CHAPTER 2

SOIL FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT

Soil formation reveals the story of how rocks and dust become the ecstatic skin of
the earth. Minerals and rocks are the essential building materials of the earth. These are
weathered which have disintegrated through times by interrelated forces of climate,
topography/relief, time, and organisms to form soils. The decomposition products
precipitated and crystallized to form clay fractions, an active soil separate where most of
the nutrients are stored. Minerals are naturally occurring substance with definite chemical
composition and specific physical properties while rock is an aggregate of one or more
minerals. Soils that form from the same climate, organisms, topography/relief, and time
but differ in parent materials may differ in nutrients, in depth, in amount of clay and in
color.

This chapter is a humble attempt to describe how soil becomes an intricate body
system that greatly affects the growth and development of plants. It tries to explain the
following questions: where does soil come from? How does it develop? What causes a
soil to be productive and other to be poor? What are rocks doing in the soil? Furthermore,
it explains at par, that the key to the present is the past.

Soil Forming Rocks and Minerals

Minerals- inorganic (nonliving) substance that is homogenous. It has definite

characteristics on physical properties such as shape, color, melting, temperature, and
hardness. It is naturally occurring chemical element or compound resulted as a product of
inorganic processes.

Identification of Minerals:

1. Petrographic Analysis- small piece of the substance to be identified is ground with

abrasives on revolving plates until it is 0.03 mm thick which is then mounted between
the glass slides and examined under petrographic microscope.

2. Chemical analysis- Carbonates will react to HCl to form bubbles.

3. X-ray Diffractometer

4. Physical Analysis

 Hardness- resistance to scratching (Mohs scale)

Hardness Mineral Chemical

Composition
1 Talc H2Mg3Si4O12 very soft, easily scratched
by fingernail

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 2 Gypsum CaSO4H2O soft, just barely scratched
by the fingernail
3 Calcite CaCO3 can be scratched by
copper coin but not with
fingernail
4 Flourite CaF2 hard, not scratch by
copper coin but scratched
easily by pen knife, soft
iron scratches it
5 Apatite Ca3(PO4)3.F hard, barely scratches
glass, can be scratched by
a steel knife blade
6 Orthoclase KAlSiO3O8 very hard, scratches glass
and steel easily
7 Quartz SiO4 very hard, no common
8 Topaz AlSiO.F2 tool for measurement
9 Corundum Al2O3
10 Diamond C

 Cleavage- smooth surface of breakage

 Fracture- rough surface of breakage

 Specific gravity- ratio of the density of mineral to the density of water.

i.e gypsum- 2.2 g/cm3
quartz- 2.65 g/cm3
olivine- 3.3 g/cm3

 Color- wavelength of light absorbed by the minerals

 Streak- color of powdered minerals

 Luster- reflection of ordinary light

 Tenacity- resistance to breaking or bending

Primary and Secondary minerals and examples of each class

Minerals may be either primary (formed from cooling of molten rocks) or

secondary (precipitated and crystallized from primary minerals).

Primary minerals

 Formed at temperature and/or pressure higher than that normally

encountered at the earth’s surface.
 Components of igneous and metamorphic rocks.
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There are 6 groups of primary minerals.

1. Quartz (SiO2)- colorless when pure; hardness of 7.0 (Moh’s scale); very
resistant to chemical weathering- 2nd most abundant mineral on
earths crust; density of 2.65 g/cm3

Figure 1. Example of Quartz

2. Feldspar- aluminosilicates- most abundant minerals; hardness of 6.0 (Moh’s

scale); density of 2.63 g/cm3
 Orthoclase or potash feldspars (KAlSi3O8)
 Plagioclase feldspars
Albite (NaAlSi3O8)
Anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8)

Fig 2. Examples of feldspar

3. Micas- complex K aluminosilicates; very soft minerals (hardness of 2.0 to 2.5)

2 common functions of feldspars and micas

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1. Source of nutrients
2. Source of silicate clays

Examples:
 Muscovite (white mica) - H2KAl3(SiO4)3

 Biotite (black mica) - K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH,F)2

4. Amphibole-pyroxene group- silicates of iron, calcium and magnesium;

with hardness of 5.0 to 6.0; with distinct cleavage

Examples:

 Hornblende (black colored amphibole) -Ca2Al2Mg2Fe3Si6O22(OH)2

 Augite (dull green pyroxene) - Ca2(Al,Fe)4(Mg,Fe)4Si6O24

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5. Apatite- calcium phosphate minerals; primary mineral-carrier of P; with
hardness of 5.0

