AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND COMMUNICATION

UNIT 1 OVERVIEW OF EXTENSION

1.1 Definition of Terms

Concept of Extension
- The core concept of extension is education (Mosher, 1975)
- Is an educational process offered to persons in rural or out school communities (Sison,
1981)
- Is an educational activity outside the usual school that involves formal institutions
reaching out to needy clients to improve their health, wealth or socio-cultural well –
being (Valera, et. al., 1987)
- A process of integrating indigenous and derived knowledge, attitudes and skills to
determine what is needed, how it can be done, what local cooperation and resources can
be mobilized and what additional assistance is available and may be necessary to
overcome particular obstacles (Sim and Hilmi, 1984)
- A method of non-formal education aimed at indcusin behavoral changes to improve
technical knowledge and skills to enable in income generating projects and thereby
increase income (Swanson, 1984; Misra, 1990)

Common elements in the definitions of extension (Roling 1988):

1. Extension is an intervention
2. Extension uses communication as leverage instrument.
3. Extension includes targeting processes.
4. Extension is deployed by institutions

In general, extension is a professional communication intervention deployed by an

institution to induce change in voluntary behaviours with a presumed public or collective utility
(Roling 1988).

Types of Extension

A. Agricultural Extension – offers technical advice on agriculture to farmers, and also

supplies them with the necessary inputs and services to support their agricultural production. It
provides information to farmers and passes to the farmer’s new ideas developed by agricultural
research stations. Agricultural extension programs cover a broad area including improved crop
varieties, better livestock control, improved water management, and the control of weeds, pests or
plant diseases, where appropriate agricultural extension may help to build up local farmers groups
and organizations so that they can benefit from extension programs.
B. Non- agricultural Extension – this includes all activities and efforts not directly related
to agriculture or livestock production, but which are important to the farm families. Home
economics, family health and nutrition, population education and community development are all
non-agricultural extension activities.

1.2 Historical Background of Extension

 Started in Europe as early as the 16th century

 The earl of Clarendon’s letter is a classic document in the early extension history.
 As organized university function “Extension Education” was first introduced in 1873 by
Cambridge University in England.
 The US Department of Agriculture and the Land Grant University were established by
federal legislation passed in 1862.
 Towards the end of the 19th century, agricultural Extension became widespread in the US.

In the Philippines:
Spanish Regime – extension work began in what was the Granja Modelos or Model Farms.
October 8, 1901 – beginning of the Extension work during the American Regime.
April 30, 1902 – a definite plan for extension followed with the establishment of the Bureau
of Agriculture.
 July 10, 1910 – extension was made a separate unit of the Bureau of Agriculture with the
creation of the Demonstration and Extension Division.
1923 – the name of the Demonstration and Extension Division changed to
Agricultural Extension Service. In the same year, Home Extension Work
(later known as Division of Home Economics) started in the Division of
Organic Chemistry of the Bureau of Science mainly for food preservation. It
was during this year that Miss Maria Y. Orosa founded the Home Extension
Service.
1929 - The bureau of Agriculture was reorganized resulting in the formation of the
Bureau of Animal Industry and the Bureau of Plant Industry. Each bureau
continued to expand its extension activities.
1936 - The division of Home Economics was merged with the division of Plant
Utilization of the Bureau of Plant Industry.
Commonwealth Act 85 – established the provincial agricultural extension services. The
positions of the Provincial Agriculturist were also created.
1937 - A livestock Extension Division was created in the bureau of Animal
Industry.
1947 - The work of the Division of Plant Industry was mad e purely research and
the Home Extension Section Division of the BAI.
1952 - Republic Act no. 680 created the Bureau of Agricultural Extension
(BAEEx) to considerate all extension activities in the Philippines.
1963 - Agricultural Land Reform Code signed into law through Republic Act
3844; Agricultural Extension renamed into Agricultural Productivity
Commission (APC)
1966 - Rice & Corn Program created through Executive Order No. 64
1966 - NFAC was formed through Executive Order 183.
Nov. 1, 1972 - Presidential Decree No. 970 reverted APC under DLGC.
1982 - Executive Order no. 803 – established the integrated Pest Management.
1987 - Creation of Agricultural Training Institute (ATI) through Executive order
no. 116.
1997 - Agricultural and Fisheries Modernization through Republic Act. 8435.

Extension in the Philippines has expanded and had been undertaken by private, religious
or civic organizations including educational institutions. Historically extension was intended as
an agricultural assistance service to increase productivity but through time it has expanded and
now involves non-governmental programs and other clients whose concerns lie in the
development of human needs.

1.3 Philosophy, Principles and Objectives of Extension

Extension Philosophy
 Extension is based on the philosophy that rural people are intelligent capable and
desirous of receiving information and making use of it for their individual and
community welfare.
 Extension starts were the people are and with what they have. Improvement can begin
from here.
 The classroom is where the people are: on the farms, in their homes, and villages.
 People learn to do by doing.
 Extension works with and through the people. Local leaders are trained by extension
workers to extend the information to others.
 Education is carried on either with groups of people or with individuals.
 The spirit of self-help is essential for demarcating living.
 Extension thus involves working with people where they are, building on what they have
and adding to what they know.

Objectives of Agricultural Extension

1. To act as intermediary between agricultural development institution and target groups making
available to farmers the latest results of research for understanding and application.
2. To aid in the transfer and adaptation of research results to/by the farmers as target
group/clientele.
3. To establish/ structure new institutions whether state-organized or self-help institutions that can
influence the whole agricultural production system.
4. To mobilized all necessary resource in extension work including farm inputs, concerned
agencies/ institution, funds, facilities and experts/ people involved in the dissemination/
adoption of innovation in the rural environment.

Principles of Extension

1. Economic necessity – Extension serves the economic objectives of the nation through the
productive use of the country’s natural resources.
2. Extension bases its programs on people’s needs as well as on technical and national economic
needs.
3. Extension is an education process. It is an informal educational process which aims through
making wise use of of natural resources for the benefit of the individual, the family, the
community and the nation.
4. Extension cooperates with other organizations which aim to develop individuals, community
and nation.

1.4 Changes in Extension

According to Cardenas (1995), much of the problem in conventional research and

extension has been in the process of generating and transferring technology, and that much of the
solution lies in farmers own capacities and priorities. Farmers active involvements as partners in
all aspect of research and extension under the more participatory model has led into a pattern of
mutually coherent concepts, values, methods and actions along a populist philosophy and is
termed a “paradigm shift”. The paradigm shift is characterized as participatory because it
involves local people as active participants in all hashes of research and extension; it leads to
finding new ways to understand local knowledge, strengthen local capabilities and specially, it is
a potential in meeting local needs.

Models of Technology transfer

1. Top-down Technology Transfer Model
- One way process
- Weak in involving farmers
- Works well in activities focused on single commodity in a relatively uniform and
predictable environment.
- fixed roles or participant (R-E-F) and little flexibility for the human element.
2. Feedback Technology Transfer (FTT) Model
- Feedback function remains vested exclusively with the extension service.
3. Modified FTT Model
- Scientist is isolated from the farmer; depends on poor/incomplete information from
extension in designing.
- fix roles of R-E-F.
4. Famer-Back-to-Farmer Model
- Research begins and ends with framers
- Extensionist is the active participant in diagnosis, design, on-farm & experiment station
testing, farmer evaluation/adaptation, monitoring of its adoption.
- Farmer is involved in all stages of FSRE
- Basically dynamic mode; no fixed role to various participants (R-E-F)
5. Farmer First Method – aimed at generating choices to enable farmers to experiment, adapt and
innovate; provides approaches for mainstreaming farmers in research; and a new
view on the “outsider” roles.
6. Beyond the “Farmer First” – answering to the weakness of the farmer first model, perspective
is shifting to “beyond the farmer first”. This perspective provides analytical depth
and presents more radical programs that incorporate a socio-politically
differentiated view of development where factors such as age, gens, ethnicity
class and religion are related.

UNIT 2 EXTENSION AS ONE OF THE MAJOR FUNCTIONS

 OF A UNIVERISTY/COLLEGE

2.1 Function of a University

Section 2 of Republic Act No. 4498 known as “An Act to Convert Mindanao Agricultural
College into Central Mindanao University and to authorize the Appropriation of Additional
Funds therefore” spells out the purposes of the Central Mindanao University as:
The University shall provide programs of instruction at all levels in the arts, sciences,
technical, professional, educational, and philosophical fields, and shall concern itself with “pure”
and “applied” research in all branches of knowledge of the intellectual and professional growth of
faculty members, for the advance instruction of students, particularly graduate students and for
increasing knowledge and understanding.

Article 3 on the General Provisions of RA 4498 states that:

The purposes of the University shall be to provide programs of instruction and extension
at all levels in the arts, sciences, technical, professional, educational and philosophical fields ofr
the intellectual and professional growth of faculty members, for the advance instruction of
students, particularly graduate student and of increasing know ledged and understanding.

Vision of the Central Mindanao University

CMU envisions to become the center of excellence instruction, research and extension in
agriculture, sciences and other related disciplines not only in Mindanao but the entire country as
well.
The vision has been guided by service to mankind, education for all, equity in educational
opportunities and democratized access to education.

Mission of CMU
The CMU as an institution of higher learning shall strive for excellence in instruction,
research and extension. It shall train and equip its graduates with competencies for entrepneurship
and employment in development agencies and agro-industrial enterprises to bring about change
and improvement in the quality of live of the deprived disadvantaged and underserved sectors in
Mindanao.
The University shall promote quality and competence in teaching provides adequate
instructional facilities, generate and apply knowledge to solve practical problems obtained in its
service area.

Her Excellency Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo acknowledges the role of university in community

development in her speech during the 2002. Convention of the Extension Program
Implementation (PAEPI), as quoted:
It is in the area of extension program implementation that our academic institution has
made significant difference in the community. Extension programs are rich sources of wisdom
and a vast frontier of research, where ideas, concepts and formulations can be put to the rest and
validated in real life situations and scenarios.

2.2 Interrelationship of the different functions of a college/University.

Research is the fuel that powers the engine of new technology and the development derived from
it. Agricultural extension is widely accepted as the governmental function that is responsible for
providing information and educational services to famers about new technology.
Extension and research are like Siamese twins. They have a lasting relationship born out
of the need for each other. Without research, extension is likened to a hollow drum; without
extension, research is like a fruitless tree, Though an extensionis need not be an experienced
researcher, he/she must recognised that the inputs of a research make extension work richer and
fuller. Though a researcher need not be a committed extensionist, he/she must appreciate that
his/her research outputs are useless without extension that enables any end-user to benefit from
the discovered knowledge, values and technology. Research the discovered knowledge. Extension
should be able to utilize researcher to enhance the content of their extensions work.
Research, basic or applied, is an obligation of a professor. However, research becomes a
useless and expensive exercise if it is not disseminated in terms of technology to the end-users in
the surrounding communities through the extension arms of the University. Thus, the three
functions are interrelated and cannot be separated. The absence of one makes the University
inadequate and ineffective as a hallmark of knowledge.

2.3 Sources of Information and Technologies

The Extension Delivery Systems (EDS);
the organized mechanism to bring the required knowledge, skills and when
necessary, material resources that the farmer and his/her family need in their quest
for an improved quality of life.
Components of EDS:
 A Research system
 An extension or diffusions system (Change system)
 The farmers (Clients system)

Agricultural Knowledge Information System (AKIS) (Roling 1987)

An Agricultural Information System

- A system in which agricultural information is generated, transformed transferred,
consolidated, received and fed back in such a manner that these processes function
synergistically to underpin knowledge utilization by agricultural producers.

An Agricultural Knowledge System

- A system of beliefs, cognitions, models, theories, concept and other products of the
mind in which the experience of a person or group with respect to agricultural
production is accumulated.

UNIT 3 COMMUNICATION IN EXTENSION

3.1 Importance of Communication

Even the average person who has not studied Sociology would know instinctively the
importance of communication in society. Communication is the fabric that holds society
together.
Society is people talking, working, living, and dying together. Society is a consensus
among people – they agree on certain norms and rules of behaviour that govern their living
together. Without consensus there would be no society but anarchy.
To achieve consensus, people must be able to communicate to each other their wants
and desires, their attitudes and ideas. This power to communicate is what makes man superior
to animals.
The role of communication in society may be categorized into:
1. Political Role
- Disseminating Information
- Creating Public Opinion
- Reflecting Public Opinion
- Watchdog on Government
2. Economic Role
3. Social Role
- Popular Culture
- Building a Nation
- Entertaining a Nation
4. Development Function

3.2 Element of the Communication Process

Definition of Communication
It is the process by which a source sends a message to a receiver by means of some
channel in order to produce a response from the receiver, in accordance with the intention of the
source. Key point that underlie the definition of communication.
1. Communication is a process
2. The process consist of 5 basic elements
3. The effectiveness of communication is achieved if the receiver’s response matches
with the intention of the source.

As a process, communication is said to be:

 On going
 Cyclic
 Ever-changing
  With no beginning and no end
 Interdependent
 Interrelated

Reason why we discuss communication as a process

The emphasis on the concept of process stems from the need to change the early
notion of communication as a one-way, unilinear activity
Because of the continuous, cyclic, ever-changing nature of a process, we must
necessarily view communication as a two-way, multidimensional, interactional activity.

3.2.1 Elements of the Communication Process

1. Source
The source may be an individual or group of individuals or an organization/ the source
has a purpose for initiating the communication which he expresses in his message. He wants a
specific response from the receiver.
Factors that affect fidelity of the source
 Communication skills
 Knowledge level
 Attitude
o Towards self
o Towards subject matter
o Towards receiver
 Socio-culture system
o Status
o Role
o Prestige
o Belief and values
o Expectations

2. Message
The message is the new idea, innovation or technology that the source want the receiver
to know, understand, accept and act upon.
A message has three factors:
 Code - any group of symbols that can be structured in such a way that it is meaningful to
some person (e.g. language, music)
 Content – the material in the message selected by the source to express his purpose.
For example, in research paper or report, the message content includes the
writer’s assertions, information presented, and conclusions drawn.
 Treatment – the decisions which the source makes in selecting and arranging both code
and content. When a journalist writes an article, for example, he makes decisions as the
content which he will include in his article, the angle of the story, and the words he will
use.

Principle of Meaning
When we say –
“Meaning is in people, not in works,” or “Meanings are not in the message; they are in the
message users,” we imply that:
 The meaning that man attaches to a certain object or event is the result of his past
learning experience.
 Since no two individuals can have exactly the same experiences, they cannot have exactly
the same meanings.
 It is only to the extent that people have had similar experiences that they can share similar
meanings.
 To the extent that they share similar meaning. They can communicate.

3. Channel
A channel is the medium or means by which a message travels between a source and a
receiver.
Determination of channels is determined by:
 Availability of resources
  Money
 Source preferences
 Which channels are received by the most people at the lowest cost
 Which channels have most adaptable to the kind of purpose of the source
 Which channels are most adaptable to the content of the message
o Interpersonal channels:
 Gatekeeper
 Opinion leader
o Mass media channels
 Print
 Broadcast
 Audiovisual (electronic and non-electronic)

4. Receiver
The receiver is the person or group of persons at the other end of the communication.
They are the target of the communication. The receiver listens when the source talks, the receiver
reads what the source writes.
Because we cannot predict with complete accuracy the way our receivers will perceive
and respond to our message, we must try our best to understand his.
 Psychological
 Social psychological
 Sociological make-up

KNOW YOUR AUDIENCE is a basic principle in communication. The more we know and
understand our audience; the theatre is the like hood of successful communication.

5. Effect
Effect is the difference between what a receiver thinks feels and does before and after
exposure to a message. It is always expressed in behavioural terms.
In extension-communication, the desired effect is usually adaption of an innovation.
Who is an effective communicator?
 Some who gets the effects he wants from the receiver after communicating with him.
 How does a communicator determine the effects he wants from the receiver.
 He must have a purpose, or an objective expressed in behavioural terms.
 How does a communicator know if he has been effective or not?
 If his purpose is equal to effect or: P=E.
 If the effect elicited by the receiver is not equal to purpose, he has not been effective or:
P≠ E.
Purpose: To make farmers adopt multiple cropping
Effect : A farmer adopt multiple cropping
Therefore : P =E (source was effective)
Effect 2 : A farmer did not adopt but gained knowledge about multiple
cropping
Therefore : P=E (source was not effective)

What are the determinants of effect?

 Characteristics of the source (Sc)
 Characteristics of the message (MC)
 Characteristics of the channel (Cc)
 Characteristics of the receiver (Rc)
 Resources available to the Receiver (Re)

Feedback
Feedback is information sent or fed back by the receiver intentionally or unintentionally the
source. It may also come from any of the elements of communication.
Who benefits from feedback?
 Feedback is source oriented
 Tells whether the receiver is paying attention, understands or is bored with the
presentation.
 Tells whether the source should adjust his presentation
Feedback Principles
  Feedback allows a communicator to monitor his performance and effectiveness
 Positive feedback boosts communicator’s morale and enables him to perform more
communicative acts.
 Negative feedback or absence of it leads to discouragement and “kills” the source’s
motivation.
 Taking heed of feedback from a receiver will encourage him to give subsequent
feedback.
 Some communicators ignore/distort feedback because they:
o View communication as one-way
o Feel threatened by feedback
o Are not interested in communication effect.

