CHAPTER TWO

2.1 Distribution networks carry power the last few miles from transmission or sub-transmission to
consumers. Power is carried in distribution networks through wires either on poles or, in many urban
areas, underground. Distribution networks are distinguished from transmission networks by their
voltage level and topology. Lower voltages are used in distribution networks, as lower voltages require
less clearance. Typically, lines up to 35 kV are considered part of the distribution network. The
connection between distribution networks and transmission or subtransmission occurs at distribution
substations. Distribution substations have transformers to step voltage down to the primary distribution
level (typically in the 4–35 kV range in the United States). Like transmission substations, distribution
substations also have circuit breakers and monitoring equipment. However, distribution substations are
generally less automated than transmission substations.

Distribution networks usually have a radial topology, referred to as a “star network,” with only one
power flow path between the distribution substation and a particular load. Distribution networks
sometimes have a ring (or loop) topology, with two power flow paths between the distribution
substation and the load.

Distribution system

The distribution system is the part of power system which distributes electric
power for domestic used (to consumer). It is the electric system between the
substation fed by the transmission system and the consumer meters. The
distribution system consists of feeders, distributors and the service mains.

- Feeders: these are the conductors which connect the source (distribution or
localized generating station) to the distributors serving a particular area.

- Distributors: a distributor is a conductor that receives power directly from

the feeder. It is a conductor from which tapings are taking for supply to consumers.

- Service mains: this is the connecting wires or link between distributors and
the consumer’s terminals.

- Distribution of an Alternating current and direct current

Electricity was initially generated, transmitted and distributed as a direct current
(D.C). The main disadvantage of D.C current system was that voltage levels could
not be easily changed. Nowadays, electrical energy is generated, transmitted and
distributed in the form of alternating current. One important reason for widespread
use of an alternating current in preference to D.C is the fact that the alternating
voltage can be conveniently changed in magnitude by means of transformer.
Transformer has made it possible to transmit A.C power at high voltage and utilize
it at a safe potential.

Classification of Ac distribution system

The distribution system is classified in to two (2), primary and secondary

distribution system.

1. Primary distribution system: The distribution system is the part of

alternating current distribution system which operates at voltages higher than
general utilization and handles large blocks of electrical energy than over
age consumer’s uses.
2. Secondary distribution system: This is also the part of an A.C distribution
system which includes the range of voltages at which the ultimate consumer
utilizes the electrical energy delivered to him. It employs 415/240, 3-phase,
4 wire system.

OVERHEAD AND UNDERGROUND SYSTEM

Distribution system can either be overhead or underground system use conduits,

and man-made holes under the surface of streets. While, overhead system consist
of lines mounted on wooden, concrete or steel poles.
2.4 LINE SUPPORT

The supporting structure for overhead line conductors are various types of poles
and towers called line support.

In general, the support should have the following qualities:

High mechanical strength to withstand the weight of conductors and wind

loads etc.
Light in weight without loss of mechanical strength
Cheap in cost and economical maintenance
The line support used for transmission and distribution of electric power
are of various types including wooden poles, steel poles and reinforced
concrete poles.
2.5 SUBSTATION

A substation is a place where the distribution of a low voltage is taking. The

substation consists of both overheads materials, underground materials and some
others such as transformer and feeder pillar. Furthermore, a diagrammatical
representation of the substation is shown below.
2.2 INTRODUCTION

Protection, control and metering section deals with metering, transformer

section and repairs. The major function is to receive a report from consumers
when their transformer is faulty, and their duty is to take a prompt action in
order to rectify the fault reported.

The following are transformer tests conducted at that section:

i. Excitation test
ii. Ratio test
iii. Short circuit test
iv. Insulation test
 Below are the explanation, practical aspects, equipment used and the
result obtained from the entire above listed test conducted on a
transformer
3.2 EXCITATION TEST

The excitation test is conducted on a transformer to know if the transformer

is capable to carry the load designed for it to carry, and to know if the transformer
coil is not burnt or grounded.

Tool/ Equipment Require:

Clamp meter, generator, spanner, pliers and safety wears.

3.3 RATIO TEST

The purpose of the ratio test is to verify if the primary voltage is

corresponding with the voltage in the secondary winding. It also aimed to diagnose
in to ratio between the number of turn, and it measures the continuity between
three phases.

Tools/ Equipment Require:

Clamp meter, generator, spanner, pliers and safety wears.

3.4 INSULATION TEST

Insulation test is conducted on the transformer winding to confirm the condition of

the insulation level as designed. It is certain to say that every transformer is
designed to withstand specific voltage depending on the insulation level upon
which the transformer is to operate.

Tools/equipment used; meager meter

Result obtained:

Insulation between the body of the transformer and bushing is 330 ohms.
Insulation between in the primary and secondary bushing is 350 ohms.
Note: if the meter reads less than 300ohms, it means the insulation is not okay
and need to be improved.

3.5 SHORT CIRCUIT TEST

The purpose of short circuit test on the transformer is to confirm the current
carrying capacity of both primary and secondary windings.

