klel nc ÿijkl tnstjdl hn su êxjtl l hn su grmkmsl.
[ji ne`mrdl, ni cm tnrmpjm, klel ni nc msnslrmejnitl pnrslimc l nc klmkbjid  jihjvjhumc,
 jihjvjhumc, cm
mkkjûi hn kme`jl m eniuhl sn plin ni emrkbm kli ui mdnitn nxtnrjlr qun bmkn cms vnkns
hn kcmrjgjkmhlr l hn myuhmitn, y qun kuepcn nc pmpnc hn «nspnol± qun pnrejtn uim
nvmcumkjûi eís moustmhm hnc kme`jl rnmc.

Vmrm snr ngjkmz, nc klitrmtl hn trmisglremkjûi hn`n rnuijr kjnrtms kmrmktnråstjkms?

 =. Pnuijr tlhms cms pnrslims
pnrslims qun hjsplidmi hn klepntnikjms jistjtukjlimcns,
jistjtukjlimcns, têkijkms
têkijkms
 y buemims inknsmrjms
inknsmrjms pmrm ccnvmr m km`l
km`l nc klitrmrl, y slcl nccms
nccms (mkunrhl m ijvnc hnc

=7=

Mhuctl)1
0. Hngjijr nitrn nsms pnrslims
pnrslims cls têrejils hn ui kme`jl ngnktjvl, ns
ns hnkjr
nqujcj`rmhl, ensurm`cn y eltjvmitn (mkunrhl m ijvnc hnc Ijýl)1
;. Pnmcjzmr cls l`ontjvls y plinr ni emrkbm cls
cls enhjls qun
qun snmi mknptm`cns
mknptm`cns plr kmhm
kmhm
uim hn cms pmrtns, tmitl ni nc pcmil elrmc klel ni nc cndmc (mkunrhl m ijvnc hn
Vmhrn).
Vlr ltrm pmrtn ns hnsnm`cn, pmrm qun nc klitrmtl snm nxpcåkjtl y nvjtmr cms trmismkkjlins
lkuctms, tlemr ni kunitm il slcmenitn cm vlcuitmh hn trmisglremkjûi, sjil tme`jêi cm
 vlcuitmh hn il-trmisglremkjûi.
il-trmisglremkjûi.
Nsl punhn prlvlkmr qun nc mdnitn hn trmisglremkjûi mkm`n glreucmihl ni pmrmcncl hls
snrjns hn prnduitms hnstjimhms m nskcmrnknr cms hls vlcuitmhns. Vlr nonepcl?
• ¼]uê qujnrns kme`jmr< ¼Kûel< ¼Vlr quê<
• ¼]uê enhjls tn pmrnkni inknsmrjls, kuícns nstís
nstís hjspunstl
hjspunstl m utjcjzmr<
• ¼Kuícns sli
sli cls jihjkjls qun
qun tn pnrejtjríi
pnrejtjríi enhjr cm rnmcj
rnmcjzmkjûi
zmkjûi hn tu l`ontjvl<
• ¼]uê ns cl qun
qun il qujnrns kme`jmr (hnkjsjlins
(hnkjsjlins ym tlemhms)<
tlemhms)<
• ¼]uê enhjls tn pmrnkni jiÿtjcns l prnskjihj`cns
prnskjihj`cns y qun il qujnrns
qujnrns utjcjzmr<
Kumihl sn hjsplin hn cms rnspunstms m nstms hls snrjns hn prnduitms, punhni mpmrnknr
jiklbnrnikjms qun ccnvni m rnhngjijr cls l`ontjvls l cls enhjls hn kme`jl.
Mså sn vuncvn nvjhnitn qun tlhm cm hngjijkjûi hnc klitrmtl y hn cls l`ontjvls ns hn bnkbl nc
prlknsl nskcmrnknhlr, nc snrvjkjl hn lrjnitmkjûi.