Levels or Communication
Communication has always been classified into three levels, namely: intrapersonal,
interpersonal and mass communication (Flor and Contado-Ongkiko, 1998).
Intrapersonal Communication involves talking with oneself. In English, we learned
that “intra” is a prefix that means within, thus intrapersonal communication means
communication within oneself. This may sound odd but we introspect. Especially when we have
made a big mistake, we immediately chide own ourselves. It may also be when we proofread our
own work (dinampo, 1994)
The prefix “inter” means between which connotes that interpersonal communication
involves more than one person just like when you talk to your friend. This is also known as face-
to-face communication. However, the definition for this level of communication evolved to
“person-to-person communication” which caters to a communication situation wherein “one
person communicates with a room full of people at on time but still on a person to person basis:
just like in theatre and puppetry (Flor and Contado-onkiki, 1998). Moreover, this definition also
includes mediated communication like when you talk over the telephone with your friends.
When coverage or the number of people receiving a message is enlarge, such that it
reaches to a heterogeneous audience this is now called as mass communication. Furthermore, this
necessitates the use of communication technologies that could reach these people instantaneously
like radio, tv, movies, bulletin, newsletters, leaflets, posters and others.
However, this classification s considered traditional. The new categorization of the
breadth of the field of communication (DEVC 201,2000) includes the following:
1. Intrapersonal communication – jargon for thinking
2. Interpersonal communication – communication between people exists on a continuum.
3. Group and team communication – transforms a collection of individuals into a cohesive
group
4. Public communication – public speaking
5. Media and new technologies – new term for mass communication
6. Organizational communication – personal relationships in professional settings
7. Intercultural communication – between people from different culture, either inside a
country or between and among countries.
8. Transpersonal communication – communicating with a supreme being.

Extension Workers as a Communicator

After learning the nature of communication, how can extension workers and the message
motivate farmers, housewives, the youth or any sector in society? Information is a higher quality
of like. Moreover, Bueno, et. al (no date) assert that once receivers have adopted an innovation,
one of the roles of an extension workers is to give reinforcement of the changes they have made.
It is not enough that your master the agricultural technologies you are going to share to
you audience. As communicators, extension workers must possess certain traits, skills and
knowledge to be effective.

Knowledge
There are four aspects, extension workers must be knowledgeable of: oneself, hot to
communicate, subject matter and the receiver (Dinampo, 1994).
There is always a room for change! Thus, in order to row into a more effective
communicator, extension workers need to know their strengths and weaknesses. Hone more their
potentials and overcome their weak points.
“Knowledge in and of itself is sterile but knowledge in the hands of a skilled
communicator is power and a source of change.” As opinion leader, extension workers must kept
abreast of the recent technological advances especially in agriculture. The rural farmers often rely
on information given by extension works. In fact, in my study on Bukidnon corn farmers, it was
found out that government particularly the DA technicians remains the preferred source of
information on both Bt corn technology and field testing. This means that the respondents
perceived government to be credible. Despite the economic crisis and pas government
intervention program, the corn farmers still believe on the government’s capability to help them
alleviate from poverty. Moreover, studies show that well-informed sources are likely to be more
successful than the poorly informed source.
One of the cardinal principles in communication is “know your audience.” Just like in
war, it is vital to know your enemies in order to apply the best strategy to become victorious.
Likewise, communicators must know the information needs and resources of their audience in
order to fit the information, communication code, channel and other to the level of their audience.

Attitudes
From the very beginning, extension workers must have a favourable attitude toward their
role, subject matter, and most of all their audience. Dictoionaries define attitude as the
“predisposition to response in any situation, person or thing.” Bettinghauz claims that
communication is more likely to be effective if the source is highly favourable toward the
receiver. The favourable or unfavourable attitude of a person is manifested in his/her behaviour.
Norman Vincent Peale advocates positive thinking.

Communication Skills
Furthermore, aside from being optimistic and knowledgeable, extension workers need to
develop good communication skills: the ability to writes, speak, read, listen and even reason. In
conveying advances in agriculture, one needs to have highly developed communication skills in
order to make messages understandable to receivers.

Socio-cultural System
As members of a social system, extension workers are affiliated with groups
organizations, governed by norms and rules and other that mold thyme to play their respective
roles in society.
However, Bettinghauz also espoused that there are certain characteristics of the source as
perceived by the receivers. These are credibility, homophony and empathy. Credibility is “the
perceived believability of the source on the basis of competence, trustworthiness and dynamism.’
If one is credible, one is more likely to influence the audience. On the other hand, when receivers
feel that the source possess certain characteristics which make them alike with the audience like
in age, sex, languages, regional, background, beliefs and values, this contributes to effective
communication, homophily can be achieved through more communication and interaction
between the communicators. Ever wondered why when meeting people for the first time just like
when travelling alone in a bus, you search for something that you and the stranger has in common
– birthplace school, organizational affiliations, ethnic origin and others. This establishes good
rapport and ensures smooth and effective communication. Lastly, empathy is the “ability to part
oneself in another person’s place psychologically” this is important to understand what the other
feel and thinks and predict their reaction or behaviour to a message.

Barriers to Effective Communication

The social thread that weaves all processes in the society is communication thus
communication is the most basic social process. In fact, as man belongs to a higher social
organization, it is necessary for his survival. One is dependent on communication from cradle to
the grave. As it is so much part of human existence, it is sometimes taken for classifies meaning
into four types: denotative, connotative, structural and contextual meanings. Denotative meaning
or otherwise known as the dictionary meaning is concerned with the relationship between a sign
and an object while structural meaning deals with the sign-sign relationship. The third dimension
or meaning is a meaning an organism extracts from the formal relationship of structural and
denotative means. Lastly, connotative meaning is concerned with social reality thus it is a
relationship between a sign, an object and a person. Thus, meanings result from two factors: in
the individual and the physical world around him. Equally important, man cooperates on the
principles of least effort, non-interference and discriminative capacity in learning meanings (Dy).
Inasmuch as meanings are perceived based on one’s frame of reference, words and phrases that
are used may not evoke the same image in anther’s mind thus one should be specific as possible.
Do not assume that everyone knows what you are talking about.
 In our study of communication, the model by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver in
1947 was the first to introduce the element of noise in the communication process. In layman’s
term, noise is anything that distracts. In like manner, Shannon and Weaver defined noise “as
factors that distort the quality of a signal: (Berlo, 1960). Thus, anything that would affect, most
often lessen the effectiveness of a communication act, is considered as noise.
There are many ways of labelling the different conditions that affect the communication
process, as there are many authors, what matter most is an awareness of these barriers in order
that appropriate steps are taken to address them. To simplify our discussion of this, let us adopt
the categories of barriers to effective communication of for and Contad-Onkiko (1998). They are
environmental factors, channel noise, semantic noise and socio-psychological barriers.
Conditions in the place where communication process take place may distract the
audience from paying attention just like poor lighting conditions, uncomfargavle charis, poor
ventilation. Famishe audience and others. These are just some examples of environmental factors
while the ringing of cell phone during meeting, wrong spelling, static, dead air during radio
broadcast and others can be considered as channel noise. They affect the during radio broadcast
and others can be considered as channel noise. They affect the channel or medium used in sharing
something to someone. Factors external to the communication like environmental factors and
channel noise are collectively under physical barriers.
When words with double meanings are used, semantic noise occurs, these wards have the
tendency to be misunderstood when heard or read. Most often these words have the tendency to
be received as sent but the meaning recied is different from what the source ment. Surly, you
have had experienced these language problems due to cultural differences.
Factors within the persons engage in the communication act that influence perception of
meaning like emotional blocks, charisma, stereotyping, negative first impressions and abset-
mindedness are example of socio- psychological barriers. Moreover, ethnocentrism, past
experience, beliefs and practices also serve as challenges to communicators. In addition,
Suva(200) considers the following as socio-psychological barriers also: inadequate image of the
other (failure to know the audience); ignorance; two valued evaluation/orientation; projection;
belief; differences in language/ dialect and attitude.

UNIT 4. THE ADOPTION PROCESS

4.1 Stages of Adoption Process

The tradition five-stage adoption process (Rogers with Shoemaker 1971)
1. Awareness stage – the individual learns of the existence of the new idea but lacks
information about it.
2. Interest stage – the individual develops interest in the innovation and seeks additional
information about it.
3. Evaluation stage – the individual makes mental application of the new idea to his present
and anticipated future situation and decides whether or not to try.
4. Trial stage – the individual actually applies the new idea on a small scale in order to
determine its utility in ones own situation.
5. Adoption stage – the individual uses the new idea continuously on a full scale.

Criticisms of the adoption process.

1. The process seems to always end in adoption decisions, when rejection may also be a
likely outcome.
2. The five stages may not always occur in specified order, the trial stage may be skipped
and evaluation stage may occur throughout the whole process.
3. Adoption may not always be the end process but more information may be needed to
confirm, reinforce or switch decision.

A model of innovation-decision process:

1. Knowledge – the individual is exposed to the innovation’s existence and gains some
understanding of how it functions.
2. Persuasion – the individual forms a favourable or unfavourable attitude toward the
innovation.
3. Decision – the individual engages in activities which lead to a choice to adopt or reject the
innovation.
 4. Confirmation – the individual seeks reinforcement for the innovation-decision made, but
may reverse previous decision if exposed to conflicting messages about the innovation.
 An innovation is an idea, practice or object perceived as new by an individual,
something new and novel in human knowledge and experience.
 Technology is a means of performing or a capacity to perform a particular
activity; generated by research, inventive farmers and other; considered as a
symbol of modernization.
 Innovation-decision process is the mental process through which an individual
passes from first knowledge of an innovation to a decision to adopt or reject and
to confirmation of this decision. Innovation-decision period is the length of time
required to pass through the innovation-decision process. Adoption of innovation
is primarily an outcome of a learning and decision-making process.
 Diffusion is defined as the acceptance over time of some specific item – an idea
or practice, by individuals, group or other adapting units, linked to specific
channel of communication to a social structure and to a given system of values or
culture. Diffusion of innovations is major source of social technical and
environmental change.
 Diffusion effect is the cumulatively increasing degree of influence upon an
individual within a social system to adopt or reject an innovation.
 Over adoption is defined as the adoption of an innovation by an individual when
experts feel he/she should reject. Reasons for over adoption include insufficient
knowledge about the new idea; inability to predict its consequences, a mania for
the new.
 Adoption of a new idea is the result of human interaction.
 Symbolic adoption is defined as mental acceptance of an innovation without
necessarily “putting it into practice”.
 Sequential adoption is adoption of a part of a pacage of technology initially and
subsequently adds components over time.
 Innovation dissonance is the discrepancy between an individual’s attitude toward
an innovation and ones decision to adopt or reject an innovation. Discontinuance
is an decision to cease use of an innovation after previously adopting it, with two
types:
a. replacement discontinuance – an innovation is rejected because a better idea supersedes
it;
b. disenchantment discontinuances – an innovation is rejected as a result of dissatisfaction
with its performance.
 The rate of awareness-knowledge of an innovation is more rapid than its rate of
adoption.
 Earlier adopters have shorter innovation-decision period than later adopters.

4.2 Types of Adopters/Adopter Categories

Adopter categories are the classification of the members of a social system on the basis of
innovativeness. Innovativeness is the degree to which an individual is relatively earlier in
adopting new ideas that the other members of the system. Innovativeness is the best single
indicator of modernization. Modernization is defined as the process by which individuals change
from a traditional wasy of life to a more complex, technologically advance, and rapidly changing
style of life.

Adopter categories as ideal types:

1. Innovators: Venturesome (2.5%)
They are eager to try new ideas, cosmopolites and desire the hazardous, the rash, the daring and
the risky but willing to accept occasional setback.
2. Early Adopters: Respectable (13.5%)
They are more integrated in local social system, localites, high degree of opinion leadership and
respected by peers.
3. Early Majority: Delibrate (43%)
They adopt new ideas just before the average member of a social system; rarely hold leadership
position; deliberate before completely adopting a new idea. Their motto; “Be not the last to lay
the old aside, nor the first by which the new is tried”.
4. Late Majority: Skeptical (34%)
They adopt new ideas just after the average member of a social system; cautious. Adoption my be
both an economic necessity and the answer to increasing social pressures.
 5. Laggards: Traditional (16%)
Laggards are the last to adopt an innovation, possess no opinion leadership; most localities near
isolates: points of reference is the past; frankly suspicious; attention is fixed on rear-view mirror.
 If the cumulative number of adopters is plotted, the result is an S-shaped curve;
follow bell-shaped curve over time and approach normality
 Opinion leadership is the degree to which an individual is able to influence
informally other individuals attitudes or overt behaviour in a desired way with
relative frequency. Opinion leader are ‘the person to check with’ and play an
important role in the diffusion of innovations. Polymorphism is the degree to
which an individual acts as an opinion leader for a variety of topics.
Monomorphism is the tendency for an individual to act as an opinion leader for
only one topic.
 Opinion leaders are more innovative than their followers.
 Heterophily is the degree to which pairs of individuals who interact are different
in certain attributes such as beliefs, values, edcain, social status, etc. Homophily
is the degree to which pairs of individuals who interact are similar in certain
attributes.
 Communication integration is the degree to which the units in a social system are
interconnected by interpersonal communication channels which is positively
related to the rate of innovation adoption.
Earlier adopters have more years of education that late adopters
Literate higher social status
Larger farms commercial economic orientation
Favourable attitude towards credit
Favourable attitude towards change
Favourable attitude towards risks
Less fatalistic higher aspirations
Cosmopolite change agent contact
Expose to mass media
Expose to interpersonal communication
Higher degree of opinion leadership

UNIT 5 ATTRIBUTES OF TECHNOLOGY

There are five attributes by which any innovation may be described. However, it is the
receivers perceptions of the attributes of innovations not the attributes as classified by experts or
change agents, which affect their rate of adoption. Perception is a person’s interpretation of
reality.
1. Relative Advantages – is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being better
than the idea it supersedes. Sub dimensions of relative advantage include degree of
economic profitability, low initial cost lower perceived risk, decrease in discomfort, saving
in time and effort, immediacy of reward.
 The relative advantage of a new idea, as perceived by members of a social
system, is positively related to its rate of adoption.
 Incentives function to increase the degree of relative advantage of the new idea.
2. Compatibility – is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as consistent with the
existing values, past experiences and needs of the receivers. It ensures greater security and
less risk to the receiver and makes the new idea more meaningful.
The compatibility of a new idea, as perceived by members of a social system, is
positively related to its rate of adoption.
3. Complexity – is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as relatively difficult to
understand and use. Some innovations are clear in their meaning to potential adopter, other
are not.
 The complexity of an innovation as perceived by members of a social system, is
negatively related to its rate of adoption.
4. Trialability – is the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with on a limited
basis. New ideas that can be tried on the instalment plan will generally be adopted more
rapidly than innovations that are not divisible.
 The trialability of an innovation, as perceived by members of a social system is
positively related to its rate of adoption.
 5. Obesrvability – is the degree to which the result of an innovation are visible to other (or
communicability). The result of some ideas are easily observed and communicated to
others, whereas some innovations are difficult to describe to others.
 The observability of an innovation, as perceived by members of a social system,
is positively related to its rate of adoption.
 Rate of adoption is the relative speed with which an innovation is adopted by
members of a social system, measured as the number of receivers who adopt a
new idea in a specified time period.
 49 -87% of the variance in rate of adoption could be explained by the five
attributes of innovations.
 At the knowledge stage, the innovation’s complexity and compatibility should be
most important.
 At the persuasion stage, the innovation’s relative advantage and observability
should be the most important.
 At the decision stage, the innovation’s trialability should be the most important.

UNIT 6 METHODS/TECHNIQUES OF EXTENSION

6.1 Definition of Methods/Techniques

Mass media, group and individual or face-to-face are the three main groups of extension methods.
1. Mass media such as print and electronic media help extension agents to reach large numbers
of farmers simultaneously. However, there is little opportunity for these farmers to interact
among themselves or to provide feedback to the extension agents. Mass media offer the least
expensive media to carry massages to large number of people. It can accelerate existing
change process, but seldom bring about changes in behaviour by themselves, this is because
sender and receiver tend to empty several selective processes when using mass media, which
other result in the receiver distorting the sender’s message.
2. Group methods such formal lecture, demonstrations and meetings reach fewer farmers but
offer more opportunities for interaction and feedback. This method reaches one select part of
the target group because only those who are interested or farmers’ group come to the
meeting. Formal lectures normally provide fewer opportunities for interaction than group
discussions. Although informal talks usually involve adequate interaction than group
discussions, although informal talks usually involve adequate interaction and feedback
opportunities.
3. Individual extension consists mainly of a dialogue between extension agent and farmer.