By the name plate on the transformer, the power is 500KVA with voltage
rating 11/0.515 KV and current rating 26.24/696 amps, this means that the
primary current carrying capacity for the coils is 26.24 amps, and 696 amps for
the secondary windings. To ascertain this, short circuit test was conducted by
applying the three phases where the short circuited with a 50mm2 bare copper
conductor. This will provide a circuiting current path.

Result obtained:

Table 3.3: short circuit test result using three phases supply voltages

The analysis of this result is shown below:

Normal short circuit current for the primary side

21.0 X 11000 X 4.63/412 X 100

1069530
41200
 = 25.959

= 26Amps.

The above value was obtained current carrying capacity of a 500kva

11/
0.415kv transformer at primary. The actual current from the name place is
26.24Amps.

%deviation = actual current value obtained current value /actual current value

= 26.24 -26.0/26.24 x 100

= 0.91%

This percentage value confirm that the primary winding of the transformer
were for the 500kva.

3.6 TRANSFORMERS

A transformer can be defined as an electromechanical device that can transform

electrical energy or power from one circuit to another without change in
frequency.

It consists of two (2) main sides’ primary and secondary side. And a
transformer can be step up or step down transformer by which the voltage in a
circuit with corresponding increase or decrease current.
 Fig. 2. Transformer

Construction and description of a transformer:

A transformer has the following sub-assemblies and the sub-system:

1. Tank

2. Core and magnetic circuit

3. Winding and insulation system

4. Leads and terminal arrangement

5. Bushings CTs

6. Conservator

7. Insulation oil and oil preservation means

8. Cooling system

9. Fitments

10. Tap changer for voltage control

11. Carriage

12. Marshaling kiosk

13. Protection system

POWER PROTECTING DEVICE

Fuse: this is a device use to open a circuit by means of conductor designed to melt
when an excessive current flows through it. By the earliest means, fuse is called
protection against over currents in a conductor.

Basically, it’s consisting of short length of material often in the form of wire which
has a very small current which is greater than the current rating of the wire, the
wire will get out.

Factors associated with fuse

Fusing current: this is the maximum current that will cause the fuse to heat
and melt blow.
Fusing factor: this is the ratio of fusing current to the current rating.
Current rating: this is the current which the fuse element will carry
continuously without deterioration.
Types of fuse

Rewire able fuse: this consist of a porcelain bridge and base. The bridge has
two sets of copper contacts which is fit in to contact in the base.
Cartridge fuse: this type has come in to common use with the fuse 13A plug
used in the domestic ring circuit. The fuse element is contained in a
porcelain tube fitted with two connecting caps.
 High breaking capacity (HBC) this type of fuse is designed to protect
circuit’s again heavy overloads and is capable of opening a circuit under
short circuit conditions without damaging surrounding equipment’s.
Fitting (J&P Fuse): this is a protective devices installed on overload line to
protect the transformer. The fuse taking in to consideration the rating of the
transformer to be protection

Marketing System

This section works hand in hand with function business unit. The duties of
this section are distribution of bill to various consumers’ premises and general
construction and reconnection of light or service mains.

Disconnection and Reconnection Exercise

This is normally done to the users or consumers of PHCN and industries.
Disconnection normally occurs if the charge against the consumers is not settled or
a result of violation of the rules and regulations lay down by PHCN authorities.

On the other hand, reconnection is the process of connection a particular

consumer back to the network after reconnection with the authority the issues of
violating of the laid down rules and regulation.

conditions of disconnection of supply

A particular consumer is liable to disconnect the supply if he is found to have
committed one of the following offences.

i. Illegal service

ii. Direct connection without meter

iii. Illegal connection after disconnection

iv. Illegal addition of phase

v. Illegal metering and no record

vi. None access to the meter position

vii. Bridging and bypassing of meter

viii. Single phasing on three phase meter

Types of Disconnection

1. DNP- disconnection for none payment

2. DIP- disconnection on investigation purposes

3. DR- disconnection on request

2.3 The following are the exercises performed and the experiences
acquired during my stay at the company:

i. Disconnection Exercise.
This is normally done to the users or consumers of PHCN and industries.
Disconnection normally occurs if the charge against the consumers is not settled or
a result of violation of the rules and regulations lay down by PHCN authorities.

ii. Reconnection Exercise.

Reconnection is the process of connection a particular consumer back to the

network after reconnection with the authority the issues of violating of the laid
down rules and regulation.

iii. Transformers Protection.

The protection of a transformer against the overloads is performed by a
dedicated protection usually called thermal overload relay. This type of protection
simulates the temperature of the transformer's windings. The simulation is based
on the measure of the current and on the thermal time constant of the
transformer.

iv. Function of feeder pillar.

The function of the feeder pillar is to take in a supply of electrical energy from a
transformer and distribute it, via fuseways, to a number of outgoing circuits,
providing each with a means of protection and control.

v. Phases.

In case of a three phase power supply, the combination of Red, Yellow and Blue
are used for the active line power conductors, Black color for neutral conductor
and Green or Green – Yellow for protective ground. All the above mentioned
color code for electrical wiring is to transmit AC current from the mains.