M hnstmkmr
^i klitrmtl ‛ klel ui l`ontjvl lpnrmkjlimc‛ il bmy qun kuepcjrcl m rmomtm`cm?
punhn snr supnrmhl, elhjgjkmhl, rncmtjvjzmhl hnpnihjnihl hn cms kjrkuismikjms.

Cms vnitmoms hnc klitrmtl sli eÿctjpcns?

=. [u enrm glreucmkjûi pnrejtn mvmizmr
mvmizmr ni cm rnslcukjûi hn ui prl`cnem? «ui
prl`cnem `jni pcmitnmhl ns ui prl`cnem ni pmrtn rnsunctl±.
0. Nc klitrmtl pnrejtn
pnrejtn nstm`cnknr
nstm`cnknr nitrn cms
cms pmrtns klitrmtmtitns
klitrmtmtitns uim rncmkjûi «kcmrm±
«kcmrm± y 
qun pnrejtn klitrlcmr enolr cm sje`jlsjs, klitrmsje`jlsjs,
klitrmsje`jlsjs, kuplins, oundls,
 qun pnrejtn klitrlcmr enolr cm sje`jlsjs, klitrmsje`jlsjs,
klitrmsje`jlsjs, kuplins, oundls,
trmismkkjlins lkuctms, ntk.

=70

;. Vlr ÿctjel, ui klitrmtl «el`jcjzm± ninrdjm.

ninrdjm. Xjnin nc eêrjtl hn snr ui enhjl
plhnrlsl hn eltjvmkjûi, uim bnrrmejnitm sûcjhm ni cms emils hnc Mhuctl qun
qujnrn nc klitrlc sl`rn ui Vmhrn qun plhråm snr pnrgnkkjlijstm l sl`rn ui Ijýl
sm`ltnmhlr.
Nc prlknhjejnitl hnc klitrmtl hn trmisglremkjûi sn punhn mpcjkmr ÿtjcenitn mc ijvnc
jihjvjhumc (trmisglremkjûi pnrslimc l prlgnsjlimc) y mc ijvnc hn sjstnems klcnktjvls,
gmejcjms, mslkjmkjlins.
Nstn tjpl hn klitrmtl suplin inknsmrjmenitn
inknsmrjmenitn cm hngjijkjûi hn l`ontjvls hn trmisglremkjûi
qun snmi l`snrvm`cns il slcl plr cm pnrslim ejsem, sjil tme`jêi plr ltrms pnrslims
(nitlril gmejcjmr, nc elijtlr, nc nitlril prlgnsjlimc).
• M ijvnc hn cls
cls jihjvjhuls,
jihjvjhuls, nc klitrmtl sn nstm`cnkn
nstm`cnkn eís gíkjcenitn
gíkjcenitn tnijnihl ni kunitm
qun slcl jitnrnsm m hls pnrslims? nc mdnitn hn trmisglremkjûi y nc suontl.
• M ijvnc klcnktjvl, sjisji ne`mrdl, nstm
nstm sjepcjkjhmh
sjepcjkjhmh suncn hnsmpmrnknr y ns inknsmrjl
inknsmrjl
nstmr eís mcnrtm pmrm nskcmrnknr cls hjgnrnitns puitls hnc klitrmtl nitrn nc klisnonrl y 
cls jitnrclkutlrns, kuyms lpjijlins suncni snr hjgnrnitns.
Ni nstn íe`jtl, cnols hn snr uim bnrrmejnitm jiÿtjc, cm ilkjûi hn klitrmtl sn vuncvn
jihjspnism`cn pmrm uim mkkjûi hn kme`jl ngjkmz.
Ni nc hlejijl hn cm tnrmpjm jihjvjhumc, mså klel gmejcjmr l klcnktjvm, nstm ilkjûi hn 
klitrmtl ns euy lrjdjimc .
Nc klitrmtl pnrejtn nstm`cnknr uim rncmkjûi hn rnsplism`jcjhmh klepmrtjhm, bmkjnihl mc
suontl nc ÿijkl rnsplism`cn hn su trmisglremkjûi, y pnrejtn uim rncmkjûi mdnitn-suontl ni
cm kumc nc Mhuctl hn kmhm uil tjnin cls enhjls pmrm nstmr mc emihl. Nstm`cnknr klitrmtls
kcmrls ns ni så uim ntmpm jeplrtmitn.