6.2 Factors to Consider in the Choice of Extension Teaching

With changing educational goals, the choice of extension teaching becomes important.
How is an extension worker to decide what extension method he is to use?
The following factors help determine this:
1. Rural People are not all alike
a. People differ in nationally, culture background, schooling, occupation, religion,
income, organization membership, size family, attachment to local community, in size
of farms their attitudes, habits and actions and responses.
b. these affect their attitudes, habits, and actions and Reponses
2. People do not live alone
a. People satisfy desire for group association in a number of ways.
b. People associate with their own kind and just naturally from groups
c. Extension can serve people along group organizational lines,
3. Tremendous power in Group
a. People are likely to act when in group
4. Local Community is the Main Group
a. Most human relations are carried on within a fairly small area, in nearby places, i.e.
churches, schools, community centres etc.
b. A local unit of Extension organization is necessary to reach a majority of people.
c. Extension teaching must be base on group life below the province level, (generally at
the barrio level.)
5. People want Security, Recognition and Response
a. Psychological security is needed in addition to economic security.
b. Extension teaching must be based on group life below the province level.
6. People have objectives, hopes, standards and values.
 a. Social objectives are necessary together with economic objectives.
b. People differ in their goals and standards, depending upon age level, nationality,
education and religious values, etc.
7. Goals and Standards are determined by Family and Community
a. Objectives of farmers and housewives are mostly geared to needs of family.
b. Motivation should be made on the basis of family-community circumstances.

8. Principles of involvement
a. Effective teaching and responses are attained when people are concerned and involved
in the planning process.
9. People like to do things for themselves, and they do not like to be over urged.
a. People respond better when the approach is made on self-analysis basis; made to feel
that the program is theirs and not that of the extension workers.
10. People learn from others, but not just from anybody
a. The power of influence of the informal leaders is great and should be used.
b. Leaders must be accepted leaders with large following.
c. extension workers must learn to identify these leaders.

Ways of Reaching Your Extension Audience

1. Through the Family Case Method (also known as Farm or Home Visit)
Extension information is provided on a family or individual case basis. This is the simplest
way of doing extension works, for no majors’ organization is involved.
Advantage: Program can be adjusted to fit the individual case. Personal attention can be
given to the individual’s educational problem.
Disadvantage: requires too much time; no opportunities for group participation,
leadership development, group learning, and group action.
2. Through the Key Family Case Method
Individual casework is purposely done with key families who have influence over other. It is
simple form of teaching people.
Advantage: serves more families with less time than family case.
Disadvantage: Requires skill and time to locate and develop key families.
3. Through the Project Leader Idea
Certain persons are selected as project leaders or teaching leader, who serves as local point of
contact. Project leader is trained in a subject, then in turn train others.
Advantage: helps to multiply the hands of the extension agent and at the same time
promote leadership development.
Disadvantage: Program limited to specialties in subject matter; other areas of problems of
subject matter may be neglected.
4. Through the Country Planning or Advisory Council
Provides a way of finding felt needs and interest of the people, and discovering real problems.
This leads towards good program development and also contributes toward ship development.
Advantage: involvement of people. Development of leaders
Disadvantage: as the leaders are handpicked, and not democratically selected, they may
not truly represent the people and council may be misused.
5. Through the Inside-Extension Club
This is common in home demonstration or home economics work where groups are organized
by extension and meet regularly for extension lessons,
Advantage: Group help to keep extension more clearly before the people, promote unity
of feeling and purpose, develop personality and leadership, provide social
function for members, and can multiply the hand of the agent.
Disadvantage: members of such a group easily become close friends and use the club as
group of people in the community and the educational purpose may become lost.
6. Through Direct-Purpose-Sponsor Organization
Similar to #5, except that the local club is organize by some allied sponsoring organization,
such as Farm Bureau, Home Bureau etc., rather than organized by extension
Advantage: extension has the advantage of a ready-made organization without the trouble
of doing the organizing.
Disadvantage: the sponsoring organization may goals or objectives which differ from that
extension.
7. Through Miscellaneous- Regular Local Organizations
Well suited to communities where people belong to one or more well-organized groups’ such
as PTA, Church and others.
 Advantage: Same advantage as found in #6.
Disadvantage: same disadvantages as #6. Also many people may not belong to such
organizations.
8. Through Farmer’s Commodity Organization
Common in areas where agriculture us highly specialized. Provides an excellent means of
reaching people in the community.
Advantage: working with organizations which belong to the people, and with farmers
which all have common commodity problems.
Disadvantage: Agents often have to serve as officers in the organization, and many
farmers, may not belong to the organization.
9. Through a Whole Community Organization Plan
Whole community functions as one large group representing the people. Various functional
committees are set up to handle different phases, including farming, home making etc.
Advantage: same as #5 provisions for unity in the community. Makes it easy to reach
many people and puts community influence back of recommended practices.
Develops interest and leadership and provides means of achieving farm home,
and community development programs.
Disadvantage: may not work where the community already has several strong
organizations.

SUMMARY

The education of adults is not a simple process Extension workers, if they are to be
successful in their career, must learn as much as they can about how different individuals react to
learning experiences. It is important to know that each person is different and will be bringing his
differences with him when he is learning.
1. Begin where people are, with what they are ready to learn. Deal with something with
which they are familiar but add something new to stimulate their curiosity and
interest in unrecognized needs.
2. Take people one step at a time.
3. Remember that size and difficulty of the steps should be such that the people (earning)
can handle them.
4. Build each step on preceding step. Relate later learning experiences to earlier learning
experiences.
5. Adjust steps that are taken not only to the audience, but to individuals in the audience.
Consider their readiness to learn, their familiarity with that to be learned, and their
speed of learning.
6. Integrate with life situation to show meaning, application, variety of situations in
which the learning applies.
7. Use flexible steps. Discern the time when the audience is ready for certain learning
experiences.
8. Put you in the other person’s shoes; think the way the audience does.
9. Be less positive and more tolerant of one’s judgements and mistakes because of the
frailties and inaccuracy of powers of perception.
10. Remember that meanings are in people, now in words.
11. Remember that what the receiver thinks the sender said is more important than what
sender said. The action the receiver takes deepens more on what the receiver thins the
sender said than on what the sender said.
12. Don’t let what you have learned in the past interfere with what you can learn in the
future.
Following these rules, together with a thorough understanding of the communication
process and the diffusion process should make you a more understanding and perceptive teacher.

Formulation of Objectives

An objective is defined as a direction of movement. It serves as the basis for undertaking

all the various extension or program activities. Objectives are of three levels: fundamental,
general and working or operational. The fundamental objectives are expressed in legislation and
in charters of organizations.
 Example: “to make the small farmers more independent, self-reliant, and responsible
citizens, and a source of genuine strength in our democratic society (R.A. No. 3844. Agriculture
Land Reform Code, Philippines).
The general objectives are more definite social statements expressing the general
purposes of the extension organization. These are generally mentioned when extension staff and
leaders explains what their organization does. Examples: “To increase the net income of farmers
through more efficient production and marketing and the better use of credit.”
The working objectives are specific and clear-cut. They are known ad operational
objectives. Derived from actual problems through full discussions with rural people and planners
together, they have the following characteristics: simple or specific (S), measurable (M),
attainable (A), realistic (R), time-bound (T). Examples: (1) to increase the yield of rice by at least
20 percent after two cropping seasons. (2) To organize a viable farmer organization at the end of
the program duration.
Objectives, specially working objectives, should be expressed in behavioural terms and
are classified into domains. The three domains of behavioural objectives are cognitive affective
and psychomotor.

A. Cognitive Domain
1. Knowledge. Remembering of previously learned terms, facts, symbols, principles:
Define identifies labels matches
Lists names states outlines
Recalls recognizes selects
2. Comprehension. Grasps meaning of material
Converts depends distinguishes reorders
Extendsestimates infers differentiates
Predicts translates summarizes explains
3. Application. Uses leaned materials in new and concrete situation
Demonstration predicts organizes prepares
Manipulates relates classifies produces
Computes modifies operates solves
4. Analysis. Breaks down materials into its components/ parts so that its organizational
structure can be understood.
Breaks down separates differentiates categorizes
Selects points out subdivides outlines
5. Synthesis. Put parts together to form new whole patterns
Combines produces revises devices
Designscompiles proposes generates
6. Evaluation. Judges the value of material (poem, novel, research, report, etc.)
Appraises concluded criticizes relates
Supports justifies interprets summarizes

B. Affective Domain
1. Receiving. Willingness to attend to a particular stimuli or phenomenon
Asks selects chooses uses
Holds points to
2. Responding. Active participation on the parts of the students
Answer assists greets helps
Performs presents selects
3. Valuing. Concerned with worth or value the individual attaches to a particular objects,
phenomenon, or behaviour.
Differentiates initiates justifies proposes
Sinares works
4. Organization. Concerned with bringing together different values, resolving conflicts
between them, and beginning the building of an internally consistent value system.
Adheres alters arranges combines
Completes defends integrates modifies
Organizes synthesises
5. Psychomotor Domain
Assembles builds calibrates changescleans
Composes hammers heats hooks identifies
Corrects creates designs fixes contracts
Designing the Strategy

As soon as the objectives have been set, the next task is to determine and design the
strategy or approaches to be used. A strategy is a combination of means to achieve the program or
course objectives.
The strategy may include the following:
1. Selecting the approaches for change. There are various approaches that may be used
for affecting change. Some of these approaches are the following:
a. Institutional approach. The clientele are trained and organized into association or
cooperatives. The association serves as the channel for all the essential and
economic services and other related activities provided by either public or private
sources.
b. Commodity approach. This approach uses the different types of commodities
(crops, livestock, multiple cropping, irrigation, crop protection, nutrition, family
planning, etc.)
c. Integrated program approach. In this approach, all the concerns of the community
are considered in the development program. The concept of this approach is that
community needs problems are interrelated and therefore should be worked out
together or simultaneously for more effective rural development program.
2. Determining alternative solutions to problems. Solution to problems and needs are
based on available information and technology. There is, however, a need to find out
and select the most appropriate information or technology to adapt it to the
community situation and available resources in the area.
3. Choosing appropriate extension and communication techniques. A number of
extension teaching methods may be used to disseminate information or transfer
technology. These depend on the kind of intended changes or outcomes. Extension
teaching methods may be in the form of individual contacts (farm or home visits)
group contact (farmer classes, etc.) and mass media (radio, etc.). The selection use of
the method, however, depend on the problem , situation, logistics, and other support
services.
4. Preparing the budget. An adequate budgetary estimate is necessary for reaching the
development targets. The allocation for each of the items in the budget should be
based on the organizational structure and personnel requirements; the operational
activities; equipment, if any, and other cost necessary for the implementation of the
project. Usually the budget is indicated by years or terms specifying the general items
of expenditures. Funding my be tapped from one or more sources. It may be
appropriated from public of government funds or contributions from the private
sector.

Sample of items that may be included in a budget

Year 1 Year 2 Year 3

I Personal Services
1. Salaries and wages _________ _________ _________
2. Honoraria for experts _________ _________ _________
3. Lump sum for other sevices _________ _________ _________
Sub-totals _________ _________ _________
II Maintenace and Operations
1. Supplies and materials _________ _________ _________
2. Travels and per diem _________ _________ _________
3. Training _________ _________ _________
4. Evaluation _________ _________ _________
Sub-totals _________ _________ _________
II
I Equipment _________ _________ _________
I
V Sundry/Miscllaneous _________ _________ _________
V Contigency _________ _________ _________
Grand-total _________ _________ _________
 5. Enlisting the support and active participation of residents of the community. A
significant part of the project is the participation of involvement of the people for
whom the development activities are intended. To get their participation or
involvement, the community people or target clientele should understand the project
very well – its purposes, activities, why such activities are to be done, and benefits –
and know their part of responsibilities in the project. What kind of support is
expected of them? What important roles will they play in the project? The
community residents should be involved from the very initial stages up to the time of
completion of the project.
6. Establishing linkages with other institutions. Does the project/program need some form
of assistance? Where should such assistance come from? Which agencies or
institutions could possibly provide the assistance? Should the assistance/involvement
be in the form of expert services, funding, logistic support, or other forms of
services? All of thise shoud be clearly indicated and understood by all concerned.
Those who will be involved should be committed to the project. A memorandum of
understanding or agreement among the parties concerned may be necessary.

Planning the Program of Activities

This includes the plan and calendar of work of the project. In short, it is scheduling of
various project activities. A plan of work is an outline of activities so arranged as to able effective
execution of the entire program or course. It answers the question how, when, where, and by
whom the work is done. A calendar of work is a plan of work arranged ontologically. The
framework of such a calendar of works may be made out of for a month, six month, or even a
year or more. The project activities may also be divided into gets or phases.
The simplest way of preparing the plan of work may be in a tabular form that indicates
the problems, objectives, strategies or techniques, materials and logistics, persons agencies
involved, and he time period of the activity. The tabulation is in summary, hence it is very
convenient to use.

3 Extension teaching methods according to number of clientele to be served

3.1 Mass Methods

6.3.1.1 Mass Media
Mass refers to the “masa”, the common “tao” or the “bakya” crowd – the lowest mass in
the society which the majority of the Filipinos composed of. This derogatory annotation of the
definition of the mass is peculiar among Third World Countries like the Philippines and some
countries of South America. However, in the western definition, it simply means “the general
public”.
Medium means any form of device of equipment which is normally used to transmit
information between persons (Rossi and Biddle 1996). It emphasizes to which the object is being
used that makes it a medium.
A mass medium like radio is a tool for mass communicating.
Example:
a. Radio merely an object. When it is used to air or disseminate information to a large group
of people it becomes a medium.

Importance of Media in Extension Teaching/Development Communication Works

Media are important in extension teaching/development communication work because
according to Cadiz them posses certain properties which can enhance better that when learning is
shaped by face-to-face communication alone. In technology transfer, an important role of media
is to make information available in may rural areas so that farmers an use such information when
needed, even if extension workers/development communicators are unable to visit them.

3 Properties of Media (Gerlach and Ely 1980)

1. Fixative Property – the media capture, preserve or reconstitute and object or event,
making it available to the learner anytime and anyplace.
Example:
a. agricultural extension workers videotapes a TV show farm program relevant in
the situation of his client. He can use the video tape to reinforce his farmer’s
classes.
2. Manipulative Property – the media can transform the presentation of an object or even
offer many ways to save time; permit closer look, review an event that happened, or
simplify complex details.
Example:
a. a slide set or video program of any technology can present the process in less than
10 minutes even if the procedure actually takes longer.
3. Distributive Property – Media can present an identical experience simultaneously to a
large number of people, making up for the unavailability of extension workers/
development communicators.
Example:
a. A television farm program informs not only rice fames’ in Laguna but also those
in nearby province up to Central Luzon about the advantages of using a quick
multiplying tiny floating fern as green manure.

6.3.1.a Radio as Mass Medium

Radio is available in almost all countries, reaching mass audiences cheaply and
rapidly (Barhgouti 1973). Since radio is a tool for reaching our mass audiences, we must
know how to use it in order to be effective. And extension worker/development
communicator who will use radio as a medium of disseminating breakthroughs in
agriculture and natural resources must be aware of the medium’s advantages and
disadvantages/limitations. He/she must always remember that radio makes used of the
sound only, hence, the message can reach the audience’s nervous system only through the
use of the sense of hearing. It is proven that sounds have lesser impact to the memory
compared to the visual impressions.

Advantages of radio
1 Radio can reach a large number of people at one time
2 Radio can transmit message immediately
3 Radio transcends illiteracy and inadequately
4 Radio is more intimate and personalized than the print medium
5 Radio has emotional impact
6 Radio is companion medium
7 Radio is relatively inexpensive
8 Radio has high credibility among people
Disadvantages/limitations of radio
1 Radio lacks personal contact compared to face-to-face and group communication
2 Radio does not allow immediate feedback
3 Radio is inexorable
4 Radio’s being a companion medium can be a limitation, too
5 Radio is not an ideal medium for exposition of something inherently visual
6 It is very difficult to make complex actions or processes clear to an audience over
the radio.
7 Radio can be quickly discarded
8 There is always a limitation of time
9 Reaching a heterogeneous audience is a disadvantage
Because of these limitations, an extension worker/development communicator
depends more often on community radio station that prepare broadcast for specific
audience groups.

6.3.1.b Television as a Mass Medium

Television is an electronic system of transmitting images of fix or moving object
together with sounds (Webster, p. 1213)
The beauty of television lies in its ability to communicate or explain complicated
messages because of its combination of sound and picture (Barghouti 1975).
Advantages of television
1 Closest to face-to-face communication
2 Successful in reaching out to both literate and illiterate audiences
3 Enhances understanding and retention
Disadvantages of television
1 Accessibility and availability
2 Education / extension programs face serve competition from entertainment
programs.
 3 Preparation of development communication programs for TV requires much
planning, preparation, technical, creative, and communication skills than for
other media.
4 Cost money to produce and air TV programs
With these disadvantages, extension worker/ development communicator should
explore local television alternatives such as community cable stations.

6.3.1.c. Print
The utilization of print materials in dissemination breakthrough/development in
agriculture and natural resources takes serious consideration by the extension worker or
development communicator. He/she should think of the following.
 The kind of audience
 The size of audience
 The cost of production
Some kinds of Print Materials
 LEAFLET refers to a small, folded publication used to provide reference on
short and single subject matter.
 Contains brief information on a specific recommended practice.
 It may also treat a specific information that is not necessarily a step-by-
step procedural instruction to follow, but is also needed by the farmer.
 It has a size of 8 ½” x 13” (when unfolded)
 Has a maximum of two colors
 Has 4 to 6 number of pages (when folded). There are also leaflets folded
only into two.
 PAMPHELT is an introductory print material in the popular format.
 More than 4 pages containing essential information on a technology
package addressed to the community producers/farmer.
 Utilizes information on technologies proven to be viable in the local
where it is to be disseminated.
 POSTER refers to a single sheet visual printed on thick papers or boards
containing limited textual information and frequently dominant pictorial
presentation.

Popularly used in advertising and in campaigns. Lend well to making

announcements or creating awareness about innovations for varied audiences.
Posters are paced in public places to promote awareness and direct the audience
toward a source of more detailed information.
Sizes range from 11” x 14” to 22” x 28”. A 14” x 22” poster is considered by most
graphic designers as an ideal size in terms of economy in reproduction.
However, anyone is not limited to these sizes.
Uses of Posters
 Persuade, suggest and command
 Alert, warn, draw attention to something
 Dissuade or forbid
 Instruct and inform
 Advertise or sell products, ideas and services
Basic Classification of Posters
 Stop and study poster
 Single-glance poster
Types of poster
 Word or textual poster
 Picture-Photo poster
 Picture-text poster
 Symbolic Poster
Poster Categories
 Commercial Poster – Introduces and promotes products and services
 Art Poster-Introduces art exhibits in galleries or museums.
 Theatrical Poster-Introduces plays, shows, concerts, films and the like
 Political/Social Poster-introduces social/political ideas or issues.
 Propaganda Poster-intentional control of messages to achieve a political
objective.
 NEWSPAPER refers to a paper that is printed and distributed usually daily or likly
and that contains news, articles of opinion, features and advertising
(Webster, p. 796)
 Influential in creating awareness and mobilizing public opinion
 Present technical data in clearly designed text and provide detailed
information
 Capable of presenting important topics in a series of articles.
 Like other print media, articles can be shared or kept as reference materials.
 Audience is limited to those who can read
 Current prices make a newspaper relatively expensive
 Represents one-way communication thus feedback is difficult to monitor
 With high production cost, they are difficult for small communities or
organization to publish.
WALLNEWSPAPER publishes articles about research result and usually lacked
bulletin boards and walls.
 Can serve as a means of keeping researchers and extenionists in continuous
and active contact.
 Easy reading at a distance because it occupies a larger spread and using
larger text.
 A handful of readers may be reading the medium simultaneously, and such
a gathering may spawn discussion of the wall newspaper contents.
FACTSHEET is loose sheet containing information about a person, thing or
innovation
 Useful in keeping extension workers, educated famers and researchers
updated about agricultural technologies.
 Contents may be updated, depending on developments in research and in the
field, by issuing an additional page is needed.
 Can be produced cheaply through mimeograph printing.

3.1.2 Exhibits
A medium to show or display outwardly especially by visible signs or actons; to
show publicly especially for purposes of competition of demonstrations (Webster,p. 435)
 Useful in featuring an innovation and its various elements.
 Suitable for the presentation, discussion and sharing modes of learning with
various audiences.
 Intended to create awareness and understanding or elecit favourable sentiment
and action.
 Costly to produce and require time and team effort.
 May be produced for specific occasions or for long-term display.
 Storing and filling their parts may be cumbersome.

3.1.3 Educational Campaign

Education means those activities wherein the learning of one more persons be
being deliberately controlled by others (Rossi and Biddle, 1966).

Communication
Campaign refers to connected series of operations designed to bring about a
particular result (Webster, p. 160). A connected series of operations to bring about time
desired results. (Klepper, p. 31).

Educational Communication Campaign

Educational Communication is defined by the Association Educational
communication and Technology (AECT, 1977) as a complex, integrated process
involving people, procedures, ideas, devices and organization, for analyzing problems
and devising, implementing, evaluating and managing solutions to those problem
involved in all aspects of human learning.
The educational communication practitioner apples communication principles
and approaches to effectively solve learning problems or to facilitate the learning process.
The product or output of an educational communicator to respond a learning problem or
to facilitate the learning process is a learning system sign.
 Learning System Design according to Davis 1974 as cited by Cadiz defined an
organized combination of people, materials, equipment and procedures which interact to
achieve a leaning goal.
Here’s an example of a learning system design which shows how educational
communication is practiced in thinking of how communication preventions can be
effectively used in educating grade-schoolers on how to manage wastes in school and at
home. On the right side, we show the roles an educational communicator play in the
learning process and on the left side; we show specific samples of how these roles are
played in a learning situation on waste management grade-schoolers.

ROLES EXAMPLES
1. Analysis of learning problems Conducting a survey on waste management
practices and TV viewing habits of grade-schoolers

2. Formulating solutions Multimedia approach to teach simply procedures in

3. Implementing solutions
waste segregation to kids.
Multimedia: inclusion of segments on waste
management in kids favourite TV programs;
Puppetry shows in schools on wastes; conducting a
waste management seminar for parents of targeted
grade-schoolers with flipcharts and transparencies as
lecture aids.
Writing the script, producing and showing the TV
segment;
Designing and producing seminar aids and writing
scripts and making puppets for puppetry shows.

4. Evaluation Conducting a post-survey and monitoring waste

management practices of grade-schooler after the
various communication approaches have been tried
out/implemented.

5. Management Preparing and securing budget for the survey;

building up linkages with the schools for continued
implementation of the program and identify people
who will be involved in the various activities.

From the example given, we can characterize then the practice of educational
communication as:
1 adhering the view learning and communication are processes and systems as we
can see from the example given above that parents and the institutions are
considered to form a part of the child’s communication-learning system
environment,
2 uses well-planned and systematic communication procedural, step by step and
organized way by which the learning system design is designed to effectively use
communication to solve the learning problem,
3 uses most effective combination of human and nonhuman resources such as in
the example given where parents are tapped to educate their kids and budget is
secured for the survey and,
4 applies theories and principles of human learning such as using puppetry shows
as a medium to instruct kids. Kids have been known to respond well to puppetry.
It does not only entertain them but enhances cognitive learning as well as
reinforce attitudes.

3. 1.4 Projected Visuals

Overhead Transparencies
Transparency refers to a large format 8-by-10 film used with the overhead projector.
Transparencies composed of photographic type sheet film, clean plastic state, or any
of a number of other transparent materials capable of being imprinted with an image by
means of chemical or heat processes.
 a. Advantages of Overhead Transparency Projection System
1 Projects clear and enlarged images in normal room lighting condition
2 Projector is used in front of the room with the lecturer facing the audience, allowing
direct contact with viewers.
3 Overhead projectors are lightweight, easily portable and simple to operate.
4 Projected materials can be manipulated by the lecturer:
 Write o draw on the transparency with a marking pen.
 Point or explain to important items
 Highlight salient points with colored pens
 Add details during the presentation (write notes, diagrams, etc.)
5 Variety of materials can be projected, including cut-out silhouettes, small opaque
objects and other types of transparencies.
6 OHP allows the lecturer to pace his presentation.
7 A range of presentation techniques is possible where the information is progressively
revealed in a step-by-step procedure through revelation by masking and overlays.
b. Limitations of overhead Transparency Projection System
1 Effectiveness of overhead projection presentation is heavily dependent on the lecturer.
2 OHP cannot be programmed to show visual sequences by itself nor an audio or taped
accompaniment provided.
3 Overhead system cannot be used for independent study since it is designed for large
group presentation.
4 Printed materials and non-transparent items like magazine, illustrations cannot be
projected immediately. To use these materials for overhead system, they have to be
made to transparencies by means of some sort of “production process”.
5 OHP can be used only on indoor settings (i.e. Classroom, auditorium, etc.) and
requires electricity for the operation.
c. Planning and Preparing Overhead Transparencies
1 What objective will your overhead transparencies serve?
2 What factors must be considered about the audience who will see these materials?
3 Have you prepared the content outline or script of the presentation?
4 Which elements/parts of the topic (message) need visual presentation?
5 Are the transparencies the best media to accomplish to your objective and convey the
content? Can they be combined with other media for greater effectiveness?
6 Have you organized the content and made sketches to show what is to be included in
each transparency?

6.3.1.5 Slides
Slides refer to a small format photographic transparency individually mounted for one at-
a-time projection. Usually, slides use a 35 mm film format mounted on a 2 x 2 inch (50 x 50mm)
slide mounts.
We all have had experiences in communicating our ideas which cannot be fully expressed
by words alone. Thoughts that may seem very clear to us yet sometimes only tend to confuse our
listeners. Words don’t always have the same meaning to everyone.
Slides can show our audience what we are saying by lending clarity and accuracy to our
verbal ideas. And, the new insight that we develop by using slides can help us become a more
effective extension worker/development communicator.

a. Methods of Using Slides for Extension and Development Communication

Teaching
1 Lecture aid presentation
The purpose of this type of presentation is to teach/instruct and demonstrate to a
small or large group of people. Here, the lecturer uses the sides to reserve as visual aid
or guidelines in the organized presentation. Important points and details of the lesson
can be emphasized as well as ample explanation can be provided by the lecturer.
This type of presentation is practical for use in farmer’s classes, classroom and
training programs.
2 Briefing , promotional and motivational presentations
The purpose of this presentation differs with the type of audience. It aimed at
policy makers. Peers or colleagues, its purpose is to:
 a. Inform the audience members of new policies, programs/projects, pans, progress
reports.
b. Generate enthusiasm and motivate the audience to provide support,
comments/suggestions, directions to the specific theme or purpose of the
presentation
If aimed at the prospective audience to provide or the general public, i.e.
customers, projects/program recipients, its purpose is to:
a. Persuade the audience to buy, accept and act on the information presented.
b. Generate interest on the information.
The presentation formats are practical for use in meetings, conferences,
workshops, seminars and exhibits

Auto-tutorial module presentation

Auto-tutorial module is an instructional devise used for independent self-study in the
classroom and in the media or earning center. It consists of sets slides, taped narration and printed
booklets with pictures or illustrations. It is a way of packaging instructional materials or lessons
in modular form.
Auto-tutorial modules can:
 Synthesize, condense and organize information
 Provide alternative to the lecture process
 Document relevant materials and revisions can easily be integrated
 Provide a picture/sound reinforcement for those having language difficulties
 Teach individually or on a one-to-one basis

Length of Slides for Extension/Development Communication Teaching

 Holds audience attention
 Properly designed slides get the message across quickly, capture audience attention and
build interest.
 Helps clarify points
 Slides let the speaker show exactly what is being discussed.
 Provides rich visual experiences and extend the normal limits of communication.
 Slides allow the audience to see what they do not normally see with their naked eyes, i.e.
picture of the universe or close-up shot of rice grain.

Eyes of Slides for Extension/Development Communication Teaching

 Slides focus attention on an image or small
 Slides are flexible-they can be arranged and rearranged or added to and removed into
infinite variety of sequence.
 Slides can be used for large group presentation and can be integrated into independent
study or individualized instruction program.
 Suitable for presentations with varied audiences, more particularly those with low
literacy.
 End well to teaching cognitive tasks, simplifying complex instructions are expiations
through the use of non-verbal symbols such as colored images.

Limitations of Slides
Since slides come as individual frames, they can easily become
 Disorganized
 Out of sequence
 Projected up down, sideways or backwards
Requires suitable electric power to operate projection equipment Leeds cameras, projection
equipment and some production skills specific only for slide projector.

6.3.2 Group Methods of Extension

 Lecture – the resource speaker of facilitator delivers a prepared talk and may distribute
handouts and use audio-visual aids. This method is used to describe and explain a subject
matter, present new information and explain procedure.
Advantages:
 Many topics can be covered in a short period
 The facilitator is in complete control
 Can accommodate almost an unlimited size of audience
  It is economical
Disadvantages:
 The communication is primarily one-way
 The retention rate is low
 Lack of involvement of participants
 It can be a boring.
 Method Demonstration – is a short – time demonstration given by an extension worker or
trained leader for the purpose of teaching skills to a group or to show a better way to
carry out a practice. It is not concerned with proving the worth of a practice but with
“how-to-do” something which may be the adjustment of a plow, artificial insemination
caponizing of a cockerel and making a basket.
Advantages:
 Effective in teaching skills
 Motivate or stimulate action
 Build confidence in local people
 Help extension worker become acquainted with local people.
 People accept ideas easily
 Bring about changes in practices at low cost.
 Leader Training Meetings – the man who uses local leaders is able to multiply by the
number of leaders he trains and uses. Naturally, local leaders have to be trained. This is
not a formal process but one accomplished through conferences, workshops, on-th-job
instruction and other ways. There is usually no diploma to say when a leader is trained, it
is a more or less continual process.
 General Meetings – includes all kinds of meetings held by extension worker other than
method demo leader training meetings, tour or field days. General meeting include all
types of discussions such as discussions following a lecture, film forum, symposium,
panel discussion, and group interview and debate discussion.
 Tour and Field Trips – a tour might also be called a mobile meeting which moves from
place to place. Tours are an effective way of getting adoption of improved practices.
Farmers from their own conclusions, exchange ideas and decide what they wish to make
use on their own farm.

Advantages:
1. Effective way of imparting knowledge
a) Actual observation of practice is done with opportunity to experience or
examine the operation
b) Stimulates informal discussion
c) Seeing several places doing the same practice stimulates actions
2. Makes for easy learning
a) Teaching is carried on in a leisurely manner
b) Classroom drudgery is eliminated
3. May lead to other places of interest for future study
4. Stimulates fellowship among members of the group
5. Members learn to study or work as a team
6. Increases acquaintances especially with people who are outside members of the
group.
7. Creates publicity, bolsters social standing of person visited as well as his
cooperative tendencies.

Limitations:
1) Not applicable in some subject matter
2) Expensive (time, money, and effort) if place to be visited is far
3) Requires a lot of preparation
4) Involves other people.

Schools or Short Courses – courses may run for duration of one to six weeks depending
on the subject matter. Here enrolment is required and regular attendance assumed. It is
more or less informal but series of well-planned and organized lessons are given a logical
sequence. The course is usually shorter than what would be given in the regular school
 system. It requires more time and concentration to develop a skill or technique than can
be accomplished in a meeting or conference.
When the schools are conducted it is usually on the regional area basis and
specialists are brought in to do the teaching. However, it can be done by the extension
workers, if he feels the need is great enough and if he is qualified.
Field Days – are usually opportunities to hold method or result demonstrations on a
slightly larger scale, and are usually run in a more informal and less highly structured
manner. The purpose is often to introduce a new idea and a new crop, and to stimulate the
interest of as many farmers as possible. Experiment stations or other government canters
may be used for field days, but it is more usual and profitable for them to be held on the
land of a local farmer. There is a greater chance of making an impact if the field day is
held on a famer’s land, and if the farmer plays a part in running it and explaining the
purose.
Panel Discussion – this is use when presenting divergent ideas, opinions and experiences
of “recognized” authorities and to generate interaction between trainees and “experts”.
The “experts ” present their ideas, experiences, beliefs or understanding o a subject
matter and after which an open forum follows.
Advantages:
1) Exposure to differing or varied ideas on subject matter at had
2) Encourages sharing and participation of audience
3) Speakers become extra careful, since other “experts” are listening
4) If properly handled by the moderator it can result to a lively and fruitful interchange
of ideas.
Disadvantages:
1) Limited time for speakers to expound
2) Limited time for audience participation
3) Conflicting ideas may leave audience confused
4) Sometimes difficult to gather at one time the appropriate panellists

Symposium – like the panel discussion, the symposium is also used to give an audience
pertinent information about the topic or to consider the relative merits or various solutions to
a controversial problem. The symposium however, is more formal than the panel. Persons
with special competence deliver uninterrupted speeches on different aspects of a problem
and these are followed by a forum period. The symposium is essentially a public speaking
program while a panel discussion is essentially conversational.

Brainstorming
Individual Methods of Extension
Farm and Home Visit – serves a variety of purposes: 1) may be in the nature of a service
made on request to give advice or assistance on a wide range of farm & home problems,
2) may be in the purpose of securing a cooperator or demonstrator, arranging a meeting,
or discussing a local activity, 3) it may be in the interest of good relations with officers of
local organizations, elected officials, or other key individuals, 4) Broadly speaking, the
farm and home visit is made for the purpose of bringing information or obtaining
information.

Farm & home visits as a method of extension teaching has some advantages and
limitations:
1) Provide the extension workers first hand information of the farm and home
conditions and the point of view of farm people.
2) If made on request, the farmer is likely to be ready to learn.
3) Cost per practice adopted rather high though not above average for all methods.
4) Time of visit not always opportune from standpoint of farmer of homemaker.
5) Danger of concentrating visits on the most progressive families and neglecting
those where personal contact is most needed.
 Office calls – the farmer is usually seeking information. The initiative is from the
caller not the extension officer. The duty of the extension officer then becomes some
of supplying information or rendering that particular kind of service which is
demanded.
 Telephone calls – it will probably be a long time before most farmers in developing
countries have telephones. These values as an extension method will become
greater.
  Personal letters – these letters are of value for: a) giving/getting information, b)
enlisting cooperation, c) giving recognition for good work & thanks for cooperation,
d) giving instruction, for example, on how to manage a result demonstration and e)
avoiding a misunderstanding.
 Result demonstration – is a method of teaching which establishes proof that an
improved practice advocated by the extension worker is applicable locally. Under
the direction of the extension worker, the farmer, homemaker or youth carries out
the demonstration. The person who agrees to try the new practice introduced by the
extension worker in the village is called a co-operator.
Advantages:
1) Furnishes local proof of the desirability of the recommended practice.
2) Appeals to the eye and is effective in convincing those who question the
practice.
3) A good way to introduce a new project.
4) Provides a good source of information for meetings, news stories, pictures,
radio, etc.
5) Furnishes cost information
6) Aids in developing local leaders
Limitations:
1) May be had to find a responsible co-operator
2) May arouse jealousy among families because of number of visits extension
workers make to co-operator.
3) May be affected by many uncontrollable factors like weather.
4) May lessen effectiveness of extension worker if demonstration is not
successful.
5) Is not adaptable to many kinds of subject matter.

UNIT 7 APPROACHES IN EXTENSION

An extension approach is an organized and coherent combination of strategies and

methods, designed to make rural extension effective in a certain area.
Strategies are approaches and methods chosen or developed to reach a particular set of
goal; used to define the operational design by means of which a national government, or other
sponsoring organizations, implements its policies.
7.1 Mass Approach
The Farming Systems Development Approach
 Assumes that technology which fits the needs of farmers, particularly small farmers,
is not available and needs to be generated locally.
 Aims to provide extension personnel (and through them farm people), with research
results tailored to meet the needs and interests of local farming system conditions.
 The control of the program is shared jointly by local farm people, extension officers
and researchers.
 In each particular location, the program actually ‘fits’ the needs and interests of its
clientele and they are more likely to participate over time, adopt recommended
practices and support continuity of the total agricultural extension program.
 Implementation is thru a partnership between research and extension personnel
 The cost can be quite high.
 The approach brings results slowly
 Reporting and administrative control is difficult.

Commodity Approach
 An organized and coherent combination of extension strategies and methods which
facilitate the production of one specific crop (commodity).
 Extension content is limited to technical and administrative or commercial aspect of
the production of a commodity.
 Concentrates on one cash crop and provides all element of the mix necessary for
growing it, including marketing and price controls.
 Each individual farmer has direct contact with the board/society.
 Technology tends to fit the production problems and the messages which extension
officers send to growers tend to appropriate.
 Extension activities tend to be coordinated; message delivered it timely; focus on a
narrow range of technical concerns; easier to monitor and evaluate; more cost
effective.
 Interest of farmers may have less priority over those of the production organization.
 Does not provide advisory service to other aspects of farming if farmers like to
produce more than one commodity.
 May contradict with national production program.

Area Approach
Scheme Approach
 An organized and coherent combination of extension strategies and methods which
aims at the reinforcement of the rules and regulations of a scheme.
 The management control most of the production factors.
 Decisions about innovation are all taken by one management
 Allow results in a short time and can be expanded to include large numbers of people
 Success depends on the quality of management
 Often used not for rural welfare but for extraction of wealth out of rural areas
 Capital costs per unit area or household are always high and schemes are always
admission and management intensive
 Unless it is designed and controlled very much according to rules which fit the
farmers’ needs, and unless the scheme yields results which results which farmers
perceive as beneficial, scheme approach hardly works

am Approach
The Target Category Approach
 An extension approach which provide carefully selected information, and other
support for the specific needs of deliberately chosen categories in the population
target categories are formed on the basis of similarities of their needs and/or
opportunities.
 Selective delivery of opportunities is successful to the extent that they benefit one
member of target categories.

The Functional Group Approach

 Is an extension approach where one of the prime targets is to form groups of
person who join their efforts in order to mobilize the necessary resources to be
able to achieve a shared goal.
 The change in behaviour of participants is carried out by five different elements
mobilization; organization; training; technical and resource support; and special
efforts to consolidate and replicate the results.
 Installing new opportunities for the rural poor requires understanding of their
own situation; its potential for change; and their own possible role in it.
 Making use of opportunities usually requires that the rural decide on some form
of organization to allow collective decision making, collective responsibility,
resource pooling and other collaborative arrangements, as well as a participative
structure and a single voice in dealing with outside forces.
 Developing and utilizing opportunities usually requires new local, technical and
organizational roles.
 Developing and utilizing opportunities and local project requires technical and
resource support if tangible results are to materialize.
 Crucial role in the system includes starting up functional groups and agency
support, maintaining the linkages between them, mobilizing, organizing and
training new functional groups, initiating local development projects; providing
starter loans, lobbying for support from agencies, so forth.

The Farmers Organization Approach

 Independent, self-management and in most cases permanent organizations are
formed with the objective to propagate some kind of social or economic
development for the members.
  Requires a relatively high degree of mobilization of the farmers as well as the
capacity to manage their own affairs on a communal basis.
 Requires government policy that facilitates or tolerates the emergence of a
farmer’s lobby and is willing to look upon the organizations as partners in
development.

7.5 Individual Approach

The Project Approach
 Assumes that the large the large government bureaucracy is not likely to have a
significant impact upon either agricultural production or rural people, and that
better results can be achieved in a particular locations, during a specified time
period with large infusions of outside resources.
 Assumes that high impact activities, carried under artificial circumstances, will
have continuity after outside financial support diminishes.
 Aims to demonstrate, within the project area, what can be accomplished in a
relatively short period of time.
 Measure of success is usually short run change at the project site.
 Time period is usually too short and amount of money provided tends to be more
that adequate.
 Flow of ‘good ideas’ from the project area to other places
 Tendency that when money ends, so does the project.

7.6 Integrated Approach

General Agricultural Extension Approach
 Dominant approach for the last 80 years
 It assumes that technology and information are available and not being used by
farmers; if communicated to farmers, farm practices would be improved.
 Its purpose is to help farmers increase their production.
 Success is measured by the increases in national production of the commodities
being emphasized in the national program.
 Provides for relatively rapid communication for the department level to rural
people
 Typically lacks two-way of information; communication about farmers problem,
needs and interest tend not to follow-up through the extension channel used.
 Reflecting national goals and targets fails to adjust the messages for each
different locality.
 Field staff are not accountable to the rural people of the area in which they are
working.
 Expensive and inefficient

The Technical Change Approach

 An extension approach which aims at the maximum adaptation of a number of
innovations
 Most common approach followed in agricultural development
 Technical information is diffused indiscriminately (but not necessarily
unstrategically) within the rural society.
 Farmers are free whether or not to receive the information and to try, adopt or
reject the innovation.
 Innovations are introduced to a small number of “selected farmer’s” in the hope
that autonomous diffusion processes will multiply the impact of the intervention.
 Technology or the packages offered to farmers are often inappropriate or
incomplete.
 Technology development is left to research institutions which may not take into
account farming systems and farmer’s production objectives.
 Utilization of technology is hindered because information, goods and services are
not offered in the mix necessary from the producer’s point of view.
 Problem on the heterogeneity of rural populations in terms of their access to
resources and their farming systems.
 Extension has only direct contact with minority of the farmers
 Seem usually unsuitable for poverty alleviation.
Training and Visit Approach
 Spread rapidly since mid 70s
 Assumes that extension field personnel are poorly trained, not up-to-date and
tend not to visit farmers.
 There is a fix schedule of training of village extension workers and farmers
 Decisions of what to be taught, when it be taught tend to be made by the
professionals and the program is delivered down to the farmers
 Implementation relies basically on visits by village level extension workers to
small group of farmers or to individual contact farmers.
 Funds come from large international loans
 Teaches farmers hot to make the best of available resources
 Bring discipline and devotion to their work for the extension officers
 High long-term costs to government in expanding size of field extension staff.
 Lack of two-way communication between research and extension staff
 Lack of flexibility to change program as needs and interest of farming people
change.

Participatory Models and Approaches

The Agricultural Extension Participatory Approach
 Includes participation by personnel of agricultural research and service
organizations, as well as farmers.
 Concerned with broad range of agricultural subjects, shifting local focus as
village problems change or as new needs arise.
 Assumes that farming people have much wisdom regarding production of food
from their land, but levels of living and productivity could be improved by
learning.
 Aims to increase production of farming people and increase the consumption and
enhance quality of life of rural people.
 Participation in program planning increase exposure to different source of
information; awareness of new information and practices; confidence on new
practices and in oneself; initiative and adaptation rate and productivity.
 Extension workers not only agricultural educator, but also animators and
catalysts to stimulate farmers to organized group effort.
 Success is measured on the continuity of local extension organizations, benefits
to the community, extent to which agricultural research personnel and other
actually participate in both planning and implementation.
 Cost less because local associations facilitate communication making whole
system more efficient.
 Caters to both human and technical side of extension
 Lacks central control of program which may lead to competition and confusion.
 Difficult to manage central reporting and accounting since program shift as local
condition change.
 The issue whether participation of local people actually influences management
decisions.
Rapid Community Appraisal (RCA)
 Data collection technique that can be used both for rural and urban situations
with multi-perspective analysis.
 Short duration, conducted by multidisciplinary team interacting with the
community, obtain usually non-empirical data to guide further study and plan
intervention programs or other possible courses of action.
 Rapid and effective way of obtaining behavioural, economic and sociological
information about a particular topic or situation; able to deal with complex
systems and can provide insight into situations from multiple perspectives
 So versatile and inventive, open to superficial and producing error in the data, not
suitable in collecting precise or statistically significant information.
 Generates large amount of data which needs comprehensive and thorough
analysis and synthesis.

General Principles regarding Approaches to Agricultural Extension

 1) Success of an extension program is directly related to the extent to which the
approach fits program goals.
2) Participation of rural people tends to facilitate learning and adoption of improved
farm.
3) Effectiveness of an extension program varies directly with the extent of
discipline and seriousness among personnel.
4) Effectiveness depends on the extent to which goals of the program are clearly
understood by responsible personnel.
5) Sustainability depends on the extent to which benefits to both sponsor and clients
are greater than costs.
6) Information from both indigenous knowledge and international scientific
knowledge systems tend to be more effective than those which utilize technical
information only.
7) Particular approaches will be most successful when they fit national aspirations.
8) Cultural factors need to be considered in planning any extension program
9) Approaches used should be gender sensitive
10) More participatory approaches tend to fit best in national systems where public
administration is more decentralized.
11) Approaches should encourage two-way communication linkages between and
among sponsor and clients.
12) An approach is effective if it could develop sustained, vigorous, dynamic and
creative leadership.

UNIT 8 COMMUNITY ORGANIZING

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT (CD)

1. UN DEFINITION
- The process by which the efforts of the people themselves are united with that of the
governmental authorities to improve the economic, social and cultural conditions of
communities, to integrate these communities into the life of the nation and to enable
them to contribute fully to national progress.
2. Christenson and Robinson’s definition
- A group of people in community reaching to a decision to initiate a social action process
(i.e. planned intervention) to change their economic, social, cultural or environmental
situation.

4 WAY OF VIEWING CD
CD AS A PROCESS
- The main emphasis is on change of the people from one level to another in terms of
knowledge, attitudes, skill, way of interaction, etc. Together with productivity.
CD AS PROGRAM
- Focusing is on the different activities carried out by specialist, officials, politicians, local
people within a time frame and budget arrangement. It consists of both method (a set
procedure) and content (a list of activities).
CD AS A METHOD
- It is a mean to an end; a way of working so that some goal is attained.
CD AS A MOVEMENT
- It is a crusade, a cause to which people become committed; carries an emotional change
dedicated to progress, becomes institutionalized, stresses and promotes the idea of CD.

OBJECTIVE OF CD
The primary objective of CD as pointed out by Griffiths is to promote, sustain, support,
and maintain community action. Apparently, CD is related to community action, in such the same
manner as education is related to learning. Hence, in promoting community development, there
must be some kind of community action to initiate or to guide the promoter to carryout either
social or economic activities to improve their welfare or to solve their real problems.
It would be easier and clearer to understand the aims and objectives of community
development by looking into different types of community development.

PARTICIPATORY PRINCIPLES
People define their own problems and issues.
 People work together as a group rather than as individuals
Action should increase the self-reliance of the community and its individuals rather than
increase dependency on others.
The role of community development workers is to facilitate this process rather than
organize it on behalf of others.
Community development involves engagement in political processes and often
negotiation between groups with conflicting interest, it also involves elements of social change
where by disadvantaged or minority groups provide challenges to the attitudes or power relations
in society’s planning and development.

TYPES OF CD
1) COMMUNITY WORK TYPE – the objective of community work is to give aid and
support to people who seek to secure more control over their lives.
2) COLONIAL – SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT TYPE – the objective is to integrate
economic and social development programs together with education for self-management
and for political development of the development problems.
3) URBAN RENEWAL TYPE – the purpose is to break down social isolation and give
meaning to personal existence by encouraging the formation of social groups of different
kinds who would organize their own affairs.
4) ADULT EDUCATION TYPE – the aim is to give support to the development of
community leaders, to foster the concern of community life and enable communities to
deal with existing problems.
5) THE INSTITUTIONAL TYPE – the objective is to encourage those who have been
provided formal service, to take action on their own behalf and in addition, to accept
responsibilities for others.
6) THE IDEALIST/POLITICAL ACTIVIST TYPE – the aims are to five practical
expression to socialism by the encouragement of militant action and obtaining beneficial
social change in the shortest possible time though the involvement of those whom the
change would benefit.
7) THE COMMUNITY HUMAN DEVELOPMENT TYPE - the aims is toward human
development of the targeted beneficiary groups by encouraging them to be diligent and
strong in terms of self-reliance. This is basically needed for strengthening the degree of
community cooperation to improve the participant’s socio-economic conditions.

SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES OF EXTENTIION EDUCATION AND

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

According to J. Franco, analyzing the different or similarities between the principles

relating to extension education and community development is almost an impossible task. The
major obvious reason is that both approaches (extension education and community development)
are interdisciplinary in nature. The principles of the various disciplines make-up the basic
principles of both approaches. Good educational principles and all behaviour sciences apply. In
both approaches, the basic effort is educational and concerned with dealing with people to
involve them in activities to bring about desired changes.

COMPARISON BY OBJECTIVES
EXTENSION EDUCATION
1) Emphasis on the individual
2) Education aimed at individual
development to obtain economic and
social improvement
3) Has as its main them the individual’s
needs
4) Emphasizes decision making for change
by individuals and families
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
1) Emphasis on cooperation
2) Education aimed at groups of
individuals to work collectively to
obtain social & economic improvement.
3) Has its main them the communities
4) Emphasizes decision making by groups
and representative of groups

SIMILARITIES:
1) Tackles the problems at the people’s level
2) Basically an educational process
3) Recognizes that people need help if they are to help themselves
4) Designed to extend knowledge to rural people
 5) Aimed at bringing about change
6) Both are relatively slow process
Extension education and community development have more similarities. Whereas both
are educational process, extension education is concerned with the development of the individual
or families while community development is focusing on the needs of the community. There are
other similarities and differences but the fact remains that both approaches are intended of human
development.

COMMUNITY ORGANIZING – is the process of

 Building power though involving a constituency in identifying problems they share and
the solutions to those problems they desire:
 Identifying the people and structures that can make those solutions possible;
 Enlisting those targets in the effort through negotiation and using confrontation and
pressure when needed; and
 Building an institution that is democratically controlled by that constituency thath can
develop the capacity to take on further problems and that embodies the will and the
power of that constituency.

COMMUNITY ORGANIZING TIPS

1) Identify a leadership team
2) Develop a common vision
3) Hold community meeting
4) Conduct surveys
5) Set goals for your community
6) Develop a strategy
7) Implement the plan and evaluate the results
8) Keep up the momentum

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND COMMUNICATION

I. Specific Knowledge Areas and Competences

Knowledge and competent in agricultural teaching methods and communications specifically in
the areas of extension objective, principles and programs, procedure of different extension
teaching methods, and purposes, scope and levels of communication.

II. Professional Core Subjects in Specific Areas

Extension and Communication

 Objectives, programs and principles of extension
 Interrelationship of research and extension
 Communication processes and elements, scope and levels as they relate to extension
 Factor to consider in effective communication like the adoption process, types of
adopters and attributes of teaching.

Includes methods of extension and their relationship to adoption process and approaches to
extension
1 Overview of Agricultural Extension
1.1 Definition of Terms
o Extension
o Agricultural extension
o Communication
o Technology
1.2 History of Extension
1.3 Philosophy, Principles and Objectives of Extension
2 Extension as one of the major functions of a university/college
2.1 Function of a University
2.2 Interrelationship of the different functions of a college/university
2.3 Sources of information and technologies
3 Communication in Extension
3.1 Importance of communication
3.2 Element of communication process
3.3 Levels of communication
3.4 Extension workers as a communicator
3.5 Barriers of effective communication
4 The Adoption Process
4.1 Stages of adoption process
o Awareness
o Interest
o Evaluation
o Trial
o Adoption
4.2 Types of adopters
o Innovators
o Early adopters
o Early majority
o Late majority
o Laggards
5 Attribute of Teaching
o Relative Advantage
o Complexity
o Compatibility
o Trialability
o Observability
6 Methods/ Techniques of Extension
6.1 Definition of methods/ Technologies
6.2 Factors to consider in the choices of extension
6.2.1. Human factors (Source and Receiver)
o Knowledge/skills
o Attitudes
o Socio-cultural Environment
6.2.2. Objectives
6.2.3. Subject matter/Technology
6.2.4. Time (preparation on time and time of the day)
6.2.5. Budget
6.2.6. Other factors
6.3 Extension teaching methods according to number of clientele to be observed
6.3.1. Mass methods
6.3.1.1. Mass media
6.3.1.1.1. Mass media
6.3.1.1.2. Television
6.3.1.1.3. Print
o Folders/leaflets/pamphlets
o Posters
o Newspaper
o Wall Newspaper
o Fact Sheets
 6.3.1.2. Exhibits
6.3.1.3. Educational campaign
6.3.1.4. Projected visuals
6.3.1.5. Lantern slides
6.3.2. Group
6.3.2.1. Lecture
6.3.2.2. Demonstration
6.3.2.3. Tours and field trips
6.3.2.4. Field day
6.3.2.5. Meetings
6.3.2.6. Groups discussion
6.3.2.6.1. Phillips 66 (6 person, 6 min. Discussion)
6.3.2.6.2. Brainstorming
6.3.2.6.3. Panel
6.3.2.6.4. symposium
6.3.3. Individual
6.3.3.1. Farm and home visit
6.3.3.2. Office calls
6.3.3.3. Telephone calls
6.3.3.4. Personal letters
6.3.3.5. Informal contact
6.3.3.6. Electronic media
o Fax
o Internet
o Email
7 Approaches in extension
7.1 Mass approach
7.2 Commodity Approach
7.3 Area Approach
7.4 Team approach
7.5 Individual approach
7.6 Integrated approach
7.7 Training and visit approach

THE BEGINNINGS OF EXTENSION

The Distant Origins

In Mesopotamia (present day Iraq), archaeologists have unearthed clay of
tablets of time on which were inscribed advice on watering crops and getting
1800 BC rid of rats.

Some hieroglyphics on Egyptian columns gave advice on avoiding crop

damage and loss of life in Nile’s floods.
Latin texts were written, frequently drawing on practical farming experience
2nd century BC which aimed to help roman landowners to maintain and improve their estates
to 3rd century and revenues.
BC
In imperial China, dissemination of agricultural information was a matter of
 concern to the state since it heavily relied on taxes and revenues from
landowners and tenants.

The 19th century England

1840s The term “university extension” or “extension of the university” was first
recorded in Britain.
Discussions began in two ancient universities (oxford & Cambridge) about
1850s how they could serve the needs of the rapidly growing population in the
industrial and urban areas.
First practical steps were taken by James Stuart, fellow Trinity College in
1867 - 1868 Cambridge, gave lectures to women’s associations and men’s clubs in the
North of England; Stuart is often considered the ‘Fathers of University
Extension’
James Stuart appealed to authorities of University of Cambridge to organize
1871 centres for extension lectures under the university’s supervision
1872 University of Cambridge adopted the systems
1876 University of London followed Cambridge
1878 University of Oxford followed system.
The system became well-established and developed and was referred to as
1880 extension movement; the University extended its use beyond the campus;
thus, extension became more institutionalized function of the universities.

Birth of modern Agricultural Extension Services

 In
EUROPE
Founding of the Royal Agricultural Improvement Society (RAIS) in Britain
1841
The first agricultural extension service came into existence as a result of the
1845 outbreak of the potato blight in Ireland where the predominantly peasant
community relied on potatoes as staple food.
1847 The earl of Claredon urged the RAIS to appoint itinerant lectures to travels
around the distressed districts to help harmers improve their cultivation and
grow nutritious crops.
1890s The University began to cover Agricultural Subjects in lectures.
 In USA

1850s There are two development significant to the evolution of the agricultural
extension in USA; (1) Morill Act of 1862 was signed by Pres. Lincoln during
the Civil War providing for the creation of Land Grant Colleges and
Universities. Funds were made available from the Federal Government to
establish demonstration centers/experimental stations. (2) the beginning of
farmers institute movement which organized one-to-two day meetings for the
farmers and invited professors from the state colleges and universities as
speakers.
1890 American Society for extension of University teaching was established.
Second Morill act was passed which extended land- grant concept in other
areas of USA. The farmers. Institutes Movement has been institutionalized
with Federal support and supervision.
1891 The university of Chicago and Wisconsin began or organizing extension
program which lead to the establishment of Land Gant College and the formal
establishment of agricultural extension work in the country.
1914 Passage of the Smith-lever act which established the cooperative extension
service a tripartitie cooperative between the federal, state, and local
government together with the state colleges and universities as extension
agency.

Agricultural Extension in Developing Countries

1940s – 1960s Agricultural extension organizations were established in Latin Americal and
the Caribbean
1960 – 1970s Most extension organizations were started in many African nations.
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION IN THE PHILIPPINES: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
(Source: Sison, Obdulia F., 1987)

DATE SIGNIFICANT EFFECT

The beginning of extension work through the Granjas Models or models farm
that were set up. They served as:
1565  Experimental stations of the Spanish government
 Demonstration center for farmers
Towards end of Extension also had regulatory functions such as supervision of tobacco fields
the 18th century and grading of tobacco leaves for export.
October 8, 1901 Beginning of extension work under the American regime
April 30, 1902 Establishment of the Bureau of Agricultural under the Department of Interior
Demonstration and extension division was created in the Bureau of
Agriculture making it the first formally organized government department
implementing extension and research programs
July 1910
Several experiment stations and demonstration farms were set up in strategy
places in the country.

Agricultural schools were also established to educate and train government

agricultural extension workers and other engaged in agriculture. (note: the
College of Agriculture, University of the Philippines was established on
March 6, 1909)
July 10, 1919 The extension service organization was made a separate unit f the Bureau of
Agriculture as the Demonstration and extension division. Its expanded
operations included:
 Farmers cooperative organizations
 Rural credit
 Marketing
 Animal insurance
Persons engaged in this work were called farm advisers
1923 The name of the division was changed to Agricultural Extension Service.

Other events that took place:

 Start of the home extension work (later known as the division of
home economics) under the Division of Organic Chemistry of the
Bureau of Science. Main service was on food preservation.
 Miss Maria Y. Orosa founded the home extension service.
1929 Bureau of Agriculture was reorganized. The Bureau of Animal Industry
(BAI) and the Bureau of Plant Industry (BPI) were formed. Both Bureaus
continued to expand their extension activities.
1936 Commonwealth Act 85 was passed. It established the provincial extension
service financed by the provincial and municipal governments. Some
significant results:
 A broader and more comprehensive agricultural system emerged
 Extension service in the Philippines became a serious organized
business.
 The positions of the Provincial Agricultural were created
 Farm advisers were now called extension agents.
Some constraints:
 The home economics group were in the Plant Utilization Division of
the BPI
 Insufficiency of funds
 Unsystematic, scattered, and decentralized agricultural extension.
No Date Enactment of Commonwealth Act 649 which increased the budget for
extension work.
1942 – 1945 Japanese Occupation
 Home economics and agricultural extension work, particularly in the
province suffered drawbacks. Extension work was paralyzed.
1947 The home extension unit of the plant utilization division of BPI was fused
with the agricultural extension of the Bureau
1950 Upon request of the President of Philippines to the President of the USA to
send to the Philippines an Economic Survey Mission “to consider financial
problems of the country and to recommend measures that will enables the
Philippines to become and remain self-supporting”. Recommendation among
others: the other consolidation of the scattered extension organization in the
different Bureaus (BPI, BAI, Bureau of Soils, Bureau of Forestry, and
Bureau of Fisheries) into one bureau that would adequately extend
information into farm families on improved methods of farming,
homemaking, and rural organization.
July 1952 Creation of the Bureau of Agricultural Extension (BAEx) through RA No.
680 enacted by the Congress of the Republic of the Philippines. This was in
response to the Bell Mission’s recommendation. All extension activities of
the Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources became the
responsibility of BAEx.
August 8, 1963 The BAEx was renamed the Agricultural Productivity Commission (APC)
placed under the Office of the President. Under the APC, the Agricultural
Tenancy Commission was organized asa separate office.
The APC, the land authority, the agricultural credit administration, and the
Land Bank were placed at the “Crest of the land reform program”.

Positive Consequence: A concentrated technical assistance because of the

teaming up of agriculturist, home demonstrators, and 4 H club officers in
carrying out the responsibility in the integrated national land reform program.

Negative Consequences: it revived the all intra-departmental jealousies.

Resentments arose from the agencies that were covered by the program.
No Date Creation of the Rice and com Authority (RCA) through executive order no.
62. RCA extended credit for seeds, pesticides, and harvesting. It also had a
fertilizer subsidy program for participating farmers.
1965 The National Food and Agriculture Council (NFAC) emerged by Virtue of
Executive order no. 183. It was given full control of the food production
program and so controlled a large potion of funds for agriculture and the
funding from the US administration for international Development (USAID).
The NFAC assumed a major responsibility for overseeing the effective
delivery of the agricultural extension services for the entire country.
1972 Declaration of Martial Law. Several organizational changes affecting
agricultural extension took place.
 Presidential Decree No. 1 and Presidential Letter of Implementation
(nov. 1, 1973) reverted the APC to its original name, BAEx.
 Functions and personnel in cooperatives were transferred to the
Department of Local Government and Community Development
(DLGCD).
 PD 970 abolished the Bureau of Farm Management of the
Department of agrarian Reform and transferred its extension function
to BAEx.
July 1, 1973 BAEx was again placed under the DA. Also, the Abaca and other Fibers
Board was fussed with the BAEx.
1977 The world Bank Mission was requested by the Philippines Government to
appraise the country’s agricultural extension service. Results:
 The Philippines adopted the Training and Visit (T&V) system
 The proposal for the National Extension Project (NEP) was approved
and became operational on March 27,1979
 The world bank approved a loan of US 35 M.
 The Philippines agricultural extension service was strengthened with
facilities and resources acquired through the World Bank-assisted
NEP.
1778 Ministry-wide regional offices were created in the Ministry of Agriculture by
virtue of PD 1579. With this structural set-up, 12 ministry-wide regional
directories and 24 asst. Regional directors (one for livestock and one for cops
 in each region) were appointed. This was followed by the designation of 75
Provincial Agricultural Officers in 1980.
1982 By virtue of EO. 803, the province under the leadership of the governor was
designated as the political unit of management for including agricultural
agencies involved in the delivery of the agricultural service. This means the
services as provided for in RA. NO.5 185 (1967) known as the
Decentralization Act.

The organizational structures for the implementation of the integrated

agricultural extension Program
 The regional Director were directly under directly under the Minister
of Agriculture.
 The regional Director supervised the Provincial Agricultural officer
(PAO)
 The PAO was responsible for all municipal agricultural officers
(MAO’s)
At the provincial level, the PAO was assisted by:
 The Senior Home Management Technician (SHMT)
 The rural youth development officers (RYDO)
 The Provincial Subjected Matter Specialist (SMS)

The Mao is directly responsible for all agricultural food technologists (AFTs)
in the municipality.
1987 By virtue of ED. No.1 16, the BAEx, the Philippines Agricultural Training
Council, and the Philippine Center for Rural Development were merged into
the Agricultural Training institute (ATI), thus, the “birth” of ATI meant the
“death” of BAEx

The ATI is mandated by E.O. 116 to be” responsible for the training of all
agricultural extension workers and their clientele, who are mostly farmers
and other agricultural works: ensure that training program address the real
needs of the agricultural sectors; ensure that the research results are then
communicated to the farmers through appropriate training and extension
activities”
1991 The agricultural extension services of the DA were devolved to the local
government units (LGUs) by virtue of RA 7160 otherwise known as the local
Government code (1991)
1997 The creation of Republic Act 8435 also known as Agriculture and Fisheries
Modernization Act or AFMA.

MEANING AND TERMINOLGY FOR EXTENSION IN SOME SELECTED

COUNTRIES
(COMPILED BY DR. B.R. SUMAYAO, DAERS, UPLB-CA)

COUNTRY WORK FOR MEANING

EXTENSION
Netherlands Voorlichting Lighting the pathway ahead to help people find
their way
Germany Berating An expert can give advise on the best way to
reach one’s goal but leaves the person the final
responsibility for selecting the way.

Aufklarung Enlightenment, so that one knows clearly where

he/she is going
 Erziehung Education, that is, to teach people to solve their
problems themselves
Austria Forderung Furthering or stimulating one to go in a
desirable direction
Spain Capicatation Improving the abilities of people, normally
through training
USA Extension Education
Indonesia Penynluhan Lighting the way ahead with a torch
Malaysia Perkembangan Education the was USA interprets it
Korea Rural guidance

COMMUNICATION IN EXTENSION

COMMUNICATION: comes from the Latin word “communis” meaning to make common or to
establish commonness between two or more people.
Communication is a process by which a source sends a message to a receiver by means of some
channel in order to produce a response from the receiver, in accordance to the intention of the
source.
Key points in the definition:
 Communication is a process (it is a on-going, cyclic, ever-changing, with no
beginning or end, interdependent, interrelated)
 Consists of 5 basic elements (source, message, receiver, channel, response)
 Effectiveness is achieved if receiver’s response matches with intention of source
 Has 4-attributes
o Dynamic – has an ever changing character, fluctuates constantly never fixed,
no clear beginnings and endings.
o Systemic – as system, it consist of a group of elements which interact to
influence each other and the system as a whole
o Interaction thru symbols – essential in communication that what symbols we
select and how they are organized affect other’s interpretation of our
messages.
o Meaning is personally contracted 0 no two people contract the same meaning
even if they hear or see the same thing.

FIELD OF EXPERINCE: the sum total of an individual’s experiences, including one’s culture an
language which influences his ability to communicate.
Let us look at the two overlapping circles, each circle representing the field of experience
of communication participant A and B.

A B

The overlap in the two circles represents the common field of experience of A and B, or
their shared similar experiences.

FEEDBACK: the information that is sent or fed back by the receiver, intentionally or
unintentionally, to the source.

PURPOSE: tells the source whether the receiver is paying attention to the message. Understand
it, is not bored, or likes the presentation. The sources is formed whether s/he should revise his
communication act.

Relationship of Element of Communication

 MESSAGE
CHANNEL

SOURCE: sends message/ information to receiver

Characteristics of the Sources:
 Credibility – refers to a set of perception about the source held by receiver in terms
of competence, trustworthiness and dynamism
o Dimensions of credibility
 Character
 Competence
 Composure
 Dynamism
 Hormophily – refers to the degree to which a receiver perceivers the source as
similar to him in certain attributes.

MESSAGE: sign or symbol that has meaning to both sender and receiver
Message Factor:
 Code – symbols used in communicating; both sender and receiver should
understand in order to communicate.
 Content – the idea or substance selected to express the purpose of the sources for
communicating.
 Treatment – the manner by which the materials are arranged in order to be
meaningful to the receiver.

CHANNEL: the medium through which the message is sent from the source to the receiver.
RECEIVER: receives, analyzes, understands and interprets the message; also referred to as
decoder.
EFFECT: the difference between what the receivers think, feel and does before and after
exposure to a message.
 Cognitive effect – knowledge, awareness, though and skills
 Neutralization – shifting of an existing attitude to the neutral zone
 Boomerang effect – a shift opposite to that direction that is intended
 Conservation – maintenance of existing attitude
 Attitude reinforcement or strengthening of existing attitude.
 Shift to the opposite sing, from (+) to (-) and vice versa.

PHILOSOPHY OF EXTENSION

Defining Philosophy
 The body of principles underlying a given branch of learning or major discipline,
religious systems, a human activity or the like.
 A guide to a person’s actions
 A view of life – what ought to be and its components of “what is” and “how to bridge the
gap” between “what is” and “what ought to be”

Diagrammatically:

WHAT OUGTH TO BE (the ideal view of life)

(what the people should or could be as a result of teh extension program/activities expressed
in objectitives)
 How to bridge the gap (the
The Gap (the problem area or needs educational means to attain the
of the people) objectives methods, procedure
used in relation to needs of the
people that have the addresses by
extension)

WHAT IS

(The present state of the people/client in terms of knowledge, skills attitudes, etc. They
posses; their resource, present level of living, and others)

Fig. 1. A scheme within which Extension may be viewed in relation to a view of life (Philisophy).

EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHY OF EXTENSION

 Humanism – man, his interest and development are central and dominant
 Pragmatism – the value of the ideas, knowledge and skills that extension offers its
clientele is measured in terms of the practical consequences to these people for whom
extension efforts are directed.

SOME PRINCIPLES OF EXTENSION

 Communication and Education
o Extension agent’s role – communicator and educator
- As communicator – pass useful information or technology to people who need
them
- As educator – help rural people acquired the knowledge, skills and attitude that
will help them effectively utilize the information or technology
 Work with Rural people
o For impact and sustainability, work with and not for the people
o People must participate and make decision that will benefit them; extension agents
must assists them by providing them with all the information needed and possible
alternative solutions to clientele problems
 Accountability to the Clientele
o Extension agent must justify to the organization whatever action he/she takes and be
accountable and responsible to the clientele on whatever advice or information given
to them
o The clientele is the one to pass judgement on the success or failure of the extension
program
 Two-way process linkage
o Disseminate information and technology to and receive feedback from clientele so
that their needs can be better fulfilled
o Learn from tm clientele the wealth of their experiences
 Cooperative with other agencies
o Extension is only one “aspect of the many economic, social, cultural and political
activities that hope to produce change for the betterment of the rural masses.
o Extension should therefore cooperate and collaborate with both GOs and NGOs to
accomplish above
o Extension can’t be effective on its own as its activities must be interdependent on
other related activities
 Work with different target groups
o Extension clientele is made up of various target groups with different needs, social
status, cultural and economic background
o Extension therefore cannot offer a package of technology for all its clientele due to
this heterogeneity.
 o There must therefore be targeting of extension, meaning different programs and
technology packages for different target groups.

PURPOSE OF EXTENSION
 Informative extension
o Helps people make well-considered choices among alternative provided by
extension for the individual to achieve his /her goals.
 Emancipatory extension
o An instrument to uplift the poor, to achieve societal goals, to correct structural
problems
o Paolo Freire calls it pedagogy of the oppressed
 Formative extension or HRD
o An instrument for developing. ‘Forming’ an individual or enhancing his/her
capabilities to make decisions to learn, to manage, to communicate, to organize
etc.
 Persuasive extension
o A policy instrument to induce preventive behaviour with respect to societal
concerns such as environmental pollution, health hazards, vandalisms, drug
addiction, rape, etc such preventive behaviour is in the interest of the society as a
whole or of the future generation.

FUNCTIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY

 Instruction – offers degree programs from the baccalaureate to doctoral programs.
 Research – conduct basic and applied research from social science to natural science
 Extension – disseminates research results or breakthrough to various clienteles in various
forms.

AGRICULTURE’s One Objective is:

 Disseminate research findings and technology in a form or package suitable for adoption
by extension workers and fames; help train/retrain extension workers; provide technical
backstop to extension technician in the field whenever necessary and conduct pilot
action/research projects on agriculture and rural development.

EXTENSION: An instrument of premeditated, deliberate intervention to achieve the intervener’s

goal; can be effective by inducing voluntary change and hence satisfying client’s goals.

INTERVENTION: a systematic effort to strategically apply resources to manipulate seemingly

casual elements in an ongoing social process to permanently reorient that process in directions
deemed desirable by the intervening party.

METHODS FOR INFLUENCING HUMAN BEHAVOIR

1 Compulsion or Coercion
o Power is exerted by an authority forcing somebody to do something. People applying
coercive power must
- Have sufficient power
- Know how they can achieve their goal
- Be able to check whether the persons being coerced is behaving in the desired
manner

2 Exchange
o Goods or services are exchanged between two individuals or groups
o Conditions necessary for applying this method:
- Both parties consider the transaction to be in their favour
- Each has the goods or services desired by the other
- Each can only deliver his part when the exchange goods or services have been
delivered by the other.
3 Advice
o Used if
- Framers agree with extensor agent about the nature of their problems and the
criteria for choosing the ”correct” solution
 - Extension agent (EA) knows enough about the farmer’s situation and has adequate
information to solve their problems in a way which have been tested scientifically
or in practice
- Farmers are confident the extension worker can help them with a solution to their
problems
- EA does not think it necessary or possible for farmers to solve their problems
themselves.
- Farmers have sufficient means at their disposal to carry out the advice
4 Openly influencing a farmer’s knowledge and attitudes
o Apply when
- EA cannot solve their problems because of insufficient or incorrect knowledge and
their attitudes do not match their goals.
- EA thinks that farmers can solve their problems if they have more knowledge and/
or have changed their attitudes
- EA is prepared to help farmer’s collect more and better knowledge to help them
change their attitudes.
- Farmers trust the EA’s expertise and motives and are prepared to cooperate with
EA
5 Manipulation
o Carried out if
- EA believers it necessary and desirable for farmers to change their behaviour in a
certain direction
- EA thinks it is necessary for farmers to make independent decisions
- EA controls the techniques to influence farmers without them being aware of it.
- The farmers do not actively object to being influenced in this way
6 Providing means
o Apply under the following conditions
o Farmers is trying to achieve goals which EA considered to be appropriate
o Farmed does not have the means available to achieve these goals or does not wish to
risk using these means
o EA has these means and is prepared to make them available to the farmer on a
temporary or permanent bases
7 Providing service
o Use if
- EA has the knowledge and/ or means available to perform the task better or more
economically than the farmer
- EA agrees with the farmer that it is useful to perform these tasks
- EA is prepared to perform them for the farmer
8 Changing the socio-economic structure
o Used them
- EA agrees with the farmers about their optimal behaviour
- Farmer is not in a position to behave in this way because of barriers in the
economic and or social structure
- EA considers changes in these structures to be desirable
- EA ha the freedom to work toward these changes
- EA is in a position to do these, either thorough power or through conviction

Extension Practitioner’s works

Formulating objectives
Goal
Designing and testing satisfaction

Intervening Deploying resources To change people

accdg to
intervener’s
goals
 Implementing

Evaluating

FEATURES OF MODERN AGRICULTURE

 Dynamic society that welcomes innovation and change
 Highly competitive and productive because it uses modem production and management
technology
 Manned by an enterprising farmers who exercise his right to chose what technology to
pappy, what crops to raise and when, and to whom to sell his produce to get the highest
returns.

COMPONENTS OF AGRICULTURE DEVELOPMENT

 Production
 Marketing
 Supply
 Governance
 Research
 Extension/Education

Framework for Sustainable Development: Economically viable; ecologically sound; socially just
and humane; culturally appropriate; grounded in holistic science.

DIFFUSION AND ADOPTION OF INNOVATION

ADAOPTION: a process by which a particular farmer (clientele) is exposed to, considers, and
finally rejects or practices a particular innovation (Moshers, 978), it occurs at the individual level.

Adoption comprises five (5) successive steps or stages:

 Awareness – the first step towards adoption on an innovation; the farmer becomes aware
that the technology or innovation exists, but he lacks adequate inforramtion about it. It is
somewhat like seeing something without attaching meaning to something. Source of
information’s are mass media such as sue of radio, news articles, newsletters, or result
demonstration
 Interest – fame becomes interested and seeks more information; he believes that the
technology or information is possible for him, he wants to know what it is “how it works,
what is its potential. Usually he is aroused by mass media, result demonstration and
individual farm visit.
 Evaluation – farmer evaluates technology with his condition, expectations, resource, and
decides whether or not to try it. Can I do it? How can I do it? Is it better than what I
doing? This can be hastened or improved by method demonstration and group
discussions.
 Trial-farmers collects the required inputs, learns any new skills that are required commits
some land, labor and money for the trial, sees what happens, normally he tries on a small
scale Friends and neighbours are usually the best form of information
 Adoption/Rejection – final stage whether to adopt or to reject the technology, it should
not be assumed that every first trial will lean to repeated use. This stage is characterized
by large scale and continuous use of the idea.

CATEGORIES OF ADOPTERS
 Innovators (venturesome) – are the first person to adopt. The experiment, they go ahead.
 Early adopters (respectable) – those who quickly follow the lead set by the innovators.
Usually regarded by peer as “the man to check with” before using a new idea.
 Early majority (deliberate) – watch the innovators and early adopters first but do not
delay much longer before adoption.
  Late majority (sceptical) – are conservative and careful. Do not adopt until most or a
great number of neighbours have adopter/change their practice. They need pressure from
peers to adopts.
 Laggards (traditional) – the last to adopt. Suspicious of innovators and change agents

INNOVATION: an idea, practice or an object perceived as new by an individual. It is a new way

of doing something. In agricultural extension, an innovation is the same thin as a changed
practice or an improved variety, technology or practice.

Diffusion of innovation – refers to the total process by which an innovation spreads out among
farmers until a large number of farmers have adopted it. It is how an innovation is adopted by
more and more farmers.

Crucial element in the diffusion of an innovation are the innovation, which is communicated
through certain channels, over time, among members of a social system, communication channels
can be mass media, the extension worker himself, and other methods, social system refers to any
a community or locality which a social structure can impede or facilitate the adoption or diffusion
of new idea including the norms, social statuses, hierarchy, etc.

INNOVATION-DIFFUSION MODELS: the “reconceptualised” adoption process. The process

through which an individual (or other decision making unit) passes from first knowledge of an
innovation to a decision, to adopt or reject, to implementation of the new idea and to confirmation
of the decision.

STAGES OF INNOVATION-DIFFUSION MODEL

 Knowledge stage – farmers understands new idea and gathers information about it.
 Persuasion stage – formation of attitude about idea and persuades himself and is
persuaded by other. He can accept or reject the idea based on attitude formed in the
previous stage.
 Decision-making stage – individual may either to adopt or reject the new idea or to delay
the decision for further verification
 Implementation stage – putting an idea into use.
 Confirmation stage – individual seeks reinforcement for the decision he made, or he may
reverse his previous decision if there is conflicting messages/info about the innovation.
Individual justifies his earlier decision base on his experience of other adopters.

FACTORS AFFECTING ADOPTION AND DIFFUSION PROCESS

Characteristics of Innovation that Influence Adoption or Rejection

 Relative advantage – degree to which an innovation is perceived as better than the
previous one; the proven effectiveness or superiority of the new idea that includes cost of
the technology.
 Compatibility – consistency with existing values, experiences needs and resources of the
farmer.
 Complexity – the difficulty or ease to understand, to do or follow a technology. People
favour a practice that requires less time and effort.
 Trialability – degree to which an innovation may be experimented with on a limited
basis. For example, on a small size of land.
 Observability – degree to which results of an innovation are visible to other. Seeing an
improved breed of swine is better than merely hearing about it.

Characteristics of Clientele that Influence Adoption or Diffusion

 Educational level
 Family size
 Farmer’s experience
 Family aspiration
 Tenure status
 Value and belief systems
 Personality characteristics
Characteristics of Change Agent
 Credibility – refers to the competency, trustworthiness and dynamism of the change agent
as perceived by clients.
 Homophily – degree to which the change agent has rapport with the clientele his sense of
belongingness.
 Personality traits – personal attributes such as intelligence, emphatic ability commitment,
resourcefulness, concern for farm people, ability to communicate persuasiveness and
development orientation.

The Biophysical Environment, Socio-economic and Socio-cultural also influences adoption or

diffusion of innovation.

EXTENSION TEACHING METHODS

INDIVIDUAL TEACHING METHODS

 Farm and Home visit
 Office calls
 Telephone calls
 Personal letters
 Informal contacts
 Electronic Media (Fax, Internet, E-mail)
GROUP METHODS
 Lecture (involves factual presentation and textual explanation of a particular topic or few
selected topics)
 Demonstration (Method and Result Demonstration)
 Tours and Field Trips
 Field Day
 Meetings
 Group Discussion
o Brainstorming – an activity in which a deliberate attempt is made to think and
speak-out freely creatively about all possible approaches and solution to a given
problem, the group participation in spontaneous and unrestrained discussion.
o Panel – a direct, conversational, and interactional discussion among a small
group of experts or well-informed person. Panelists exchange ideas among
themselves and react directly with each other. It involves actual panel discussion,
exchange of ideas, summary or last statement of panelists
o Open forum – clarification, question, objection to ideas
o Symposium – a method where speakers(s) is / invited to compound on a topic
given or assigned to him (them)
o Phillip 66 – 6 persons, 6 minute discussion.

MASS METHOD
 Puppetry – acting a play on the stage using puppets that could be a doll, a small figure, or
an image of an animal.
 Popular theatre – makes use of performances in the form of drama, singing, dancing and
puppetry. Called “popular” because they are aimed at the whole village, not just at those
who are educated. It involves local people as performers.
 Wall newspaper
 Exhibits – displays that create interest or are used for information sharing that use
pposter, pictures, photographs, models and specimens, suited for bulletin boards, demo
plots or agricultural shows.
 Campaign – a coordinated use of different methods focusing on a particular widespread
problem and its solution. Normally planned and directed from the regional or national
levels.
 Television
 Print – folder, posters newspaper, fact sheet
 Projected visual – slides, films, overheads projectors transparencies.
EXTENSION APPROACH – the style of action within extension system which embodies the
philosophy of that system; sets the pace of all of the activities of the system: works like a doctrine
for the system-informs, stimulates and guides.

Extension system: that entity composed of properties such as organizational structure, leadership,
resources (human and physical), program, goals, and objectives, methods and techniques for
implementation, linkages with various organizations and publics.

EXTENSION APPROACHES:

1. The General Agricultural Extension Approach (GAE)

 General Nature – Transfer of Technology (TOT)
 Basic assumption – technology and information are available but are not being
used by farmers. If these could be communicated to farmers, farm practices could
be improved.
 Purpose – to help framers increase their production
 Program planning – controlled by government and changes in priority, from time
to time, are made on a national basis, with some freedom for local adaptation
 Implementation – carried by a large field staff assigned throughout the country.
 Demonstration plots are a major technique
 Resources required large numbers of field personnel.
 Measure of success – increase in national production of the commodities being
emphasized in the national program.
 Advantages – interpret national government policies and procedures to the local
people; covers the whole nation: relatively easy to control by the national
government; relatively rapid communication from the ministry level to rural
people.
 Disadvantages – lacks two way flow of communication; fails to adjust extension
messages to different localities; field staff not accountable to rural people;
expensive and inefficient.

2. Training and Visit Approach (T&V)

 General nature – highly disciplined and patterned: with fixed schedule for
training of village extension workers, SMSs, and scheduled visits by extension
workers to farmers.
 Basic assumption – extension personnel are poorly trained; not up-to date and
tend not to visit farmers, but stay in their offices; management and supervision is
not adequate; to-way communication between research and extension unit and
between extension staff and farmers can be achieved through this discipline.
 Purpose – to induce farmers to increase production of specified crops
 Program planning – a centralized; what to teach and when to teach is decided
upon by professionals and program is delivered “down” to farmers. Program
planning follows cropping pattern of priority crops
 Implementation – relies basically on visits by extension workers to small groups
of farmers or to individual contact farmers: fortnightly training by SMSs of the
VEWs
 Resources required – high numbers of personnel, costs tend to be very high and
dependent on central resources: more adequate transportation capability for field
personnel.
 Measure of success – increase in yield, and total production of the crops being
emphasize.
 Advantages – pressure on governments to recognize a large number of small
agricultural extension units into one integrated service; brings discipline to the
system, VEWs become more up-to-date to information; closer technical
supervision.
 Disadvantages – high long-term costs to governments due to expanding size of
VEWs; lack of actual two-way communication; technology that is relevant to the
farmers are note integrated; lack of flexibility to change programs as needs and
interests of farmer change; field staff tires of vigorous, patterned activities
without appropriate rewards.
3. The Project Approach (PA)
 Basic assumption – better results can be achieved in a particular location, during
a specified period of time period ; with large infusion of outside resource; high
impact activities, carried on under artificial circumstance; will have some
continuity after outside financial support is no longer available.
 Purpose – to demonstrate, within the project area, what can be accomplished on a
relatively short period of time; to teat the variety of alternative extension
methods.
 Program planning – control by outside the village, with central government, the
“donor” agency or some combination/
 Implementation – includes a project management staff; project allowance for
field staff, better transportation, facilities, equipment, and better housing than
regular government programs
 Measure of success – increase in yield and total production of the cops being
emphasized
 Advantages – focus which enables evaluation of effectiveness, and sometimes
“quick results” for a better donor; novel techniques and methods can be treated
and experimented within the limits of the projects
 Disadvantages – usually too short time period; money provided tends to be more
than what is appropriate; flow of “good ideas” in the project to areas outside the
project; double; double standards; when money ends. Project extension
programs most after ends also.

4. The Commodity Specialized Approach (CSA)

 General nature – highly specialized, focuses on one export crop or one aspect of
farming
 Basic assumption – the was to increase productivity and the production of a
particular commodity is to really concentrate on that one; grouping extension
with such other functions as research, input supply, output marketing, credit and
sometimes price control, will make the whole system productive.
 Purpose – to increase production of particular commodity; sometimes it is to
increase utilization of a particular agricultural input
 Program planning – controlled by the commodity organization
 Implementation carried out by a large field staff assigned through the country;
demonstration plots are a major technique
 Resources required – provided by the commodity organization
 Measure of success – total productivity of a particular crop
 Advantages – technology tends to “fit” the production problems and so messages
of extension officers sent to growers tend to be appropriate, because of
coordination with research and marketing people, messages tend to be delivered
in a timely manner to producers; focus on a narrow range of technical concerns;
higher salary incentives; closer management and supervision; fewer farmer per
extension worker; easier to monitor and evaluate; relatively more cost effective
 Disadvantages – interests of farmers may have less priority than those of the
commodity organization; does not provide a advisory service to other aspects of
farming; problems of the commodity organization promoting “its commodity”
even in situation where it is no longer in the national interest to be in increasing
production of that particular commodity.

5. The Farming System Development Approach (FSDA)

 Basic assumption – technology which fits the needs of farmers particularly small
farmers, is not available and needs to be generated locally
 Purpose – to provide extension persons and through their farm people. With
research results tailored to meet the needs and interest of local farming systems
conditions
 Program planning – evolves slowly during the process, and may be different for
each ages, climatic farm ecosystem type since the program must take into
account a holistic approach to the plants animals and the people in each particular
location; control of program shared jointly by local arm men and women,
agricultural extension officers, and agricultural researchers.
  Implementation – through partnership of research and extension personnel and
with local people, taking a systems approach to the farm; sometimes involve
several scientific disciplines, however requires that research personnel to the
farm listen to them, and the extension personnel, understand the arm as a system
farm, listen to them , and the extension personnel, understand the arm as system.
 Measure of success – extend to which farm people adopt the technologies
developed in the program and continue to use them overtime
 Advantages – some measures of local control of program planning increases
relevance of program content and methods to needs and interests of clientele;
higher adoption rates; effective communication between local people and the
extension personnel; lower cost to central government and local people.
 Disadvantages – interest of farmers may have less priority than those of the
commodity organization; does not provide advisory service to other aspects of
farming; problems of the commodity organization promoting “its commodity”
even in situations where it is no longer in the national interest to be increasing
production of that particular commodity.

6. The agricultural extension participatory approach (AEP)

 General nature concerned with a broad range of agricultural subjects, shifting its
local focus from time to time as village problems change or as needs arise
 Basis assumption – farming people have much wisdom regarding production of
food from their land but their levels of living and productivity could be improved
by learning more of what is outside; that there is an IKS, different from the
scientific knowledge system but there is much to be gained from the interaction
of the two; participation of the farmer, as well as of research and related services;
that there is an reinforcing effect in group learning and group action; that
extension efficiency is gained by focussing on important point based on
expressed needs of farmers.
 Purpose – to increase production of farming people: increase consumption and
enhance the quality of life or rural people
 Program planning – controlled locally, often by farmer’s association
 Implementation – features many meetings and discussion of farmer’s problems
and exploring situations with extension officers
 Resources required - extension workers who are not only technically trained but
are also not-formal educators, animators and catalysts
 Measure of success – continuity of local extension organizations and the benefits
of the community of extension activities: extents of participation of key
stakeholders in program planning and implementation.
 Advantages – relevance or fit of the program; mutually supportive relationships
which develop among participants; less costly; stimulates increased confidence,
awareness and activity among farm people
 Disadvantages – lack of control of program from central government; difficulty
of managing central reporting and accounting; pressure people might bring on
central units; people’s influence on personnel management decisions like
selection, transfer and promotion, and the like,

7. The cost sharing approach (CSA)

 Basic assumption – any NFE is more likely to achieve its goals if those who
benefits from it share some part of the cots; program would more likely fit to
local situation; personnel would more likely serve interests of client if costs are
shared between “outside” sponsors and “inside” target groups; commitments of
learners to participate if they pay some part of the cots.
 Purpose – to help farm people learn those things they need to know for self-
improvement and increased productivity; to make funding of agricultural
extension affordable and sustainable both at central and local levels.
 Program planning – shared by various levels paying the costs but must be
responsive to local interest in order maintain “cooperative” financial
arrangements; local people tend to have strong voice in program planning.
 Measure of success – farm people’s willingness and ability to provide some share
of the cots, individually or through their local government units.
  Advantages – some measure of local control of program planning increases
relevance or program content and methods to needs and interests of the clientele:
higher adoption rates; effective communication between local people and
extension personnel lower cost to central government and local people
 Disadvantages – more difficult for central government to control either program
or personnel.

THE RISE OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

The industrial revolution that is particularly typical f Britain was brought about by a
technological innovation. The automatic loom in the 18 th century, Britain quickly industrialized
and became the first producer and exporter of textiles. The consequence was that farmers left
their fields and became industrial workers, spurring the growth of cities around the thriving
textile industry. At the same time, there were fewer people to produce foodstuff and more
mouths to feed. This led the crown to create a government service to help those farmers who still
stayed on the land to produce more and more efficiently. Agriculture therefore became a
profession like the many other trades and not any more a natural occupation of people trying to
provide for their mere survival. Research institutions for the advancement of scientific farming
were created and agriculture underwent a process of specialization and professionalization which
is till very much a force today. From subsistence agriculture moved to diversification and
specialized market oriented agriculture. Because of its “strategic importance” for maintaining
food security for its population, most countries have created some kind of service to support
framers in their endeavours to produce more efficiently. These are called advisory extension
services.

A Short History of Extension Services

As outlined above, the British crown was the first to create a free service to help fanners to
produce more foodstuffs. It was therefore quite natural that they would set up similar
organizations in the territories under their rule. In India and Africa, advisory or extension services
were established because basically the problems of foods scarcity were comparable to those.
Britain had been subject to at the end of the 18 th century. In the United States where the term
extension was coined – the service was started from the State universities under the Land Grant
System. According to this modality, State universities were encouraged and financed to set up
faculties of agronomy and animal sciences whose teaches and professors not only deal with
research and teaching but also “extended” their know-how and experience to surrounding farmers
including farm visits and on-farm trials. This became known as extension service, i.e. from the
university to the outside fanning world in the areas allotted to that particular university. This was
later coined cooperative extension service when the US government introduced the system in
developing countries, specifically to Latin American but also to some parts of Africa. In France,
on the other hand, the state evolved into industrial development while staying a predominantly
agricultural country, where farmer when produced surpluses and therefore the need arouse to
regulate farming rather than encouraging it. When the French started colonizing parts of Africa
and Asia, they brought with then the same approach regarding agricultural development and
therefore did not bother to set up such services, except of course for cash crops they were
interested in for export and further processing at home (cotton, coffee, cocoa, rubber, groundnuts,
spices, etc.) the need for farm improvement both at home and in the former colonies was never
entrusted to the state, rather to the care and initiative of the farmer or growers associations, who
would then hire specialists in specific trades like plant protection, mechanization and farm
economics. This of course posed the problem of farmers’ organizations which is not a
spontaneous phenomenon the least one could say in developing nations. The Training and Visits
(T & V) System popularized in the 1970s and the 1980s through the World Bank was applied in
many developing countries and certainly and certainly input instrumental in arousing the
awareness on the need of knowledge systems as a critical input to bring about development. It
was a great success especially in India. When combined with the Green Revolution, it brought
important changes in stale awareness in many parts of the Green Revolution, it brought important
changes in stale awareness in many parts of Africa. T &V while effective – a case in point in
French-speaking Guinea in West Africa – was criticized for two main reasons: first because of its
top-down approach and second because of its not being efficient large maintenance budgets
linked to enhanced salaries, vehicles and management of the system. This led to participatory
approach, whereby development professionals, (researchers, extension workers at all levels)
should initiate change together with farmers according to the farmers’ felt needs and not
necessarily according to what suits policymakers or governments. Free trade and
entrepreneurship are now widely encouraged as opposed to state intervention and the tendency is
presently to a strong reduction in state budget and in the intervention in the life of citizens,
especially as related to agricultural development. Extension therefore will move to privatized
systems – in a way a bend towards the French approach as outlined above. The need for
extension is evident, the only problems is to whom to entrust it. Who will pay for it and
consequently what delivery systems should be used to ensure its effectiveness, efficiency and
sustainability.

The increasing demand for extension science, training and skills can be explained by various
factors:

1 As bottlenecks to agricultural production are removed by improved marketing, banking,

infrastructure, land tenure, and input delivery, the growth of productivity becomes
“technology propelled”. Once that stage has been reached, the joint action of research,
extension and education becomes the spear point of agricultural development.
2 Modern states increasing rely on policy instruments for inducing voluntary behaviour
change. In addition to the more conventional ones aimed at compliance, such s subsidies,
price manipulation and laws.
3 The competition for the attention of the public has taken on hitherto unknown proportions
as a result of the vast number of print and electronic messages which can be sent cheaply
to members of the target public.
4 As society approaches the limits of feasible adaptation of the environment to human
intentionality, the need to adapt intentionality is felt more strongly.

Extension science developed first as a specialization within rural sociology. Given rural
sociology’s focus on change, extension as an instrument for promoting change could not be
ignored. Studying change agent such as extension workers and their agencies became acceptable
sociological preoccupations. One of the earliest extension research paradigms – diffusion of
innovations, arose within, and was consolidated as a tradition in rural sociology. It provided a
comfortable home for what was to become extension science.
However, extension soon became decision-oriented or activist and divorced itself from
rural sociology, becoming more and more concerned with utilizing social psychology and
communication and borrowing heavily from the neighbouring field of education, marketing and
advertising. Extension did not need theories of change but, rather, of changing. It the process, the
focus shifted to the micro-level and to extension methods interpersonal communication processes
and the adoption of technology by the individual. The macro-consequences of technology-
propelled development were neglected.
Recently, however, extension science seems to be turning full circle. The focus on
information and knowledge systems on the interfaces between the information system and other
social systems, and on the consequences of technological change, implies an increased utilization
of social system concepts and a preoccupation with the sociology of knowledge.

Knowledge and Information System

Extension science is beginning to be able to make propositions about extension as a sub-

system of a larger system in which research and utilizes also form sub-systems. In fact, it seems
unfruitful nowadays to look at extension in isolation from these sub-systems. For example, one
cannot improve extension without also improving research and the mechanisms linking it to
extension. Nor can one improve extension without improving user control of farmers over
extension services.

Agricultural Information System

Is a system in which agricultural information is generated, transformed, transferred,
consolidated, received and feedback in such a manner that these processes function synergic ally
to underpin knowledge utilization by agricultural producers.

An Agricultural knowledge System (AKS)

Is a system of belief, cognitions, models, theories, concepts and other products of the
mind in which various experience of a person or group with respect to agricultural production is
accumulate.
 TECHNOLOGY
NGO

GO

FARMER SUC

POLICIES

LGU
EXTENSION
PO WORKERS

Fig. 2. The different systems within an agricultural extension system

The figure above depicts the different systems that interplay within an agricultural
extension system. These are the technology/knowledge system, policies, non-government
organization (NGO), State Universities and Colleges (SUC), Government Organization (GO),
People organization (PO), Local Government Unit (LGU), extension Workers and the farmers.
Each of these systems has their own strengths and weaknesses in their role within the bigger
system.
In the Philippines, The extension system which forms part of the Agricultural information
knowledge system include the agricultural extension system of the local government units
(LGUs) the Department of Agriculture Agencies and Bureaus, the State Colleges and
Universities, GOs and private companies. This practice of allowing several organizations to
provide extension work to the different farmers of the country implies that the country has a
Pluralistic Extension Policy. Even before the 1993 devolution of the Bureau of Agricultural
Extension, there was already a plurality of organizations that were providing agricultural
extension work to the millions of Filipino farmers. That included DA industry bureaus, the DA
commodity agencies, the State Agricultural Colleges and Universities as well as some NGOs and
private companies.

Technology/knowledge system
It is now widely accepted the usefulness of system approach for understanding and
analyzing agricultural technology generation and dissemination (Nagel, 1979; Swanson &
Peterson, 1991; Rolling, 1991; Elliot, 1994) as mentioned by Peterson, 1997
An agricultural knowledge system was identified consisting of four companies namely
technology generation, technology transfer, technology utilization and agricultural policy. The
functions and linkages related to the flow and feedback of technology and information in the
system defines the component. The way these are divided among organizations differs from
country to country.
 Technology generation consists of planning, administration and implementation of
research activities that develop, assess, adapt and test improved agricultural
technology for farmers and other users. In the public sector, these tasks, as well as
some dissemination work are carried out by agricultural research organizations.
 Technology transfer further evaluates and adapts research outputs for users and then
widely disseminates the knowledge and inputs to different target adopters.
 Technology utilization component encompasses the users of the agricultural
technology, mainly farmers. User awareness, adaptation and adaptation of improved
technology from various sources affect farm-level productivity and profitability and
economic growth at the national level. Interaction and feedback between users are
research and transfer organizations improved cooperation and the relevance of
technology. The policy component relates to the government development goals and
 strategies, market and price policies and the levels or resources investment in the
system.

Factors that can impede or influence the flow of technology and information in agricultural
technology system:

A. Macrofactors:

a. Agroecological – differences in temperature, rainfall, soil types, evapo-

transpiration, etc. are reflected in the diversity of farming conditions and
production systems.
b. Political-economic – the percentage of resource-poor smallholder farmers
influences the type of technology to be transferred. High turnover of top
managers undermines management experience and continuity in leadership.
c. Socio-cultural – language differences and illiteracy can impede the
communication of improved technology. The division of labor between sexes can
differ along cultural lines and influences the nature of farming systems in
different regions.
d. Policy – policy making bodies of the government set development goals and
objectives such as achieving food security or surplus agricultural production to
stimulate economic growth or providing health care or education for rural
development.
e. Infrastructure – farmers in areas that cannot be reached by road or transport
vehicles are difficult to reach with improved technology, and they will have
problems transporting inputs and farm produce.

B. Institutional

a. Research – these include lack of financial resources, acute shortages of well-

trained scientists, lack of farmers feedback to ensure relevance or research
results, lack of access to external sources of knowledge, inadequate operating
budgets, staff incentives and remuneration.
b. Education and training – content of the curricula of universities and training
institutes, numbers and qualifications of their graduates are limiting or enabling
in any country.
c. Input supply – availability of new plant and animal varieties with higher yields or
resistance to pest and diseases; availability of agrochemical and others inputs at
the farm level.
d. Credit –facilitates farmers’ availability to purchase inputs such as improved
variety/breed and fertilizer; understanding government and bank policies,
availability of credit and the institutional relationships involved in credit
delivery.
e. Farmers organizations and other NGOs – agreement should be reached with the
private sectors both nonprofits and commercial organizations so that duplication
of effort is minimized and conflicting messages to farmers are avoided; farmer
organizations offer an effective channel for extension contact with large number
of farmers. Feedback on farmer needs, production problems and the results of
adoption from such groups will be increasingly important considerations.
 Review Exam

1. Teaching methods that cannot be improved by visual treatment are

a. telephone calls d. get-acquainted and organizational visits
b. personal letters and visits e. interneighbor and organizational visits
c. office calls and circular letters
2. They are powerful “attention getters” and “explainers” when used with news articles in
newspapers and magazines.
a. objects b. photographs c. models d. graphs e. charts
3. The story that a picture tells should refer to the
a. topic b. title c. content d. caption in a newspaper e. lead in the history
4. They bare realistic replicas of things.
a. objects b. specimens c. maps d. models
5. They are most useful with individual or group teaching methods
a. objects and specimens c. photographs e. slides and filmstrips
b. films d. television
6. The extension approach wherein foreign advice is provided to local staff is the
a. general approach c. project approach
b. participatory d. commodity approach
7. The extension approach practiced by DA-ATI is the
a. participatory approach c. general approach
b. commodity approach d. project approach
8. The extension approach practiced by PhilRice is the
a. participatory approach c. general approach
b. commodity approach d. project approach
9. It is an example of Individual Method in extension
a. farm and home visits c. campaigns
b. fairs/exhibits d. field days
10. It is an example of mass media in extension
a. leaflets b. classes/seminars c. office calls d. model farmer
11. It is an example of Group Method in extension
a. tours/excursions c. modern information technology
b. indigenous folk media d. informal contacts
12. