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Solar energy—A look into power generation, challenges, and a solar‐powered

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DOI: 10.1002/er.4252
REVIEW PAPER
Solar energy—A look into power generation, challenges,
and a solar‐powered future
Muhammad Badar Hayat1,3 | Danish Ali1 | Keitumetse Cathrine Monyake1 | Lana Alagha1
2
Niaz Ahmed
1
Department of Mining and Nuclear
Engineering, Missouri University of
Science and Technology, Rolla, MO 65409,
USA
2
Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering, Missouri University of
Science and Technology, Rolla, MO 65409,
USA
3
Mining Engineering Department,
University of Engineering and
Technology, Lahore, Pakistan
Correspondence
Lana Alagha, Associate Professor,
Missouri University of Science and
Technology, 288 McNutt Hall, 1400 North
Bishop, Rolla, MO 65409, USA.
Email: alaghal@mst.edu
Int J Energy Res. 2018;1–19.
Accepted: 14 September 2018
|
Summary
Sun is an inexhaustible source of energy capable of fulfilling all the energy
needs of humankind. The energy from the sun can be converted into electricity
or used directly. Electricity can be generated from solar energy either directly
using photovoltaic (PV) cells or indirectly using concentrated solar power
(CSP) technology. Progress has been made to raise the efficiency of the PV
solar cells that can now reach up to approximately 34.1% in multi‐junction
PV cells. Electricity generation from concentrated solar technologies has a
promising future as well, especially the CSP, because of its high capacity, effi-
ciency, and energy storage capability. Solar energy also has direct application
in agriculture primarily for water treatment and irrigation. Solar energy is
being used to power the vehicles and for domestic purposes such as space
heating and cooking. The most exciting possibility for solar energy is satellite
power station that will be transmitting electrical energy from the solar panels
in space to Earth via microwave beams. Solar energy has a bright future
because of the technological advancement in this field and its environment‐
friendly nature. The biggest challenge however facing the solar energy future
is its unavailability all‐round the year, coupled with its high capital cost and
scarcity of the materials for PV cells. These challenges can be met by develop-
ing an efficient energy storage system and developing cheap, efficient, and
abundant PV solar cells.
This article discusses the solar energy system as a whole and provides a com-
prehensive review on the direct and the indirect ways to produce electricity
from solar energy and the direct uses of solar energy. The state‐of‐the‐art pro-
cedures being employed for PV characterization and performance rating have
been summarized. Moreover, the technical, economic, environmental, and
storage‐related challenges are discussed with possible solutions. Furthermore,
a comprehensive list of future potential research directions in the field of direct
and indirect electricity generation from solar energy is proposed.
KEYWORDS
characterization, concentrating solar power, efficient energy storage system, energy crisis,
photovoltaic cells, power tower, solar energy, solar power technologies, Stirling dish system
wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/er © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 1
2 HAYAT
1 | INTRODUCTION
The sun provides 1.7 x 1022 J of energy in 1.5 days.1 This
energy is equal to all the energy that can be supplied by 3
trillion barrels of total oil resources found on Earth. The
total annual energy used by the humans in 1 year is
4.6 x 1020 J. This energy is supplied by the sun in 1 hour.
The energy from the sun is, therefore, quite capable of
fulfilling all the needs of humanity single handedly. This
impressive amount of energy from the sun is coupled
with its versatility. The energy from the sun can be uti-
lized mainly through three ways as depicted in Figure 1.
Solar energy can be converted into heat, electricity, or
solar fuels. For example, solar energy can naturally be
converted into solar fuel through the process of photosyn-
thesis. Photosynthesis is a chemical process by which
plants store energy from the sun in the form of carbohy-
drates that are a form of fuel. Moreover, the protons
and electrons produced during the photosynthesis process
can further metabolize to produce H2 and CH4. Approxi-
mately 11% of solar energy is utilized in natural photo-
synthesis of biomass that is the largest use of solar
energy. However, only 100TW of this energy is converted
into photosynthesis that is too low for human energy con-
sumption.1 Although the energy efficiency is too low,
there are known ways of improving solar fuel production
efficiency. These include the following: manipulating
faster plant growth by genetic engineering to facilitate
biomass production, producing fuel from water and car-
bon dioxide through artificial bio‐inspired nanoscale
assemblies, and connecting natural photosynthetic path-
ways in novel configurations.1 Solar conversion efficiency
of the photosynthesis process is measured in terms of
quantum efficiency that is defined by the percentage of
the absorbed photons that give rise to stable photoprod-
ucts; whereas in the commercial solar photovoltaic (PV)
cells, for example, the solar device efficiency is measured
directly in terms of power.2 However, in both PV cells
and the photosynthesis process, the energy is stored in
chemical bonds and obey the laws of thermodynamics
that not all the energy in each absorbed photon can be
captured for productive use. In natural photosynthesis,
photons are absorbed by chlorophyll, and heat is released
ET AL.
to the lower absorption band that is similar for PV cells
where any energy more than the band gap is released as
heat. Most plants utilize only 0.5% to 1% of the solar light
in the photosynthesis process while algae and
cyanobacteria are can potentially utilize up to 5% to
10%. The PV cells, on the other hand, have much higher
conversion efficiencies (~22.5%).2
Overall, the current use of solar energy is very mini-
mal as 0.015% is used for producing electricity, 0.3% for
heating, and 11% of solar energy is utilized in natural
photosynthesis of biomass as mentioned earlier. On the
other hand, approximately 80% to 85% of the global
energy needs are fulfilled using fossil fuels. The problem
with fossil fuels is that their reserves are exhaustible
and environment unfriendly because of the CO2 emis-
sion. For example, for every ton of coal burned, one ton
of carbon dioxide is released into the air. This release of
carbon dioxide is highly toxic for the environment and
is the major reason for global warming, greenhouse
effect, climate change, and ozone layer depletion.3
It is, therefore, necessary for humankind to find alter-
native energy sources for clean and sustainable future. In
this regard, solar energy offers the best solution among
all the alternative renewable energy sources because of
its huge magnitude, wide‐spread availability, versatility,
and its environmentally friendly nature.1,4 As mentioned
earlier, solar energy can be used to produce both heat
and electricity; thus, it has a tremendous potential to be
used in different industry sectors. The heat produced from
solar thermal sources is being used for space heating,
chemical processing, food processing, and textile industry.
The electricity produced by solar energy is being used in
telecommunication, transportation, water heating, water
treatment, agriculture, and the construction industry.5
A large number of review articles have discussed the
potential of solar energy as a major alternative to the con-
ventional energy sources. Perez‐Mora et al summarized
the literature available on solar district heating along with
identifying the technical and economic issues in its wide-
spread application.6 Sarbu and Dorca provided an over-
view of the solar thermoelectric (TE) cooling systems in
terms of its available performance indicators, recent
advances in its development, and its advantages over the
FIGURE 1 Three ways of converting
solar energy into other forms of energy: (a)
producing chemical fuel via artificial
photosynthesis, (b) generating electricity
by exciting electrons in a solar cell, and (c)
concentrating sunlight to produce heat
[Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
HAYAT ET AL.
conventional cooling systems.7 Purohit, Singh, and
Mamodiya provided a brief general overview of the solar
energy system as a whole and discussed the steps required
to calculate the size of the solar system.8 Kapumpa and
Virdi provided an overview of the PV cells, factors affect-
ing their efficiency and methods that have already been
implemented to improve the efficiency.9 Gul, Kotak, and
Muneer summarized the PV materials, their efficiency,
and the leading countries in the PV installations along
with a brief cost analysis.10 Ameri, Khoram, Min, and
Brabec summarized the major recent developments taken
place in the organic ternary solar cell research based on
various types of sensitizers.11 Ahmad and Tiwari reviewed
all the available solar radiation models.12 Parida, Iniyan,
and Goic reviewed the PV technology by discussing the
different existing materials used for PV cells, its existing
performance indicators, and the applications of PV sys-
tems.13 Kerschaver and Beaucarne summarized the
modeling and manufacturing advancements of back‐con-
tact solar cells along with discussing its industrial imple-
mentation.14 The majority of the aforementioned review
articles has mainly focused on PV cells and their materials.
This review paper discusses the solar energy system as
a whole and provides a comprehensive review of all the
possible methods of electricity generation through solar
energy. The paper discuses all the technical, economic,
and environmental challenges associated with solar tech-
nology and the ways to overcome those challenges. Fur-
thermore, the current paper lists the future research
directions that are essential for the advancement of this
technology. In summary, the present review focuses on
the following:
• Direct and indirect ways to produce electricity from
solar energy.
• State‐of‐the‐art procedures being employed for PV
performance rating and characterization.
• Challenges offered by the existing solar technologies.
• Possible solutions and potential research opportunities.
2 | GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY
U S I N G S O L A R EN E R G Y
Electricity can be generated directly by solar energy
through PV cells or indirectly by concentrated solar
power (CSP) as discussed below.5
2.1 | Photovoltaic cells
A system generating an electric current through the PV
effect is called a PV cell. The PV effect can be defined
3
as the generation of electric voltage between two elec-
trodes attached to a solid or liquid system caused by shin-
ing a light on the system. Almost all PV cells have a PN
junction across which a photo voltage is applied.15
The economics and efficiency of a solar PV cell
depend upon its material. A lot of research has been done
in this area to find out the most efficient and cost‐effec-
tive material for PV cells. The requirements for ideal solar
cell material are as follows15,16:
• The material used for manufacturing the solar cells
should have a band gap between 1.1 and 1.7 eV.
• The material should have a direct band structure.
• The material should be readily available and nontoxic.
• The material should be suitable for large reproduction.
• The material should have good PV conversion
efficiency.
• The material should have a long‐term stability factor.
PV cells can be classified into three major genera-
tions: first‐generation, second‐generation, and third‐gen-
eration cells. The details are discussed below.
2.1.1 | First‐generation PV cells
The cells made up of crystalline silicon are called first‐
generation cells. These cells may be monocrystalline or
polycrystalline silicon with large grain sizes. They are
the most dominant type of PV cells in the market. The
monocrystalline silicon cells are made of silicon posi-
tive–negative (Si p–n) junctions and have been able to
achieve an efficiency of 25%. The polycrystalline cells
are manufactured by melting the silicon and solidifying
it to orient crystals in a fixed direction to produce
multicrystalline Si, which is then sliced into thin wafers.
The efficiency of the polycrystalline cells is approximately
20.4%. Although the efficiency of polycrystalline silicon
cells is slightly less than that of monocrystalline cells, this
lack of efficiency is compensated for by their lower pro-
duction costs and the reduced number of defects in the
crystal structure. Furthermore, because of the develop-
ment of ribbon silicon technology, it is envisioned that
the production cost of these first‐generation cells will
drop even further.1,17 Significant efforts have been dedi-
cated to improve the capability and the efficiency of the
first‐generation cells. Emitter wrap‐through (EWT) cells
have been proposed. These cells have laser‐drilled holes
on the front and the back surfaces of the cell to increase
the surface area in order to enhance the absorption of
the solar radiation. This improved cell design has
increased the efficiency of the cells and lowered the over-
all production cost.18
4 HAYAT
In general, first‐generation cells are more efficient at
lower temperatures and require less area for a given unit
power. However, the main disadvantage of these PV
cells is that their performance reduces at higher
temperature.
2.1.2 | Second‐generation PV cells
Thin‐film cells are considered as the second‐generation
PV cells. They have lower costs than the first‐generation
cells because they require less silicon material; however,
they have a smaller share of the market because of their
lower efficiency. There are different types of thin‐film
cells.16 Among these are the amorphous silicon (AS) solar
cells where cells are deposited on a substrate support after
the decomposition of silane gas in a plasma‐enhanced
chemical reactor. AS cells have the potential to be very
cost‐effective because of their low usage of material and
the possibility of their roll‐to‐roll production for modules.
The major drawback of these AS cells is their low effi-
ciency (10.1%) and their instability in terms of electrical
output with time. It has been noted that there efficiency
decreases about 20% if used for too long of a time.17,19
On the other hand, cadmium telluride (CdTe) solar cells
offer a better efficiency of approximately 17%. CdTe cells
can be manufactured by chemically depositing CdTe
through evaporation on a substrate. However, the unlim-
ited use of these cells is due to the fact that they contain
toxic materials and also due to the limited production of
tellurium.17,20
Copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) solar cells are
more efficient than AS and CdTe. CIGS cells are pro-
duced by the preparation of elements like Cu, In, Ga,
and Se. Efficiency of these cells is 20% at laboratory scale,
but commercial CIGS modules typically have efficiencies
between 12% and 14%. Toxicity and the scarcity of the ele-
ments used in these cells are a major challenge.17,20
2.1.3 | Third‐generation PV cells
Third‐generation PV cells are an improvement of the sec-
ond‐generation PV cells with an aim of achieving higher
efficiency and environmental friendliness. The main
attraction of these cells is their low cost. These cells are
aimed at reducing power costs to about 50% to 80% as
compared with the second‐generation cells.21 These
devices use the unique flexibility of quantum wells and
quantum dots nanostructures to optimize absorption, car-
rier generation, and separation. Quantum dots can be
mixed with solutions and be applied on the film using
spin technology.22 Organic solar (OS) cells and the dye
sensitized (DS) solar cells are the most important third‐
generation cells. In an OS cell, an organic light‐absorbing
ET AL.
layer is placed between two different electrodes. One of
the electrodes is transparent or semitransparent and
often made up of Indium tin oxide (ITO). The other elec-
trode is commonly made up of aluminum; however,
sometimes, other materials like magnesium and gold
are also used.23 The OS organic light absorbing layer con-
sists of a mixture of light‐sensitive conjugated polymers
(such as phthalocyanine) or small molecules and fuller-
ene‐like compounds to absorb light and set their electric-
ity‐generating events in motion.24-26 A typical OS cell
design is shown in Figure 2. The efficiency of the OS cells
is around 10%.
The DS cells have a reverse concept to light emitting
diodes (LEDs). In these cells, light is absorbed by a sensi-
tizer (ruthenium‐polypyridine dye), which is fixed to the
surface of a wide band semiconductor. At the interface,
charge separation is promoted through the injection of
photo‐induced electrons from the dye into the conduction
band of the solid (TiO2). Electrons are then diffuse in the
conduction band as a result of electron concentration gra-
dient to the charge collector or anode. These cells are
reported to have a solar‐to‐electric conversion efficiency
over 10%.27
2.1.4 | Comparison of efficiencies of dif-
ferent PV cells
The efficiencies of different terrestrial solar PV cells and
their submodules are summarized in Table 1.28
The efficiency chart for different solar cells by the US
Department of Energy (DOE)‐sponsored National Renew-
able Energy Laboratory (NREL) is shown in Figure 3.
The highest efficiency is noted for multi‐junction solar
cells that is 34.1%.28 This efficiency is comparable with
the fossil fuel power plants.29
FIGURE 2 A schematics showing the different components of a
typical organic solar cell, regenerated from Spanggaard and
Krebs23 [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
HAYAT ET AL. 5

TABLE 1 Confirmed terrestrial cell and submodule efficiencies measured under the global air mass 1.5 spectrum (1000 W/m2) at 25°C,
regenerated from Green, Emery, Hishikawa, Warta, and Dunlop28
Test Centree
Classificationa Effic.b (%) Areac (cm2) Voc (V) Jsc (mA/cm2) FFd (%) (and date) Description
Silicon
Si (crystalline) 25.0 ± 0.5 4.00 (da) 0.706 42.7f 82.8 Sandia (3/99)g UNSW PERL
Si (multicrystalline) 20.4 ± 0.5 1.002 (ap) 0.664 38.0 80.9 NREL (5/04)g FhG‐ISE
Si (thin‐film transfer) 19.1 ± 0.4 3.983 (ap) 0.650 37.8h 77.6 FhG‐ISE (2/11) ISFH (43‐μm thick)
Si (thin‐film submodule) 10.5 ± 0.3 94.0 (ap) 0.492i 29.7i 72.1 FhG‐ISE (8/07)g CSG solar (1–2 μm
on glass; 20 cells)
III‐V cells
GaAs (thin film) 28.3 ± 0.8 0.9944 (ap) 1.107 29.47j 86.7 NREL (8/11) Alta devices
g
GaAs (multicrystalline) 18.4 ± 0.5 4.011 (t) 0.994 23.2 79.7 NREL (11/95) RTI, Ge substrate
InP (crystalline) 22.1 ± 0.7 4.02 (t) 0.878 29.5 85.4 NREL (4/90)g Spire, epitaxial
Thin‐film chalcogenide
CIGS (cell) 19.6 ± 0.6k 0.996 (ap) 0.713 34.8l 79.2 NREL (4/09) NREL, CIGS on glass
i
CIGS (submodule) 17.4 ± 0.5 15.993 (da) 0.6815 33.84i 75.5 FhG‐ISE (10/11) Solibro, four serial cells
CdTe (cell) 16.7 ± 0.5k 1.032 (ap) 0.845 26.1 75.5 NREL (9/01)g NREL, mesa on glass
Amorphous/nanocrystalline
Si (amorphous) 10.1 ± 0.3m 1.036 (ap) 0.886 16.75f 67.0 NREL (7/09) Oerlikon solar lab,
Neuchatel
Si (nanocrystalline) 10.1 ± 0.2n 1.199 (ap) 0.539 24.4 76.6 JQA (12/97) Kaneka (2 μm on glass)
Photochemical
Dye sensitized 11.0 ± 0.3o 1.007 (da) 0.714 21.93h 70.3 AIST (9/11) Sharp
o i i, l
Dye sensitized (submodule) 9.9 ± 0.4 17.11 (ap) 0.719 19.4 71.4 AIST (8/10) Sony, eight parallel cells
Organic
Organic thin film 10.0 ± 0.3o 1.021 (ap) 0.899 16.75j 66.1 AIST (10/11) Mitsubishi chemical
Organic (submodule) 4.2 ± 0.2o 294.5 (da) 0.714 12.26j 47.7 AIST (9/11) Sumitomo chemical
(10 series cells)
Multi‐junction devices
GaInP/GaInAs/Ge 34.1 ± 1.2 30.17 (t) 2.691 14.7j 86.0 FhG‐ISE (9/09) AZUR (monolithic)
a‐Si/nc‐Si/nc‐Si (thin film) 12.4 ± 0.7p 1.050 (ap) 1.936 8.96h 71.5 NREL (3/11) United solar
q j
a‐Si/nc‐Si (thin‐film cell) 12.3 ± 0.3 0.962(ap) 1.365 12.93 69.4 AIST (7/11) Kaneka
a‐Si/nc‐Si 11.7 ± 0.4n, r
14.23 (ap) 5.462 2.99 71.3 AIST (9/04) Kaneka
(thin‐film submodule)j, l

a
a‐Si, amorphous silicon/hydrogen alloy; CIGS, Cu(In, Ga)Se2.
b
Effic., efficiency.
c
ap, aperture area; da, designated illumination area; (t), total area.
d
FF, fill factor.
e
AIST, Japanese National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology; FhG‐ISE, Fraunhofer Institut für Solare Energiesysteme; JQA, Japan Qual-
ity Assurance; NREL, National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
f
Spectral response reported in Version 36 of these Tables.
g
Recalibrated from original measurement.
h
Spectral response and current–voltage curve reported in Version 38 of these Tables.
i
Reported on a “per cell” basis.
j
Spectral response and current–voltage curve reported in present version of these Tables.
k
Not measured at an external laboratory.
l
Spectral response reported in Version 37 of these Tables.
m
Light soaked at Oerlikon prior to testing at NREL (1000 h, one sun, 50°C).
n
Measured under IEC 60904–3 Ed. 1: 1989 reference spectrum.
o
Stability not investigated. References 31 and 32 review the stability of similar devices.
p
Light soaked under 100 mW/cm2 white light at 50°C for over 1000 h.
q
Stabilized by manufacturer.
r
Stabilized by 174 h, one sun illumination after 20 h, five sun illumination at a sample temperature of 50°C.
6 HAYAT ET AL.

FIGURE 3 Efficiencies of different generations of solar cells: Courtesy of the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado,
2017.29 [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

2.1.5 | Trends in electricity production estimations are for high solar radiation areas. In the case
from PV cells of areas with moderate solar irradiations, the PV cost
advantage over fossil fuel powered electricity is expected
Figure 4 shows the increasing trend in the installed
to take place in 2028 and 2046 respectively17 as shown in
capacity for the generation of electricity from PV cells.
Figure 5.
This represents the increased interest in electricity genera-
tion from PV cells worldwide. It is estimated that in case of
industrial applications, leveling of costs between the grid
and PV systems will be achieved by 2022.17 These 2.2 | Concentrated solar power
In CSP or solar thermal technologies, the solar radiations
are concentrated to produce steam or hot air. This steam
PV cumulative installed capacity (GW0)

70
or hot air is then used to generate electricity using a
60

50

40

30

20

10

Year

FIGURE 4 Trend for cumulative installed capacity from FIGURE 5 Evolution of cost of electricity from PV systems over
photovoltaic cells worldwide, with permission of Springer (© the years as compared with conventional grid electricity cost, with
Springer‐Verlag London 2013)17 [Colour figure can be viewed at permission of © Springer‐Verlag London17 [Colour figure can be
wileyonlinelibrary.com] viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
HAYAT ET AL. 7

conventional power cycle.29 The four types of CSP tech-

nologies used currently are as follows30:

• Parabolic troughs,
• Power towers,
• Dish/engine systems, and
• Linear Fresnel reflectors.

2.2.1 | Parabolic troughs

This is the most proven and economical CSP technology
available today. In California, USA, nine large‐scale com-
mercial power plants having parabolic troughs are in
operation. FIGURE 6 Parabolic trough solar power plant, regenerated from
A Parabolic trough power plant consists mainly of the Müller‐Steinhagen and Trieb34 [Colour figure can be viewed at
following31: wileyonlinelibrary.com]

• parabolic trough collectors, 2.2.2 | Power towers

• a steam generation or heat transfer system,
In this system, heliostat‐distributed mirrors track the sun
• a Rankine steam turbine/generator cycle, and
all day. The sunlight reflected from these mirrors is con-
• a thermal storage system (optional).
centrated onto a central tower mounted receiver. The
receiver contains fluid that absorbs and then transports
A parabolic trough collector consists of three major
this energy from the receiver to the power conversion sys-
components (a) an absorber (working fluid), (b) a trans-
tem, where this thermal energy is converted into electric-
parent cover, and (c) a parabolic reflector plate. The con-
ity. These power towers are equipped with the energy
centric transparent cover prevents the heat loss from the
storage system for a continuous supply of electricity all
absorber tube. The parabolic concentrator is equipped
day long.37 The conventional towers use water/steam as
with a solar tracking mechanism. Parabolic trough collec-
working fluid while modern towers are experimenting
tors track the sun throughout the day to receive maximum
with molten salts.38 A typical solar power tower has an
solar radiations. These solar radiations are then focused on
efficiency of 15% to 25%.38The GemaSolar solar power
a receiver tube located at the focal point of these parabolic
plant is shown in Figure 7.
trough collectors. The receiver tube is a steel tube coated to
Temperatures from 800°C up to well above 1000°C
maximize absorbance in the solar spectrum wavelength
can be achieved in these towers.34
range. This steel tube is in turn put inside a glass tube to
minimize heat loss. Concentrated radiation from the sun
penetrates through the glass tube and strikes the absorber 2.2.3 | Dish‐engine
coating. This makes the fluid in the tube hot enough to
generate steam that is used to drive a conventional steam The Stirling dish system in Figure 8 consists of a parabolic
power plant32,33 as shown in Figure 6. dish‐shaped concentrator that reflects direct solar radia-
The operational and maintenance costs of parabolic tions onto a receiver at the focal point of the dish. The
trough collector power plants can be reduced by applying receiver can be a Stirling engine or a gas turbine. The main
the following steps35,36: advantage of the Stirling dish system is that the generator
is located at the focal point of the dish, so there is no heat
• Development of improved trough receivers with coat- loss because of heat transfer fluid. It is, therefore, thought
ings designed to maximize the solar energy absorption that the dish‐engine system has the highest efficiency
and withstand higher temperatures. (around 30%) among the CSP technologies.40
• Development of improved parabolic trough concen-
trators using lighter and lower cost materials to
2.2.4 | Linear Fresnel reflectors
improve tracking performance.
• Development of thermal energy storage technology Linear Fresnel collectors use a series of long flat, or
for parabolic trough plants capable of storing energy slightly curved, mirrors. These are placed at different
for months with minimum heat losses. angles to concentrate the sunlight on either side of a fixed
8 HAYAT
receiver in Figure 9. The receiver is a long tube that is
selectively coated with absorbent material known as
black chrome solar absorption cermet. The fluid that is
water/steam inside the tube transfers the thermal energy
to a conventional electricity generation system. The flat
mirrors used in this type of system are cheaper than the
parabolic troughs.42
ET AL.
FIGURE 7 Solar power tower at Sevilla,
Spain: Courtesy of the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden,
Colorado39 [Colour figure can be viewed
at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
FIGURE 8 Stirling dish system:
Courtesy of the National Renewable
Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado39
[Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
2.2.5 | Comparison of CSP technologies
The comparison among different CSP technologies is
given in Table 2. The parabolic trough collector technol-
ogy is currently the most viable options because of its
mature technology. However, future solar power tower
technology seems to be more promising because of its
FIGURE 9 Compact Fresnel collectors
(adopted with permission from Frank B.41
[Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
 HAYAT

TABLE 2 Comparison of concentrated solar power technologies regenerated from renewable energy agency40
ET AL.

Typical Capacity
(MW) 10‐300 10‐200 10‐200 0.01‐0.025

Maturity of technology Commercially proven Pilot commercial projects Pilot projects Demonstration projects
Technology development risk Low Medium Medium Medium
Operating temperature (°C) 350‐550 250‐565 390 550‐750
Plant peak efficiency (%) 14‐20 23‐35 18 30
Annual solar‐to‐electricity 10‐16 7‐20 13 12‐25
efficiency (net) (%)
Annual capacity factor (%) 25‐28 (no TES) 29‐43 55 (10 h TES) 22‐24 25‐28
(7 h TES)
Collector concentration 70‐80 suns >1000 suns >60 suns depends on >1300 suns
secondary reflector
Table 2, Continued typical 10‐300 10‐200 10‐200 0.01‐0.025
capacity (MW)
Receiver/absorber Absorber attached to External surface or cavity Fixed absorber, no Absorber attached to
collector, moves with receiver, fixed evacuation secondary collector, moves with
collector, complex design reflector collector
Storage system Indirect two‐tank molten salt Direct two‐tank molten Short‐term pressurized No storage for Stirling
at 380°C (dT = 100 K) or salt at 550°C (dT = 300 K) steam storage (<10 min) dish, chemical storage
direct two‐tank molten salt under development
at 550°C (dT = 300 K)
Hybridization Yes and direct Yes Yes, direct (steam boiler) Not planned
Grid stability Medium to high High (large TES) Medium (back‐up firing Low
(TES or hybridization) possible)
Steam conditions (oC/bar) 380 to 540/100 540/100 to 160 260/50 NA
Maximum slope of solar field (%) <1‐2 <2‐4 <4 10% or more
3
Water requirement (m /MWh) 3 (wet cooling) 0.3 2‐3(wet cooling) 0.25 3 (wet cooling) 0.2 0.05‐0.1 (mirror washing)
(dry cooling) (dry cooling) (dry cooling)
Application type On grid On grid On grid On grid/off grid
Suitability for air cooling Low to good Good Low Best
Storage with molten salt Commercially available Commercially available Possible, but not proven Possible, but not proven
9
10
low storage costs, achievable high capacity factor, and the
greater efficiency of the steam cycle.40
3 | DIRECT USES OF SOLAR
ENERGY
Apart from generating electricity, solar energy is also
used for some other purposes. Some direct uses of solar
energy are discussed below.
3.1 | Agriculture
In arid lands where the water for agriculture is not read-
ily available, the solar desalination process has been
applied to convert brine into fresh water for agriculture
uses. In this process, the brine is collected in a basin,
and then solar energy is used to evaporate the water. This
fresh water can be used for agricultural purposes. The
first solar desalination plant was used in 1872 in North-
ern Chile.43
The water pumps, driven by the energy from solar PV
cells, have been successfully employed in the Algerian
Sahara region. About 60 pumps were installed to produce
water for drinking and irrigation crops like wheat, pota-
toes, tomatoes, and sunflowers. These pumps were found
to be suitable for the above‐mentioned purposes.44
3.2 | Solar vehicle
To achieve sustainable mobility and to cut down the envi-
ronmental impacts through the usage of fossil fuels, a lot
of research is being done to develop cars equipped with
solar energy. Because of the ever increasing cost of fossil
fuels and advances made in the PV cells, the future of
solar assisted vehicles seems to be bright.45 A solar vehi-
cle with a footprint of 8 m2 can generate 1600 to
2400 W or 2 to 3 horsepower, given current PV efficien-
cies; thus, even at midday, a solar vehicle can generate
only 11 horsepower. It, therefore, seems difficult to envi-
sion a solar powered vehicle in near future. However, the
increasing concerns about the environmental impacts of
fossil fuels and their costs are contributing a lot towards
focusing on research in this field.46 The current problems
with the advancement of the solar vehicle is its high‐ini-
tial cost, small speed range and low efficiency of 17%.47
3.3 | Cooking
In many countries, the fuel used for cooking comes from
firewood. In India for example, 47% of the energy for
cooking comes from the wood. In many African coun-
tries, this percentage is even greater than 75%. Replacing
HAYAT ET AL.
this energy with the help of solar cooking can save the
environment by saving trees. A solar cooking system
has been established with the energy storage capability.
It consists of flat plate collectors, reflectors, and a work-
ing fluid, which usually transfers the heat from the collec-
tors for cooking goods Figure 10.48
3.4 | Water treatment
During the past 20 years, photo catalysis has gained tre-
mendous success in the gradation of organic pollutants
in water and air. Thin‐film fixed‐bed reactor (TFFBR) is
one of the early solar reactors that uses a light concentrat-
ing system for the photo catalysis of water Figure 11.49
As for commercialization of catalytic treatment of
water, the technical barrier at this time is the post recov-
ery of the catalyst particles after water treatment.50
3.5 | Solar energy for fuel production
Enough solar energy reaches the Earth in 1 hour to fulfill
the energy needs of human beings for 1 year. However,
because the PV cells or CSP technology works only dur-
ing the daytime, solar energy must be stored in some
forms. One method is to convert it into hydrogen or
chemical fuel as shown in Equations 1 and 2, respec-
tively.
2H2 O→2H þ 2e− ; (1)
CO2 þ 2H2 O→CH4 þ 2O2 : (2)
These reactions are driven by solar energy. Although
splitting water to produce hydrogen is a good way to store
solar energy, it is not economically viable, and the hydro-
gen produced does not compensate for the cost of cata-
lysts and experimentation. As for methane production
from carbon dioxide, although the results are promising,
methane is not an environment‐friendly fuel.51
Another alternative for fuel production from solar
energy is artificial photosynthesis, but before its practical
implementation, dramatic improvements in its efficiency
and durability are required.52
3.6 | Solar energy in space
Solar energy can be used to build satellite power stations
orbiting around Earth. These satellite power station can
convert solar energy into electricity by PV technology
and other solar technologies. This electricity can be con-
verted into a microwave beam via a microwave generator
and antenna located on the satellite. The microwave
beam from the satellite antenna can be directed towards
HAYAT ET AL.
FIGURE 10 Solar cooker with storage
capability in Northern Chile South
America, with permission of Elsevier
200348
a receiving antenna on Earth. In this way, the microwave
beam can again be converted into electricity on Earth.
This satellite system power can be delivered anywhere
on Earth.53
The DC to DC efficiency of the satellite wireless
power transmission system at a frequency of 5.8 Hz is
measured to be 45%. This efficiency is the result of the
development of highly efficient DC‐RF converters and
rectennas developed for this frequency.
The beam control system based on retro directivity is
yet to be demonstrated. Moreover, because of the huge
expenses of space transportation systems and lack of com-
mercial space markets, the financial viability of satellite
FIGURE 11 Flowchart for thin‐film fixed‐bed reactor system for
water treatment, regenerated from Bahnemann D.49 [Colour figure
can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
11
wireless power transmission is still under question. How-
ever, space transmission systems and wireless transmis-
sion technology are expected to advance to the point of
contributing to solar power in the future.54
4 | P V C E L L S/ M O DUL E S
CHARACTERIZATION
Performance of solar cells can be characterized through
current–voltage curves or spectral responsivity‐wave-
length curves. PV power conversion efficiency, under
standard reporting conditions (SRC), defined as a ratio
of maximum output (electric) to the total irradiance, as
given by Equation 3, is used as the most common perfor-
mance indicator for PV cells.55-62
Max or Peak Power
Effeciency ðηÞ ¼ × 100
Incident Irradiance*Device Area
Pmax
¼ × 100:
E tot *A
(3)
The device area, for PV cells, can either be total cell
area or active area (excluding the shaded area).63,64 For
thin‐film PV cells, active area is the same as that of total
area. For module, the device area is the total area includ-
ing the frame.
The SRC‐based peak power rating system gives the
power rating at rarely occurring conditions and is, there-
fore, unable to capture the performance of the PV module
in the real world.
A few groups have adopted a different performance rat-
ing method that involves measuring the module's/cell's per-
formance in the actual field conditions and then apply
regression analysis rather than using a theoretical reference
spectrum. The site‐specific performance characterization
12 HAYAT ET AL.

gives the power rating that is close to the actual and can be
relevant to bulk power generation systems. Energy‐based
rating like integrated power over time in kW to hour is also
being used to characterize the performance of the PV mod-
ules depending upon the type of application. AM/PM
method, a type of energy‐based method, rates the
performance of a PV module in terms of the energy pro-
duced during a standard solar day at a given temperature
and total irradiance.65 Another energy based method
involves measuring the energy delivered by the PV modules
over a set of five days; a hot‐sunny day, a cold‐sunny days, a
hot‐cloudy day, a cold‐cloudy day, and a normal nice
day.63,65-68 Main advantage of these energy‐based rating
methods is that they are more generalized performance
rating methods and thus provide the actual performance
rating for the PV modules while not being site specific.
There are various translation models that can be used
to translate the PV power output from the measured con- FIGURE 12 Generic I–V measurement system configuration.
Regenerated from Hamadani and Dougherty71
ditions to reference conditions in order to compare the
performance of all the PV cells/modules on a single scale.
Some of these are listed below.67,68 VOC is determined by performing a linear regression
using more two or more points around the zero‐current area
on I–V curve. Whereas, ISC is determined by performing a
linear regression/interpolation using more two or more
4.1 | Current–voltage measurements
points around the zero‐voltage area on the I–V curve. Pmax
The current–voltage (I–V) behavior of the solar cell/ is just the maximum power measured for any device, so
module can be measured to determine the maximum basically, it is the highest point on the I–V curve. For
power output (Pmax). The most common setup includes increased accuracy, a higher order polynomial fitting could
a light source (natural or simulated), a surface to place be done around 80% to 85% of Pmax at the PV curve.68-72
the device under test, an external power supply to con-
trol/vary the voltage or current, sensors, a data acquisi-
4.2 | Spectral Responsivity measurements
tion system to measure the current and/or voltage as
the first one is varied via the external power supply. In Spectral responsivity (S[λ]) or quantum efficiency (QE[λ])
order to eliminate the resistance losses while sensing is required to understand the current generation and col-
the voltage, a Kelvin connection needs to be attached lection mechanisms of any PV device. Spectral
to the PV device. Solar simulators can be used to simu- responsivity measurements encompass measuring the
late the natural light in order to ensure the accuracy and photocurrent produced by the incident light of a given
repeatability of I–V characteristics of any PV device. wavelength and power.
Continuous arc, pulsed arc, and filament lamps are the Equation 4 provides relationship/conversion of spectral
most commonly used sources.69,70 The choice of the responsivity to quantum efficiency/yield (electron–hole
source depends upon the application in question and pairs collected per incident photon). Spectral responsivity
the properties required, ie, operating voltage, wattage, is measured as current produced per unit power.
and lifetime.
Figure 12 shows a generic I–V measurement system. qSðλÞ
QEðλÞ ¼ × 100; (4)
Shunt resistor (Rsh) is used to measure the current. For λhc
PV cells, voltage is sensed adjacent to the current Where,
connection; while for PV modules, it is done at the box
 
containing the current lead connection. Figure 13 shows hc=q ¼ 0:80655 If “ λ ” is in units of “ μm” and“ Sðλ Þ” in unites of Ampere=Watts
a typical I–V curve for a 50‐W PV module. By analyzing
the I–V curve for any PV device, critical parameters The most commonly used systems for measuring the
including open circuit voltage (VOC), short circuit current spectral response of any PV device include the follow-
(ISC), and the maximum power (Pmax) can be ing: filter based, grating monochrometers, and interfer-
determined. ometers.60,61,73-75
HAYAT ET AL.
FIGURE 13 Typical I–V curve for a 50‐
W PV module, adopted from Emery, K.
courtesy of National Renewable Energy
Laboratory 201172 [Colour figure can be
viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
Filter‐based system shown in Figure 14 for measuring
the spectral responsivity involves projecting the light
from source through the filters (monochrometer) onto
the PV device under test.59 A pyroelectric radiometer or
Si detector is used to measure the beam power. Shutter
is only required when AC voltmeter is used to measure
the signal. Current to voltage converter measures the
photocurrent. Power vs wavelength can be measured in
real time through a reference detector or that data can
be stored in a certain file.
Grating‐based system shown in Figure 15 is used to
measure the spectral responsivity over a wide wavelength
range, ie, 400 to 3200 nm. Order‐sorting filters can be
used to suppress modes at shorter wavelengths. For single
FIGURE 14 Typical filter‐based spectral responsivity
measurement system, regenerated from Emery, K. National
Renewable Energy Laboratory 201172 [Colour figure can be viewed
at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
13
grating system, band‐pass filters may have to be used to
suppress modes at longer and/or shorter wavelengths.
Grating‐based systems have a high‐spectral resolution
but low optical throughput as compared with filter‐based
systems.72-74,76
Typical error sources in the measurement of photo-
current include but are not limited to the following55-76:
• Errors related to electrical instruments (I to V con-
verter, AC voltmeter) such as noise, calibration, and
offsets errors.
• Errors related to PV cell/module such as temperature
bias, white light bias, device sensitivity and response
time to light.
• Error related to mechanical factors such as vibrations
and movement of optics.
FIGURE 15 Typical grating‐based spectral responsivity
measurement system, regenerated from Emery, K. National
Renewable Energy Laboratory 201172 [Colour figure can be viewed
at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
14
Typical error sources in the measurement of light power
includes but are not limited to the following:
• Errors related to filament or light source as a result of
intensity fluctuation and change in spectrum over age
and time
• Calibration errors related to signal‐to‐noise and cali-
bration drift with time.
• Errors related to stray light when light seen by the
detector and not the cell as well as the incomplete
exclusion of grating orders and pinholes in the filter.
• Detectors performance errors such as resolution, sig-
nal‐to‐noise, and time constant errors of pyroelectric
detector.
5 | FUTURE OUTLOOK
Because of its abundance and environmentally friendly
nature, solar energy is our most sustainable energy
source. As PV solar cells continue to improve and pro-
duce electricity at competitive rates both for domestic
and industrial uses, they are expected to be optimized
and recognized as the predominant energy source by
2022. Worldwide use of the improved solar technologies
of the future is expected to surpass the use of conven-
tional electric generation technologies by the end of
2032, as shown in Figure 16.17
The future of solar energy depends upon its economic
feasibility, environmental impact, and advancement in
technology. For solar power to be a dependable energy
source in the future, solar energy technologies must over-
come certain challenges. These challenges are discussed
below.
FIGURE 16 Trend for cumulative installed capacity from
photovoltaic cells worldwide up to 2050, with permission of ©
Springer‐Verlag London 201317 [Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
HAYAT ET AL.
5.1 | Technical challenges
Among the technical barriers of PV cells are their effi-
ciency that has to improve to be competitive with other
energy sources. The abundant supply of the cell
manufacturing materials like CdTe with silicon must be
ensured. A hassle‐free metering and billing system has
to be developed.
In the case of CSP technologies, heat transferring
fluids having high‐heat capacities must be found, and
thermal losses reduced. In the case of solar water heating,
the system has to be adopted to meet existing building
codes, safety requirements for appliances, and other stan-
dards for widespread application.
5.2 | Economic challenges
Since 2000, a great technical shift has taken place in the
solar energy field. This technical advancement in the field
has enabled the cost for solar energy to drop dramatically.
For example, the cost of solar modules in 1980 was
$27 000/KW that dropped to $4000/KW in 2006. Simi-
larly, the installed cost of a PV system has dropped
$10 000/Kw from 1992 to 2008. In 2017, PV modules cost
has dropped to $3500/KW. In spite of these advance-
ments, the levelized cost of electricity generation by solar
technology is still expensive, not only in comparison with
conventional technologies but also when compared with
renewable resources like hydropower and wind.77-79
The levelized cost of electricity generation by solar
energy and other sources are compared in Figure 17.78
It is clear from the figure that after all the advancements,
cost for solar energy system is still the highest among all
other energy sources.79
5.3 | Environmental challenges
The main advantage of the solar energy systems is their
environmentally friendly nature. Solar energy systems
are far better than the conventional fossil fuel powered
systems.80 It has been found that in case of domestic solar
water heating systems, 80% less greenhouse gases are
emitted than the conventional system. The reduction in
greenhouse gas emissions in case of solar space heating
is 40% compared with the conventional electric power
plant system.81
Solar energy technologies have a lot of environmental
(carbon dioxide emission savings) and socioeconomic
benefits as can be seen in Table 3.
By switching from conventional energy sources to
solar energy technologies, we can prevent our water
resources from pollution and can prevent our air from
emitting noxious gases like CO2, SO2, etc.
HAYAT ET AL. 15

main hurdle is its noncontinuous supply. This has led to

600 Fuel Cost an increase in the research for efficient energy storage
Q&M Cost of solar energy. The solar energy can be stored in the
Capital Cost
USD/Kilowatt-hour

500 form of thermal energy and electricity.72

400
5.4.1 | Thermal energy storage
300
The three ways to store the thermal form of solar energy.
200
These include the following: the sensible heat storage,
latent heat storage, and thermochemical storage. In sensi-
100 ble heat storage system, heat energy is stored by changing
the temperature of the storage medium. The common
0 storage media that can be used are water, oil, air, rock
bed, sand, soil, etc.
Latent heat storage is done by changing the phase of
Technology
storage material. Normally the change is between solid
FIGURE 17 Levelized cost for electricity generation by and liquid phase. Typical phase change materials used in
technology (US dollar/kilowatt‐hour), regenerated from Timilsina this system are salt hydrates, polymers, water, etc. The cost
& Kurdgelashvili78 [Colour figure can be viewed at of the phase change materials is very high, which restricts
wileyonlinelibrary.com] the application of phase materials for solar energy storage.
Significant research is needed to assure that low‐grade

TABLE 3 Environmental and socioeconomic indicators of solar energy technologies, regenerated from Tsoutsos et al80

Distributed
Central Solar Distributed Central Photovoltaic Photovoltaic Solar Thermal
Indicator Thermal Solar Thermal Power Generation Power Generation Electricity

CO2 emissions 1.4 kg/kWh or 1.4 kg/kWh or 0.6‐1.0 kg/kWh 0.6‐1.0 kg/kWh Annually 688 t/MW when
savings 840 kg/m2 a 840 kg/m2 a compared with a combined
cycle plant 1.360 t/MW when
combined to a cola fired plant
Production 4000 jobs/a 4000 jobs/a 2‐3000 jobs/a 2‐3000 jobs/a 1 permanent job/MW for
employment operation + 10‐15 jobs/MW
(EU wide) for 12‐18 mo construction
Total employment 12 000 jobs/a 12 000 jobs/a 4‐5000 jobs/a 4‐5000 jobs/a 1000 permanent jobs for 1000 MW

Although, overall solar energy technologies are envi-
ronmentally friendly, they do have some negative impacts
on the environment. For example, solar thermal heaters
have a visual impact on building esthetics. In case of large
PV electricity generation systems, a lot of cultivable land
is occupied. Also, during the manufacturing of these cells,
toxic and flammable materials are used that can be inju-
rious to health. Solar thermal electricity systems can also
occupy a lot of land and are very detrimental to the flora
and fauna in the area, especially birds. These systems can
also pollute the local water.80
phase change materials can be practically implemented.
The thermochemical storage of thermal energy is
done by driving a chemical reaction, the products of
which are stored. These products can then later be com-
bined to release thermal energy.
The main challenges facing the thermal energy stor-
age systems are their building costs and losses because
of storage. However, a storage efficiency of 90% can be
achieved. The best strategy for storage is found to be short
term, ie, for a few days.81-83

5.4.2 | Solar electric energy storage

5.4 | Storage challenges
The continuous increase in the emission of harmful gases
through fossil fuel usage has resulted in high demand for
renewable energies like solar energy as the base load. The
Although there are many options available for the stor-
age of electricity generated by solar or any other energy,
none of these available options are considered ideal. An
ideal electric energy storage system should be cost
16
effective, be environmentally friendly, be highly efficient,
be mature, and have long lifetime. Among the many
options are flywheels, capacitors, supercapacitors, fuel
cells, lead acid batteries, metal‐air cells, NiCd batteries,
etc. Metal–air batteries, flywheels, capacitors, and super
capacitors are currently considered the electrical energy
storage systems of the future.84
In addition, a lack of implementation‐friendly laws
and skilled labor for solar energy technologies also con-
tributes to their limited application.78
6 | FUTURE RESEARCH AREA
RECOMMENDATIONS
The following is our vision on the future potential
research directions in the field of direct and indirect elec-
tricity generation from solar energy.
• The efficiency of PV cells needs to be raised.
• Research in the field of materials science need to be
enhanced to find cheaper construction materials for
PV cells.
• Research in the field of mining and metallurgy should
concentrate on exploration, excavation and processing
of materials such as CdTE with silicon. This will ensure
an abundant supply for PV cell manufacturing material.
• Research efforts in the field of environment and safety
are required to minimize the risks associated with the
toxic and flammable materials used in the PV cells
through appropriate handling and disposal.
• In case of solar power tower technologies, exploring
new types of heat transferring fluids having high heat
capacities is a promising area of research.
• Research efforts need to be directed towards reduction
of thermal losses in solar power technologies.
• In the case of solar power towers, efficient energy stor-
age is a hurdle. The need for a backup heater in the
solar water heating system adds to the cost and
reduces its economic worth.
• A hassle‐free metering and billing system must be
developed.
• In case of solar water heating, the system must meet
the existing building codes, appliances safety stan-
dards, and overall industry standards for widespread
application.77
• Losses in the storage of thermal energy storage systems
need to be addressed to enable long‐term storage.
• Metal–air batteries, flywheels, capacitors, and super
capacitors are the electrical energy storage systems
having promising future.53 However, they need fur-
ther development to meet the ideal standards of a con-
taminant‐free world.
HAYAT ET AL.
• Safe disposal of solar products and making these prod-
ucts biodegradable should be the goal of future
research.
7 | C ON C L U S I ON S
Solar energy can be regarded as the most viable energy
source of the future. Electricity generation by solar tech-
nology seems to be very promising. Multi‐junction PV
cells have achieved remarkable efficiencies. The CSP
technologies, such as solar power towers offer a reliable
source of electricity with the capacity for energy storage.
In addition to electricity generation, solar energy also
has a capacity to fulfill the energy needs of essential
working sectors of society including agriculture, the auto-
mobile industry, food preparation industries, water treat-
ment, etc. It has been estimated that by 2032, energy
generation by solar technology will be able to compete
economically with conventional energy sources. More-
over, the environmentally friendly nature of solar energy
makes it the ultimate energy source for humanity.
Overall, the major findings of this study are summa-
rized as follows:
• Electricity can be generated directly or indirectly from
solar energy. PV cells directly generate electric current
through a PV effect. The economics and efficiency of a
solar PV cell depend mainly upon its material. PV
cells are usually classified into three major genera-
tions: first‐, second‐, and third‐generation PV cells
where the first generation is the most dominant type.
The efficiency of PV cells can be up to approximately
34% in the multijuction devices. CSP technologies use
an indirect process to generate electricity from solar
power where solar radiations are concentrated to pro-
duce hot air that is then used to generate electricity in
a conventional power cycle. Parabolic troughs power
towers. Dish systems and linear Fresnel reflectors
are the main CSP technologies in use.
• Solar cells performance can be characterized through
current–voltage (I–V) curves or spectral responsivity‐
wavelength curves. The behavior of I–V curves deter-
mines the maximum power output of the solar cell.
Spectral responsivity explains the behavior of current
generation and collection mechanisms of any PV cell.
It measures the photocurrent produced by the inci-
dent light of a given wavelength and power. However,
there are some measurements errors related to the
efficiency of the electrical instruments used such as
I–V converters, voltmeters, cell modules, and detec-
tors in addition to other calibration errors.
HAYAT ET AL.
• Research in the field of mining, metallurgy, and mate-
rials engineering should concentrate on exploration,
excavation, processing, and manufacturing of cheaper
construction materials for PV cells since the cost of
solar energy systems is still the highest among other
energy sources. Research efforts in the field of envi-
ronment and safety are required to minimize the risks
associated with the toxic and flammable materials
used in the PV cells through appropriate handling
and disposal. Extensive research is also required to
find efficient energy storage systems, without them,
solar energy can never become a reliable source of
energy.
ORCID
Lana Alagha http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7481-8663
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How to cite this article: Hayat MB, Ali D,
Monyake KC, Alagha L, Ahmed N. Solar energy—
A look into power generation, challenges, and a
solar‐powered future. Int J Energy Res. 2018;1–19.
https://10.1016/10.1002/er.4252