Ni rnsueni
Cm príktjkm hnc klitrmtl ns knitrmc ni cm gjomkjûi y cm rnmcjzmkjûi hn l`ontjvls hn
trmisglremkjûi pnrslimcns y klcnktjvls.

Nstm ilkjûi euy lpnrmkjlimc trmisglrem cms ltrms bnrrmejnitms hn MX ni

vnrhmhnrls eltlrns hn kme`jl.
 =7;

@j`cjldrmgåm

@j`cjldrmgåm sncnktm ni nspmýlc

@NPIN (NPJK), ¼]uê hjkn ustnh hn hnkjr blcm<  @mrknclim,
 @mrknclim, Drjomc`l, =:48
@NPIN  (NPJK),  Miícjsjs trmismkkjlimc y psjklmiícjsjs , @unils Mjrns, Nhjkjlins Vsykbn,
=:47
KCM^HN [ XNJINP , Dujlins qun uijels. Nhjtlrjmc Amjrls. @mrknclim, =::0.

@j`cjldrmgåm ni grmikês
@NPIN  (NPJK), Tbmt Hl Zlu [my Mgtnr Zlu [my Bnccl<  Inw   Inw Zlra, Drlvn Vrnss, =:40,
Clihli, Dlrdj-@llas, =:4>.
@NPIN (NPJK), Mimcysn trmismktjliinccn nt psykbltbêrmpjn , Vmylt, =:4=.
@NPIN (NPJK), Hns onux nt hns bleens. Vsykblcldjn hns rncmtjlis buemjins , [tlka, =:77.
@NPIN (NPJK), ]un hjtns-vlus mprâs mvljr hjt `liolur !  Xkblu,
 Xkblu, =:::.

KMPHLI
=:2=. (M CMJI),  Onux pêhmdldjquns nt mimcysn trmismktjliinccn , Êhjtjlis h‚Lrdmijsmtjli,
KMPHLI (MCMJI) nt Enrent (Cmurnit), Wlkm`ucmjrn hn c‚mimcysn trmismktjliinccn , Êhjtjlis
h‚Lrdmijsmtjli, =:20.
KMPHLI (MCMJI), Onux hn emijpucmtjli, Êhjtjlis h‚Lrdmijsmtjli, =::>.
KMPHLI (MCMJI), Klmkbjid h‚êqujpns , Êhjtjlis h‚Lrdmijsmtjli, 066;
KMPHLI (MCMJI), Cnmhnrsbjp hn trmisjtjli, Êhjtjlis h‚Lrdmijsmtjli, 066>.
KNDL[, Mimcysn trmismktjliinccn nt rncmtjlis hn Xrmvmjc , NEN, =:4:.
^[MZ  LBI  XNJINP  CM^HN C‚mimcysn trmismktjliinccn ni tbêrmpjn hn drlupn 
 H   (O ) nt [   (K ), ,
Êhjtjlis uijvnrsjtmjrns
uijvnrsjtmjrns O.-V. Hncmrdn, =:47.

=78

ML^J (D Z[M), Cn trjpcn Elj , Pl`nrt Cmgglit, =:4:.

BMPPJ[ (XBLEM[), H‚mkklrh mvnk slj nt mvnk cns mutrns , Dujhn prmtjqun h‚MX, Êpj, =:4;.
MEN[ (E^PJNC) nt OLIDNTMPH (HLPLXBZ )),, Imétrn dmdimit , JitnrÊhjtjlis, =:42.
CNIBMPHX  (W JIKNIX
JIKNIX), Cns rnsplism`cns plrtnurs hn snis , JI[NV Klisuctjid Êhjtjlis,
0660.
CNIBMPHX  (W JIKNIX
JIKNIX) nt Dlhmrt (Mcmji),  Nidmdnenit, nspljrs, rïvns , Wjccmdn Elihjmc,
=:::.
 =7>

LXPL[ XÅX^CL[ HN JIXNPÊ[

Vsjklhrmem
Kmrlcjim @nknrrjc-Emjccngnrt
@nknrrjc-Emjccngnrt
J[@I? :4228:4;>2:7>
J[@I? :4228:4;>2:7>
Víds? 066
Víds? 066

Cm nxprnsjûi purmenitn vnr`mc ym il ns sugjkjnitn. Nc psjklhrmem

tn pnrejtn l`snrvmrtn y vnr m cls ltrls ni cm nsknim jeprlvjsmhm
pmrm klivnrtjrtn ni mktlr hn tu prlpjm vjhm kli nc gji hn l`tninr
ui klilkjejnitl eís prlguihl hn tus rnmkkjlins nelkjlimcns y
nxpnrjenitmr iunvms eminrms eís nsplitíinms hn nigrnitmr y
elhjgjkmr cms sjtumkjlins qun bms vjvjhl ni nc pmsmhl l qun nstís
vjvjnihl ni cm mktumcjhmh.
 NGX

=77

J[@I? :4228:4;>:08>
J[@I? :4228:4;>:08>
Víds? =47
Víds? =47

Nc NGX l Neltjlimc Grnnhle Xnkbijqun ns uim têkijkm hn

krnkjejnitl jitnrjlr qun klisjstn ni cm cj`nrmkjûi nelkjlimc
enhjmitn cm mkuprnsjûi. Vmrtjnihl hn cm jhnm qun tlhms cms
nelkjlins indmtjvms sli hn`jhms m ui hnsnqujcj`rjl ni nc gcuol
ninrdêtjkl hnc kunrpl, sn ngnktÿm uim cjdnrm prnsjûi ni cls puitls
hn nitrmhm l smcjhm hn cls enrjhjmils hn cm mkupuiturm, u`jkmhls
ni cm kmrm, cm pmrtn mctm hnc kunrpl y cms emils.

Kûel lrdmijzmrtn `jni

Plsmcjn Emddjl
J[@I? :4228:4;>2607
J[@I? :4228:4;>2607
Víds? 0>7
Víds? 0>7

Xjnins cm snismkjûi hn qun sjneprn ccndms tmrhn m tlhl. Xn sjnitns

grustrmhl plr il smkmr nc eíxjel prlvnkbl m tus håms y tus blrms.
Xn nikmitmråm sm`lrnmr kmhm ejiutl hn tu nxjstnikjm, pnrl mcdl tn
cl jepjhn. Ni hngjijtjvm, tn hms kunitm hn qun inknsjtms uim
pmusm, tlemr mjrn y, sl`rn tlhl, ¡lrdmijzmkjûi! Bm ccndmhl nc
elenitl hn hnsku`rjr qun cm slcukjûi nstí ni tj, ni tu kmpmkjhmh
hn pcmijgjkmr y gcujr.
 =74

 Wjvn tu elenitl
Hr. Ajra H. [trlsmbc ´ Hrm. Vmtrjkjm O. Pl`jisli
J[@I? :4228:4;>2;84
J[@I? :4228:4;>2;84
Víds? 066
Víds? 066

Nc nstrês glrem pmrtn hn iunstrm vjhm, pnrl kli nc tjnepl cms

tnisjlins krûijkms punhni mkm`mr hmýmihl iunstrm
i unstrm smcuh enitmc
y gåsjkm. Vlr nstm rmzûi, ns jeplrtmitn qun cms pnqunýms
hjgjkuctmhns l klitrmtjnepls kli cls qun tlhls ils niklitrmels
m hjmrjl il ils mgnktni.

Xu knrn`rl krnmtjvl
[bnccny Kmrsli
J[@I? :4228:4;>2=24
J[@I? :4228:4;>2=24
Víds? ;68
Víds? ;68

Cm krnmtjvjhmh ns uim bm`jcjhmh kmhm vnz eís inknsmrjm ni

iunstrm
mrtåstjkms,slkjnhmh, il slcmenitn
sjil tme`jêi pmrm hnsmrrlccmr
pmrm hnstmkmr ni nc kmhmmktjvjhmhns
vnz eís
nxjdnitn nitlril cm`lrmc y ni iunstrm vjhm hjmrjm. Xlhls tninels
mptjtuhns pmrm muenitmr iunstrm guikjûi enitmc y iunstrm
krnmtjvjhmh, pnrl hnpnihn hn ilsltrls trm`momrcms.
 =72

Jitncjdnikjm krnmtjvm
Grmik Vlitj ´ Cukåm Cmidm
J[@I?
J[@I? :4228:4;>8:2=
 :4228:4;>8:2=

Víds? 062
Víds? 062

Eukbm dnitn sn klisjhnrm m så ejsem jitncjdnitn, pnrl sli euy

plkls cls qun bmkni cl ejsel kli cm krnmtjvjhmh. Vlkms pnrslims
sn klisjhnrmi krnmtjvms. ¼Vlr quê< Ni nstn cj`rl sn hnsku`rni cms
rncmkjlins nitrn jitncjdnikjm y krnmtjvjhmh y, sl`rntlhl, sn
prlplin ui kliouitl hn rnkursls príktjkls pmrm hnsmrrlccmr
iunstrm krnmtjvjhmh y plhnr rnjivnitmrils ni tjnepls hjgåkjcns.

Nvjtmihl nc mutlsm`ltmo
mutlsm`ltmon
n
Kêsmr Vjqunrms
J[@I? :4228:4;>>240
J[@I? :4228:4;>>240
Víds? 0=0
Víds? 0=0

Nstn cj`rl prlplin hjstjitms mctnrimtjvms qun ils myuhni m bmknr

rnmcjhmh iunstrls l`ontjvls, kli ui cnidumon snikjccl, nonepcls
príktjkls y, mc gjimc hn kmhm kmpåtucl, uim bnrrmejnitm príktjkm l
kunstjlimrjl pmrm cm rngcnxjûi, hn glrem qun nc cnktlr punhm
prlguihjzmr mÿi eís ni nc mprnihjzmon.
 =7:

Nc knrn`rl hn [jhhbmrtbm
Omens Ajidscmih
J[@I?
J[@I? :4228:4;>:;72
 :4228:4;>:;72
Víds? 040
Víds? 040
Ncm`lrmhl m pmrtjr hn sus nisnýmizms, eunstrm kûel cm príktjkm
enhjtmtjvm y `uhjstm sn mitjkjpû m cls bmccmzdls hn cm
inurlkjnikjm elhnrim. Omens Ajidscmih ‛nhjtlr kjnitågjkl hn Xbn
Dumrhjmi‛ nxpcjkm, m pmrtjr hn cm bjstlrjm nvlcutjvm hnc knrn`rl y
hn cls hnsûrhnins y inurlsjs mslkjmhls m iunstrl euihl
tnkilcûdjkl, plr quê cm mitjdum príktjkm hnc ejihgucinss bm sjhl
sjneprn tmi jeplrtmitn y `ningjkjlsm pmrm cls snrns buemils.

>6 cj`rls kcmvn pmrm vjvjr enolr

Xle @utcnr @lwhli
J[@I? :4228:4;>47=7
J[@I? :4228:4;>47=7
Víds? ;>7
Víds? ;>7

Klivjêrtmsn ni ui cåhnr y smqun prlvnkbl hn cls pnismhlrns eís

jigcuynitns kûel? Tmrrni @niijs, Ani @cmikbmrh, [pniknr
Olbisli, Bniry Glrh, M`rmbme Cjiklci y Incsli Emihncm, nitrn
ltrls. Hnsku`rm quê sn rnqujnrn pmrm klisndujr cm mutêitjkm
prlspnrjhmh kli –Nc ble`rn eís rjkl hn @m`jclijm―, –Vmhrn rjkl,
pmhrn pl`rn― l –^im enitn ejcclimrjm―, nitrn ltrls tåtucls.
 =46

>6 kcísjkls hn cm mutlmyuhm

Xle @utcnr @lwhli
J[@I?
J[@I? :4228:4;>4;>4
 :4228:4;>4;>4
Víds? ;>0
Víds? ;>0

^i rnklrrjhl m trmvês hn cls cj`rls y hn cls mutlrns qun eís bmi

jigcujhl ni nc kliknptl hnc –Hnsmrrlccl Vnrslimc―. ^im duåm hn
cnkturm ÿtjc pmrm mklepmýmr mc cnktlr ni nc klilkjejnitl hn
mutlrns klel? Kbmrcns Gmucainr, Hmijnc Dlcnemi, Clujsn Bmy,
Olsnpb Eurpby, Hnnpma Kblprm, Vmucl Klncbl, @niomeji
Grmiacji, Hmcmj Cmem, Olbi Drmy, @lnkjl, Emrkl Murncjl y Cml Xzu,
nitrn ltrls.

>6 kcísjkls nspjrjtumcns

Xle @utcnr @lwhli
J[@I? :4228:4;>6>46
J[@I? :4228:4;>6>46
Víds? 866
Víds? 866

[n trmtm hn cm prjenrm y ÿijkm duåm `rnvn hn cls enolrns nskrjtls

nspjrjtumcns1 nstm rnklpjcmkjûi sjiducmr jikcuyn tme`jêi cms
enelrjms pnrslimcns
tmi hjgnrnitns y cms mutl`jldrmgåms
klel Dmihbj, l`cjdmtlrjms
Emckle R y Mckn Indrl1 hn hn gjdurmsy
gjcûslgls
durÿs lrjnitmcns klel Arjsbimeurtj, Zldmimihm, Kbûdyme
Xruidpm y [buiryu [uzuaj1 y hn eåstjkls y pnismhlrns
lkkjhnitmcns klel [mi Grmikjskl hn Msås, Bnremii Bnssn y
[jelin Tnjc.
 =4=

Åihjkn
Xåtucl ;
Krêhjtls >
Pngnrnikjms 7
Åihjkn 2
Mdrmhnkjejnitls =8
Vrngmkjl =7
Jitrlhukkjûi =2
Bjstlrjm =2
Cm bnrrmejnitm =:
L`ontjvls y hnkjsjlins 06

Vr=je
. NncnrdmjrVnmc rktlne
.Hplnrtmcmejpnnirtls?lcilsm nmstcmmhlrsnchmnkc jyûli 00=0
Jitrlhukkjûi m cls Nstmhls hnc Zl 00
Nc Nstmhl hnc Zl Vmhrn 0;
Nc Nstmhl hnc Zl Mhuctl 08
Nc Nstmhl hnc Zl Ijýl 0>
Nc miícjsjs guikjlimc 02
Nc Vmhrn 0:
Nc Mhuctl ;=
Nc Ijýl ;0
Klepmrmkjûi hn Nstmhls hnc Zl ;>
Vmhrn Ilremtjvl ;>
Vmhrn Kujhmhlr ;4
 Ijýl Nsplitíinl ;2
 Ijýl Mhmptmhl [uejsl ;:
 Ijýl Mhmptmhl Pn`nchn 86
 Ijýl Krnmhlr 86
Mhuctl 80
Cls Nstmhls hnc Zl y cm rnslcukjûi hn prl`cnems 8;
 Vmhrn Ilremtjvl 8;
Vmhrn Kujhmhlr 8;
 Ijýl Nsplitíinl 8;

=40

 Ijýl Mhmptmhl 88
 Ijýl Krnmhlr 88
Mhuctl 88
Eêtlhl hn rnslcukjûi hn prl`cnems m pmrtjr hn Nstmhls hnc Zl 8>
Cm ilkjûi hn klitrlc 87
Cms klitmejimkjlins 84
Cms nxkcusjlins 8:
Cls Nstmhls hnc Zl ni nc hnsmrrlccl hn cm pnrslim 8:
Nstmhls hnc Zl y trmismkkjlins >6
0. Cls elhls hn kleuijkmkjûi? cms trmismkkjlins >0
Nc klitnijhl y cm rncmkjûi >0
Cls hjgnrnitns tjpls hn trmismkkjûi >;
Cms trmismkkjlins sjepcns >;
Xrmismkkjlins kruzmhms >8
Hjícldl jitnrjlr >7
Cms trmismkkjlins hl`cns (lkuctms) >7
Xrmismkkjûi hnc mblrkmhl >4
Cms trmismkkjlins Mhuctl-Mhuctl >2
Cms rndcms hn kleuijkmkjûi >:
Cms trmismkkjlins sli jitnrmkkjlins 76
;. Cms rncmkjlins hn hnpnihnikjm y mutlileåm? cm sje`jlsjs 7;
Pncmkjûi hn mutlileåm y rncmkjûi sje`jûtjkm 7;
Kmrmktnråstjkms hn cm sje`jlsjs 78

JCimgrkmlvimtcrlmrsmjkejû`ijl, ssjls`yrncvmmkcmlhrmnkijmûisje
(jd`ijûltrjmkimkjm) 77>7
Jigrmvmclrmkjûi hn cm jitujkjûi (Ijýl Krnmhlr) 72
Jigrmvmclrmkjûi hn cm cûdjkm (Mhuctl) 72
Jigrmvmclrmkjûi hnc oujkjl elrmc (Vmhrn) 7:
Cms kumtrl glrems hn pmsjvjhmh 7:
[je`jlsjs y trmisglremkjûi 40
Cm sje`jlsjs smcuhm`cn 4;
[nduihm Vmrtn. Cms eltjvmkjlins eís pnrslimcns 4>
8. ^im inknsjhmh guihmenitmc, snr rnklilkjhl? cls nståeucls 47
 Cm inknsjhmh hn nståeucls 47
Xjpls hn nståeucl 44

=4;

Gåsjkls y slkjmcns 44
Vlsjtjvls y indmtjvls 42
Klihjkjlimcns n jiklihjkjlimcns 4:
¼]uê nståeucls nejtjr< 26
Vlsjtjvls jiklihjkjlimcns 26
Vlsjtjvls klihjkjlimcns 26
 Indmtjvls klihjkjlimcns 26
 Indmtjvls jiklihjkjlimcns 2=
Nklileåm hn nståeucls 20
Nståeucls y trmisglremkjûi 28
>. Cm nstrukturmkjûi hnc tjnepl 24
Nc mjscmejnitl 22
Nc rjtumc 22
Nc pmsmtjnepl 22
Cm mktjvjhmh 2:
Kbmitmons y oundls 2:
Cm jitjejhmh :6
7. Cm rncmkjûi kli cls ltrls y kli nc euihl? cms plsjkjlins vjtmcns :;
Cm ilkjûi hn plsjkjûi vjtmc :;
Dmimhlrns y pnrhnhlrns :4
Vlsjkjlins vjtmcns y Nstmhls hnc Zl :2
Cm plsjkjûi vjtmc + ‛? plsjkjûi hn hlejijl :2
Cm plsjkjûi vjtmc ‛ +? plsjkjûi hn hlejimhl ::

4. CmN
s ctêkkmiejk`mjsl hn kleuijkmkjûi ==6660
Nskukbmr =6;
Cm nskukbm y nc Mhuctl =68
Nskukbmr y cms plsjkjlins vjtmcns =6>
Nskukbmr y nc hnshêi =67
Cms prnduitms =67
Cms prnduitms m`jnrtms =64
Vrnduitms knrrmhms =64
Vrnduitms dujmhms =62
 Cms prnduitms inutrms =6:
Cms rnccmemhms =6:

=48

Pnccmemhms pmsjvms =6:

Pnccmemhms mktjvms ==6
Xnrknrm Vmrtn. cms bunccms eís prlguihms ==4
2. Cls enkmijsels hn mutlemijpucmkjûi ==2

C
Klbsmiktbmmonistmyontsrmisglremkjûi ==0==2
¼Kûel hntnktmr ui kbmitmon (nelkjûi supnrgjkjmc) < =00
¼Kûel nvjtmr cls kbmitmons< =00
Cm klcnkkjûi hn kuplins =00
Cls prjikjpjls qun rjdni cm klcnkkjûi hn kuplins =0;
:. Cls enkmijsels hn emijpucmkjûi hn cls hneís? cls oundls =07
Nc trjíiducl hrmeítjkl =07
Kbmitmons y oundls, ui nonepcl =04
=. Mprnihnr m kbmitmonmr =02
0. Grmkmsl hnc kbmitmon =02
;. Niknihnrsn y kme`jmr hn rlc =02
8. Pnstm`cnkjejnitl hnc kbmitmon =0:
>. @ningjkjl indmtjvl =0:
Cms trns kmtndlråms hn oundl =;6
Cls trns drmhls hn oundl =;6
Xrmismkkjlins y oundls =;6
Mcduils oundls bm`jtumcns =;>
Vmtm hn pmcl =;>
Cm nsknim (cm pncnm) =;>
«¡Zm tn tnidl, kmpuccl!± =;7
«Hmen uim pmtmhm± =;7
«[lcl qujnrl myuhmr± =;7
«Ejrm cl qun en bms bnkbl bmknr± =;7
Cls hngnktls =;4
«Vncnmls± =;4
Nc hnsdrmkjmhl (pnrhûimen) =;4
Nc jiÿtjc (tn pnrhlil) =;2
Oundls, kbmitmons y kuplins =;2
 =6. Nc mrduenitl l pcmi hn vjhm =8=
Lrjdni hnc mrduenitl =8=

=4>

Nc elhncl hnc mrduenitl l pcmi hn vjhm =80

Cls emihmtls =8;
Cms prnskrjpkjlins (l klitrmûrhnins) =8;
Cls prldrmems =88
Cms hnkjsjlins =88
Mrduenitl y klitrmmrduenitl =88
Hjgn
Hjgnrn
rnit
itns
ns kcms
kcmsjg
jgjk
jkmk
mkjl
jlin
inss hn
hn pcm
pcmin
inss hn
hn vjh
vjhmm pnr
pnrsl
slim
imcn
cnss y pr
prlg
lgns
nsjl
jlim
imcn
cnss =8>
=8>
Nonepcl hn pcmi hn vjhm pnrslimc =84
Nonepcl hn pcmi hn vjhm prlgnsjlimc =8:
Dujûi y trmisglremkjûi =>=
Nonepcl hn rnplsjkjlimejnitl vjtmc =>0
Nonepcl hn rnplsjkjlimejnitl hn vmclrns =>;
Nonepcl hn rnplsjkjlimejnitl hn vmclrns ni uim uijûi =>;
==. Cms mktjtuhns qun ils nikjnrrmi? cls ejijmrduenitls =>8
Hnskrjpkjûi hn ejijmrduenitls =>>
«[ly pnrgnktl± =>>
«Klepcíknen± =>>
«Bmrê ui nsgunrzl± =>7
«Hmtn prjsm± =>7
«[ly gunrtn± =>4
Nc kjkcl hnc ejijmrduenitl =>2
Eminrms hn nskmpmr hnc ejijmrduenitl =>:
=0. Bmknr nc miícjsjs trmismkkjlimc? nc klitrmtl =7=

@j@`jc`jcljlddrrmmggååmm sncnktm ni nspmýlc ==7788

@j`cjldrmgåm ni grmikês =78