Example: Ca10CO3(PO4)6- Carbonatoapatite

Ca10SO4(PO4)6- Sulfatoapatite
Ca10(OH)2(PO4)6-hydroxyapatite
Ca10(Cl)2(PO4)6- Chloroapatite
Ca10(F)2(PO4)6- Flouroapatite

6. Carbonate group - carbonates of Ca & Mg; source of Ca, Mg; source of lime;
with hardness of 3.0 – 4.0; density of 2.72 – 2.85 g/cm3

Example: Calcite (CaCO3 ); Dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2)

Secondary minerals

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  Precipitated and crystallized under conditions of temperature and
pressure found at the earth’s surface by the weathering of
preexisting minerals. Primary minerals are either altered/broken
down.

ie. Clay minerals, limonite, gibbsite, calcite, dolomite, gypsum,

and rock phosphate.

1. Iron Group- oxides of Fe in several states of hydration; imparts red color to soils;
largely found in highly weathered soils; in old/infertile soils; in acidic soils
Example: Hematite - Fe2O3
Limonite - 2Fe2O3.3H2O

2. Aluminum group -oxides of Al in several states of hydration; Hardness of 9.0; also

largely found in highly weathered soils; in old/infertile soils; in acidic soils

Example: Corundum (Al2O3)

Boehmite - AlOOH
Gibbsite - Al(OH)3

3. Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)- Hardness of 2.0; source of Ca and S; can be used as soil

ameliorant; used as retarder in cement

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4. Clay group- come from micas and feldspars; Colloidal in nature

Example: Kaolinite (Al4Si4O10(OH)8)

Montmorillionite group (Al4Si8O20(OH)4)
Hydrous mica group (illite)

Rocks- aggregates of one or more minerals, usually two or more minerals.

Classes of Rocks
1. Igneous rocks- cooled molten rocks originate from magma, a hot fluid mass.

2. Sedimentary rocks- sediments deposited in water. It is a consolidated

fragment of igneous and/or metamorphic rocks.

3. Metamorphic rocks- igneous and/or sedimentary rocks exposed to extreme

heat and pressure that alter its chemical and physical properties.

Mode of formation of igneous rocks: intrusive and extrusive

a) Volcanic or extrusive rocks- igneous rocks that reached the earth’s surface in molten
or partly molten state. Lava flows from the vent and tends to cool rapidly resulting in
finer grain. The resulting rock is glass-like in appearance. The fastest-cooled, expelled
igneous rocks have glassy amorphous texture while those cooled rapidly have small
crystal in rock mass.

b) Plutonic or intrusive rocks- result from crystallization of magma that did not reach
the earth’s surface. Changes in cooling rates result to the formation of porphyrys, igneous
rocks having mixed large crystal particles.

Other points of differences of igneous rocks

1) Based on grain size

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 a) Coarse-grained (phanetic)- results in slow cooling of magma at great depths.
ie. Granite, Diorite, Gabbro

b) Fine-grained (aphanetic)- results in rapid cooling of molten materials.

ie. Rhyolite, Andesite, Basalt

2) Based on mineral composition-

a) Silicic/felsic- high silica content (75% SiO2); light colored

ie. Granite and Rhyolite
b) Intermediate- silica content is 50-65%
ie. Diorite and Andesite
c) Mafic (basic)- low silica content usually 45% SiO2
ie. Gabbro and Basalt

Texture and nutrient supplying capacity of the soil could be accounted to which
rock it is developed. Example, the soil developed from igneous acid rock is sandy in
texture due to high silica content and low in nutrient supplying capacity than soils
developed from igneous basic rocks.

3) Color of the rock

a) Light- high in quartz

ie. Granite and Rhyolite

b) medium gray to green- intermediate silica content

ie. Diorite and Andesite

c) Dark green to black- high in CaO, MgO and FeO.

Ie. Gabbro and Basalt
Classification of igneous rocks

Felsic (light color) Intermediate Mafic (dark color) Ultramafic

Coarse Granite Diorite Gabbro Peridotite
Fine Rhyolite Andesite Basalt
Vesicular Pumice Scoria
Glassy Obsidian
Mineral Present
Quartz, K-feldspar, Na-Plagioclase, Ca-Plagioclase, Pyroxene,
Na-Plagioclase Amphibole Pyroxene Olivine

Example of Igneous Rocks

1. Granite (Intrusive)
Granite is composed of quartz, potash feldspar with small amounts of
ferromagnesian minerals. It is acidic in chemical composition and intrusive formation is

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solidification inside the earth’s crust, slow cooling of crystals. Granite is coarse-grained
and light colored.

2. Rhyolite (Extrusive)
Rhyolite has same composition as granite, but with fine-granite texture. It is
acidic and extrusive. Most rhyolites show streaky irregular layers. The color varies
widely but generally is white or light yellow, brown or red. Extrusive is solidification
outside the earth’s crust, quick cooling reveals fine crystals.

3. Syenite (Intrusive)
Syenite is similar to granite except that it has less than 5% quartz. The chemical
composition changes to give more feldspars and the mineral called feldspathoidal
(nepheline). In effect, it is low in silicate feldspars. It classified as neutral and intrusive.

4. Diorites (Intrusive)
Diorite consists essentially of plagioclase feldspar and the ferromagnesian
minerals. These are hornblende, biotite and pyroxene.

5. Trchyte (Intrusive)
Trchyte has same composition as syenite.

6. Andesite (Intrusive)
Andesite has same composition as diorite. Andesites range from white to black,
but most are dark gray or greenish gray.

7. Gabbro (Intrusive)
Gabbro is made of plagioclase feldspar and ferromagnesian minerals with larger
proportion of accessory minerals. It is basic and intrusive. Gabbro are dark colored and
has coarse grains.

8. Basalt (Extrusive)
Basalt has the same chemical composition (basic) as that of gabbro. It is
extrusive. Basalt is the world’s most’ abundant lava and is very widespread. It is a chief
constituent of oceanic islands.

9. Obsidian (Extrusive)
Obsidian rock is a natural (volcanic) glass formed from magma of rhyolite, or
andesitic in composition. All volcanic rocks are extrusive. Most obsidian is black because
of sparely disseminated grains of magnetite and ferromagnesian minerals, but they may
be red or brown, from the oxidation of iron by hot magnetic gases.

10. Porphyry (Intrusive)

Porphyry term is commonly applied to fine grained intrusive igneous rocks in
which the large crystal constitute more the volume. The large crystal is called the
phenocrystal and the fine-grained materials the groundmass. The phenocrysts are usually
enclosed in the groundmass.

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Sedimentary Rocks

Rocks at one time are igneous or metamorphic rocks but because they were
consolidated or cemented into hard masses and laid down in water become sedimentary
rock. Lithification is the compaction or cementation of loose material by the cementing
agents namely:

1. Carbonates (lime)
2. Ferruginous- FeO2
3. Siliceous- silica (SiO2)

Process of Sedimentation:

1. Fractionation
2. Transportation
3. Deposition
4. Lithification

Classification of Sedimentary Rocks

a) Clastic/fragmental- product of accumulation of individual grains through

physical and chemical means.

b) Precipitates- when two or more solutions combined, it will form precipitates.

Chemical precipitates are formed from the combination of two or more solutions.

Example of clastic sedimentary rocks:

a) Conglomerate (round) and Breccia (flat) - made up of various sized

fragments cemented together (>2mm)

b) Sandstones- cemented sands (1/6 to 2mm)

c) Shales- consolidated clays and silt (claystone) (<1/256mm)

d) Siltstone (1/256mm to 1/6 mm)

Example of Chemical Precipitates

a) Limestone- calcium carbonate or mixtures of calcium and magnesium

carbonates, clays, silts, and sands with more than 50% of the mass of carbonates.

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 b) Dolomites (dolostone)- similar to limestone but more magnesium carbonate as
part of the carbonate mixtures

c) Chert (SiO2-quartz)

Metamorphic Rocks

Undergone some degree of changes depending upon the temperature and pressure
where they are subjected. It has undergone mineralogical, textural, and structural
changes. The rocks are harder than the igneous and sedimentary rocks but when they
weathered produced the same soil.

Two groups of metamorphic rocks

a) contact metamorphism- developed around hot igneous intrusive bodies.

b) regional metamorphism- results from the increase in temperature and

pressure, or both in a regional scale in response to burial rocks.

Example of metamorphic rocks

 Gneiss- from light colored igneous rocks to form light and dark colored bands
due to mineral segregation and orientation. These are formed mostly from granite,
rhyolites, andesites, and other similar minerals.

 Schists- fissile or foliated (appears flaky or layered) comprised of many rocks or

minerals especially micas.

 Slate- hardened shale or siltstone

 Quartzite- quartzitic sandstone that is recrystallized by heat and pressure. This

rock is very slow to weather.

 Marble- hardened limestone or dolomite. It is easy to decompose.

Pre-existing Rocks Metamorphic Rock Equivalent

1. Granite (igneous rock) Gneiss
2. Basalt (igneous rock) Schists
3. Sandstone (sedimentary rock) Quartzite
4. Limestone (sedimentary rock) Marble
5. Shale (sedimentary rock) Slate
6. Conglomerate (sedimentary rock) Meta-conglomerate

IGNEOUS ROCKS

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Andesite Basalt Diorite Gabbro

Granite Obsidian Pegmatite Peridotite

Pumice Rhyolite Scoria Tuff

METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Amphibolite Gneiss Hornfels Marble

Novaculite Phyllite Quartzite Schist

Slate Soapstone

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Breccia Chert Coal Conglomerate

Dolomite Flint Iron Ore Limestone

Oil Sand Oil Shale Rock Salt Sandstone

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 Shale Siltstone

Figure 1. Example of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.

The rock cycle. The rock cycle is an illustration used to explain how the three rock types
are related to each other and how the Earth processes change a rock from one type to
another through geologic time. Plate tectonic movement is responsible for the recycling
of rock materials and is the driving force of the rock cycle
(http://www.mireralogy4kids.org/rock-cycle)

Weathering

It is process by which rocks are turned into soil by means of physical and
chemical changes near the earth’s surface by atmospheric agents. Moreover, it is also a
process by which primary minerals disintegrates to form secondary minerals.

By looking at the sand grain, we can determine the kind of rocks that physically
weathered to form the sands

 Silt grains- intermediate size soil particle

 Clay particles- the smallest soil particles

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2 types of weathering

a) Physical
b) Chemical

Physical weathering

 Alteration/changes of the physical appearance of the rocks and minerals.

 Includes breaking or grinding particles to smaller sizes.
 Rocks get broken into pieces but its chemical composition remains unchanged.
 The only common rock-forming mineral that is not affected is quartz, which is a
chemically resistant mineral. This is why quartz and clay are the two of the most
common minerals in sedimentary rocks.

1. Exfoliation due to temperature variation- due to changes in

temperature during day and night, rocks break into smaller pieces because the
layer of the rocks expand and contract alternately.

2. Disintegration by water- splashing of water causes the rocks to reduce

its size.
3. Abrasion by wind
4. Crystal growth
5. Movement of earth’s crust
6. Wedge action by roots
7. Other processes and agents like organisms reduce parent material in
size through the action of plant roots or digging on the part of animals.

Chemical weathering

 Rocks broken down by chemical change- water always plays a part.

 Most active and effective weathering process.
 Involves the weathering of the primary minerals to form secondary minerals.

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 a) Hydrolysis- the breakdown of rock by acidic water to produce clay and soluble
salts. It is the replacement of the basic ions by the hydrogen with consequent collapse and
disintegration of the structure.

Example reactions:
KAlSi3O8 + H2O HAlSi3O8 + KOH
Orthoclase Alumino-silicic acid

The potassium is released may be adsorbed by the soil colloids, leached from the
soil solum, or absorbed by the plants. Alumino-silicic could still undergo reaction with
water.
2HAlSi3O8 + 8H2O Al2O3.3H2O + 6H2SiO3

b) Carbonation- carbon dioxide dissolves in rainwater to form a weak acid called

carbonic acid.
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 (Carbonic acid)

The source of CO2 is the decomposition of OM. Primarily, CO2 is found in the soil
air.
CaCO3 + H2CO3 Ca(HCO3)2
Calcite Carbonic acid Calcium bicarbonate

c) Oxidation-reduction- inclusion of oxygen in a mineral, causing it to increase

its oxidation number and swell due to the relatively large size of oxygen, leaving it
stressed and more easily attacked by water (hydrolysis) or carbonic acid (carbonation).

4FeO (s) + O2 + 2H2O 4FeO (OH) (s)

Ferrous Ferric

The increase in valency causes the mineral to be unstable. It would initiate

disintegration of the minerals.

d) Hydration- it is the association of water molecules or hydroxyl group with

minerals.
-the water molecules will chemically combine with minerals.
- the inclusion of water in a mineral structure, causing it to swell and
leaving it more stressed and easily decomposed.

2FeOO2 + 3H2O 2FeOO2.3H2O

Hematite Limonite

CaSO4 + 2H2O CaSO4.2H2O

Anhydrite Gypsum

f) Other acidic processes- the decomposition of OM in the soil also yields

organic acids that contribute to the H+ ions in the solution.

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 KAlSi3O8 + H+ HAlSi3O8 + K+
CaCO3 + 2 H+ Ca+2 + CO2 + H2O

The replacement of K+ with H+ initiates the decomposition process.

Of the above processes, hydrolysis and carbonation are the most effective.

Weathering Sequence

Primary minerals weather at varying rates. Some minerals are resistant to

weathering while the others are easy to decompose.

The mineralogical and chemical composition of the primary minerals together

with the other factors which include grain size and degree of consolidation, and the rate
and type of weathering helps transform primary mineral to another mineral.

Young soils do not have well-developed horizon due to not much transfer of
constituent or removal of constituents to the deeper layer.

Usually minerals that easy to weather belong to silt and sand fractions while those
which are hard to weather associated with clay fractions. Intensely weathered soils are
generally infertile because of the loss of soil constituents especially bases like Ca, Mg, K,
and others.

Determinants of the Susceptibility of Rocks and Minerals to Weathering

1. particle size- finer particles are more susceptible than larger grains. Finer
grains have larger surface which makes it more susceptible to chemical attack.
2. hardness- minerals that cemented firmly or slowly are more resistant to
mechanical.
3. degree of cementation- porous rocks which resulted from rapid cooling such
as volcanic ash or coarse limestone are readily broken down into smaller particles due to
larger surface area.

Chemical Characteristics and structural Changes that Affects Weathering

1. chemical characteristics- minerals (such as gypsum) that are slightly soluble

in water are quickly removed when rain comes.

Dark colored primary minerals are more susceptible than light colored minerals.
Less tightness of the crystal packing helps accounts to susceptibility of minerals like in
case of ferromagnesian minerals due to the presence of ferrous iron.

2. crystalline structure- tightly packed ions in the crystal units weather faster.
The rate of weathering was as follow:

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Quartz (most resistant) > muscovite and potassium feldspar > Sodium and calcium
feldspar > biotite, hornblende, augite > olivine > dolomite > calcite > gypsum

This order will be changed depending on the climate. For example, quartz will
weather faster than muscovite and potassium feldspar if it is found in the desert where
temperature variation is severe provided that muscovite and K-feldspar is in tropical
countries and these two will occur at the same time.

Soil Formation

V.V. Dukochaev. Noted similar profile layering in soils hundreds of kilometers apart,
provided that the climate and vegetation were similar at the two locations.

Hans Jenny determined five major environmental factors that control the formation of
soils. In 1941, he published the now classical state factor model of soil formation:
Si = f (cl,o,r,p,t)
1. cl: climate (primarily precipitation and temperature)
2. o: organisms (biota, especially native vegetation, microbes, soil animals, and
increasingly, human beings)
3. r: relief or topography (slope, aspect, and landscape position)
4. p: parent materials (geological or organic precursors to the soil)
5. t: time (the period of time since the parent materials began to undergo soil
formation)

Parent Material- the organic precursor of the soil. It is an organic and inorganic
materials where the soils come from.

The parent materials are classified into two, based on where they originated:

a) residual/residuum- refers to igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.

b) transported- loose materials that have been deposited by wind, water, or ice.

Parent Material-Transported

Agents Deposited in or by Name of Deposit

Stream Alluvium
Water Lake Lacustrine
Ocean Marine
Ice Till, Moraine
Ice Melt water Alluvium
Lacustrine
Loess (silt)
Wind Wind Dune (sand)
Volcanic ash
Gravity Gravity Colluvium

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 - - Cumulose (OM)

Rock, whether its origin is igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic, is the source of

all soil mineral materials and the origin of all plant nutrients with the exceptions of
nitrogen, hydrogen and carbon. The rate of decomposition affects greatly the texture of
the soil. Easily weathered parent materials constitute to silty and sandy texture while hard
to weather materials will result to clayey in texture.

Organic materials

Organic; Wood fragments; Logs and stumps; Sedimentary peat; Moss peat; Herbaceous
peat; Woody peat

Coprogenic materials- is one of the materials that occur in old lake bed sediments
below organic soils

Diatmaceous earths- made from the fossilized remains of tiny, aquatic organisms called
diatoms.

Marl- carbonate rich mud or mudstone

Floodplains. The land bordering a stream, built up of sediments from overflow of the
stream and subject to inundation when the stream is at flood stage. Sometimes called
bottomland.

Delta. An alluvial deposit formed where a stream or river drops its sediment load upon
entering a quieter body of water.

Alluvial Fan. Fan-shaped alluvium deposited at the mouth of a canyon or ravine where
debris-laden waters fan out, slow down, and deposit their burden.

Loess. The windblown materials composed primarily of silt with some very fine sand and
coarse clay.

Dune sand. Medium and fine sand grains and pile them into hills of sand.

Aerosolic dust remains suspended in air for thousands of kilometers before being
deposited, usually with rainfall.

Volcanic Ash. During volcanic eruptions, cinders fall in the immediate vicinity of the
volcano, whereas fine, often glassy, ash particles may blanket extensive areas downwind.

Topography- is characterized by the inclination (slope), elevation, and orientation of the

terrain. It determines the rate of precipitation or runoff and rate of formation or erosion of
the surface soil profile. It is also known as the relief.

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 (1) Summit and (2) Shoulder- develop horizon the fastest

(3) Backslope- slower development of soils because:

a) rainfall will run faster this in this position
b) more erosion
c) less leaching

(4) Footslope- slow down soil development due to burying of sediments.

Intermediate topography affords the best conditions for the formation of an

agriculturally productive soil.

Interaction with Vegetation. Topography often interacts with vegetation to influence

soil formation. In grassland–forest transition zones, trees are commonly confined to
depressions where soil is generally wetter than in upland positions.

Slope Aspect. Topography affects the absorbance of solar energy in a given landscape. In
the northern hemisphere, south-facing slopes are more perpendicular to the sun’s rays and
are generally warmer and thereby commonly lower in moisture than their north-facing

26
counterparts. Consequently, soils on the south slopes tend to be lower in organic matter
and are not so deeply weathered.

Salt Buildup. In arid and semiarid regions, topography influences the buildup of soluble
salts. Dissolved salts from surrounding upland soils move on the surface and through the
underground water table to the lower-lying areas. There they rise to the soil surface as the
water evaporates, often accumulating to plant-toxic levels.

Parent Material Interactions. Topography can also interact with parent material. For
example, in areas of tilted beds of sedimentary rock, the ridges often consist of resistant
sandstone, whereas the valleys are underlaid by more weatherable limestone. In many
landscapes, topography reflects the distribution of residual, colluvial, and alluvial parent
materials, with residual materials on the upper slopes, colluvium covering the lower
slopes, and alluvium filling the valley bottom.

Climate

Two general components that affect the rate of weathering are effective
precipitation (means precipitation minus evapotranspiration) and temperature.

The greater the depth of water penetration, the greater is the depth of weathering.
Temperature and moisture both influence organic matter content of the soil since it
balances microbial decomposition and plant growth.
The direct influences of climate include:
a) A shallow accumulation of lime in low rainfall areas
b) Formation of acid soils in humid areas
c) Erosion of soils on steep hillsides
d) Deposition of eroded materials downstream
e) Very intense chemical weathering, leaching, and erosion in warm and humid
regions where soil does not freeze

Effective Precipitation. Water is an essential for all the major chemical weathering
reactions. Water must penetrate into the regolith. The greater the depth of water
penetration, the greater the depth of weathering soil and development. Surplus water
percolating through the soil profile transports soluble and suspended materials from the
upper to the lower layers. It may also carry away soluble materials in the drainage waters.
Thus, percolating water stimulates weathering reactions and helps differentiate soil
horizons. Likewise, a deficiency of water is a major factor in determining the
characteristics of soils of dry regions. Soluble salts are not leached from these soils, and
in some cases they build up to levels that curtail plant growth. Soil profiles in arid and
semiarid regions are also apt to accumulate carbonates and certain types of cracking
clays.

Temperature. For every 10°C rise in temperature, the rates of biochemical reactions
more than double. Temperature and moisture both influence the organic matter content of
soil through their effects on the balance between plant growth and microbial

27
decomposition. If warm temperatures and abundant water are present in the profile at the
same time, the processes of weathering, leaching, and plant growth will be maximized.
The very modest profile development characteristic of cold areas contrasts sharply with
the deeply weathered profiles of the humid tropics.

Organisms/Biota

Plants, animals, fungi, bacteria and humans affect soil formation. Both
macroorganisms such as mesofaunae and microorganisms mix soils to form burrows and
pores, allowing moisture and gases to move about. In the same way, plant roots open
channels in soils. It penetrates to the depth horizon and brings out nutrients up.

Some activities of the organisms:

a) Organic matter accumulation

b) Biochemical weathering
c) Profile mixing-bioturbation/pedoturbation
d) Nutrient cycling
e) Aggregate stability

Role of natural vegetation:

a) the kind of vegetation gives rise to soil bodies with varying soil characteristics.

b) cation cycling by trees- ie. Conifers allow more of the base forming cations to be loss
through leaching thus more acid soil is developed.

Organic matter accumulation, biochemical weathering, profile mixing, nutrient

cycling, and aggregate stability are all enhanced by the activities of organisms in the
soil. Vegetative cover reduces natural soil erosion rates, thereby slowing down the rate
of mineral surface soil removal. Organic acids produced from certain types of plant leaf
litter bring iron and aluminum into solution by complexation and accelerate the
downward movement of these metals and their accumulation in the B horizon.
Organic Matter Accumulation. The effect of vegetation on soil formation can be seen
by comparing properties of soils formed under grassland and forest vegetation near the
boundary between these two ecosystems. In the grassland, much of the organic matter
added to the soil is from the deep, fibrous, root systems. By contrast, tree leaves falling
on the forest floor are a principal source of soil organic matter in the forest. Another
difference is the frequent occurrence in grasslands of fires that destroy large amounts of
aboveground biomass and create bits of charcoal that accumulate in the soil. Also, the
extreme acidity under certain forests inhibits such soil organisms as earthworms that
otherwise would mix much of the surface litter into the mineral soil. As a result, the soils
under grasslands generally develop a thicker A horizon with a deeper distribution of
organic matter than in soils under nearby forests, which characteristically store most of
their organic matter in the forest floor (O horizons) and a thin A horizon. The microbial
community in a typical grassland soil is dominated by bacteria, while that of the forest

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soil is dominated by fungi. Differences in microbial action affect the aggregation of the
mineral particles into stable granules and the rate of nutrient cycling. The light-colored,
leached E horizon typically found under the O or A horizon of a forested soil results from
the action of organic acids generated mainly by fungi in the acidic forest litter. An E
horizon is generally not found in a grassland soil.
Cation Cycling by Trees. The ability of natural vegetation to accelerate the release of
nutrient elements from minerals by biogeochemical weathering, and to take up these
elements from the soil, strongly influences the characteristics of the soils that develop.
Invertebrate Animals. Earthworms, ants, and termites mix the soil as they burrow,
significantly affecting soil formation. Earthworms ingest soil particles and organic
residues, enhancing the availability of plant nutrients in the material that passes through
their bodies. They aerate and stir the soil and enhance soil aggregation. Ants and termites,
as they build mounds, also transport soil materials from one horizon to another. In
general, the mixing activities of animals, sometimes called pedoturbation, tend to undo
or counteract the tendency of other soil-forming processes to accentuate the differences
among soil horizons. Termites and ants may also retard soil profile development by
denuding large areas of soil around their nests, leading to increased loss of soil by
erosion. On the other hand, the burrows constructed by ants, termites, and earthworms
may significantly increase the amount of water that enters and moves through the soil,
thus stimulating biological productivity, weathering, and soil formation.
Time- refers to the time the soil developed. It is the interaction of all factors. It started in
times when soil development becomes stable. The age of soil is not considering in years
but how well-developed the horizon. 2.5cm (1 inch) thick fertile soils developed for
about 800 to 1000 years.

 Time zero- point in time by which all pedogenically catastrophic event is

completed.
 OM will accumulate to form a dark-colored A-horizon in a decade or two.
 Formation of B horizon would take centuries to develop.
 Accumulation of silicate clays becomes noticeable after thousands of years.
 Mature, highly weathered deep soils would take hundreds of thousands of years.

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 Figure 2. Soils showing different ages (http://www.swac.umn.edu/classes)

Catenas- all soils developed on the same other factors but only differ in relief or
topography

Chronosequence- sequence of related soils but only differs on time as soil forming
factors

Lithosequence- only differs as the result of parent material.

Climosequence- sequence of soils that results in the changes in climatic regimes
(temperature and precipitation)

Biosequence- differs primarily on the number of plants and soil organisms.

Soil development

Processes involved in horizon formation/differentiation

Processes that would bring about the 4 basic kinds of changes

1. additions or gains to the soil body

2. losses or removals from the soil body
3. transfer or translocation within the soil body
4. transformation within the soil body

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Common materials subject to the 4 mechanisms
1. organic matter 4. salts
2. Oxides of iron and aluminum 5. clays
3. water

GROUND SURFACE

Basic processes of soil formation is also called pedogenic processes. Subaqueous soils
develop in sediments under shallow water.
Transformations. Transformations occur when soil constituents are chemically or
physically modified or destroyed and others are synthesized from the precursor materials.
Many transformations involve weathering of primary minerals, disintegrating and altering
some to form various kinds of silicate clays. As other primary minerals decompose, the
decomposition products recombine in new minerals that include additional types of
silicate clays and hydrous oxides of iron and aluminum. Other important transformations
involve the decomposition of plant root and shoot litter to form soil organic matter. Still
other transformations change the size (e.g., physical weathering to smaller particles) or
arrangement (e.g., aggregation) of mineral particles.
Translocations. Translocations involve the movement of inorganic and organic materials
laterally within a horizon or vertically from one horizon up or down to another. Water,
either percolating down with gravity or rising up by capillary action, is the most common
translocation agent. The materials moved within the profile include dispersed fine clay
particles, dissolved salts, and dissolved organic substances. Translocations of materials
by soil organisms also have a major influence on soil genesis. Important examples
include incorporation of surface organic litter into the A and B horizons by certain
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earthworms, transport of B and C horizon material to the surface by mound-building
termites, and the widespread burrowing actions of rodents.
Additions. Inputs of materials to the developing soil profile from outside sources are
considered additions. A very common example is the input of organic matter from fallen
plant leaves and sloughed-off roots (the carbon having originated in the atmosphere).
Another ubiquitous addition is dust particles falling on the surface of the soil (wind may
have blown these particles from a source just a few meters away or across an ocean). Still
another example, common in arid regions, is the addition of salts or silica dissolved in the
groundwater and deposited near or at the soil surface when the rising water evaporates.
Animals and people can also contribute additions, such as manure and fertilizers
Losses. Materials are lost from the soil profile by leaching to groundwater, erosion of
surface materials, and volatilization of gases. Evaporation and plant use cause losses of
water. Leaching and drainage cause the loss of water, dissolved substances such as salts
or silica weathered from parent minerals, or organic acids produced by microorganisms
or plant roots. Fire and biochemical reactions cause the loss of carbon, nitrogen, and
sulfur as gases. Erosion, a major loss agent, often removes the finer particles (humus,
clay, and silt), leaving the surface horizon relatively sandier and less rich in organic
matter than before. Grazing by animals or harvest by people can remove large amounts of
both organic matter and nutrient elements. These processes of soil genesis, operating
under the influence of the environmental factors discussed previously, give us a logical
framework for understanding the relationships between particular soils and the
landscapes and ecosystems in which they function. In analyzing these relationships for a
given site, ask yourself: What are the materials being added to this soil? What
transformations and translocations are taking place in this profile? What materials are
being removed? And how has the climate, organisms, topography, and parent material at
this site affected these processes over time?

Terms and Definition in Soil:

 Soil Profile- the cross/vertical section of the soils from surface to bedrock
showing the different soil horizon.
 Soil Horizon- layer of soil that are almost parallel to the surface with distinct
range of properties which different from the other layer.
 Three pedogenic horizons are:

A-horizon
 Zone of major biological activity
 Zone of organic matter accumulation
 Dark in color due the humus
 Zone of leaching (eluviation) (E horizon)

B-horizon
 Zone of accumulation (illuviation) of clay and carbonates
 Lighter in color
 Fine in texture than A-horizon

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 C-horizon
 Weathered parent material

 Soil pit- a 1mx1mx1m volume of soil excavated to show soil profile

 Pedon- “soil”
- smallest unit of studying soil individual
- mature soil- have well-developed A, B, and C horizons
- Young soils- have A and C horizon
- Old Soil/ Senile soil- have A, B, and C horizon, only that B and C
horizon are very deep

 Regolith- refers to the A, B, and C horizon.

 Solum- true soils or the A and B horizon
 Parent material- the C horizon, the partially weathered parent material.

Table 1. Suffixes notation and meaning.

Suffixes Distinction
A sapric or totally decomposed
b buried soil
c accumulation of concretory form
e hemic or ½ decomposed
g mottling
h accumulation of OM
i fibric or less 1/3 decomposed
j Jarosite
k accumulation of calcium carbonate
m strongly cemented, consolidated, indurated
n accumulation of sodium
p disturb by plowing
q accumulation of silica
r strong reduction as a result of groundwater influence
s accumulation of sesquioxide (oxide containing a ratio of three atoms
oxygen and two atoms of another element)
t illuvial accumulation of clay
u unspecified
w in situ alteration as evidence by clay, color, etc
x occurrence of fragipan
y accumulation of gypsum
z accumulation of salts more soluble than gypsum

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Study Guide:

1. Imagine a soil pit dug in a vacant brown field in an old city industrial area. The
horizons you observe include, from the soil surface down: (1) 19 cm of dark-
colored organic enriched loamy material with nails and broken glass embedded in
it; (2) 32 cm of sandy loam with bits of red brick, some broken glass, some
rusting metal pieces, and rusty red and yellow stains on most of the sand grain
surfaces giving the layer a yellow-red color; (3) 15cm of dark brown silt loam
material rich in organic matter with an abrupt boundary to; (4) 50 cm of light
brown silty clay loam material with clay coatings in the cracks between blocky
chunks of soil material. Draw this profile in a simple diagram and label the four
layers with master horizon and subhorizon letters and other appro priate symbols
to indicate your best interpretation of soil formation at this site.

2. Assuming a level area of granite rock was the parent material in both cases,
describe in general terms how you would expect two soil profiles to differ, one in
a warm, semiarid grassland and the other in a cool, humid pine forest.

3. Give an example of how parent material may vary across large geographic regions
on one hand but may also vary within a small parcel of land on the other.

4. List some rocks and minerals with their classification.

Example

Name of Rocks/Mineral Classification

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Basalt Igneous extrusive

5. What does this soil mean?

a) b)

c) d)

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 Compiled by:

Edgel O. Escomen
Instructor III, Mindanao State University Main Campus
Marawi City, Lanao del Sur
2018

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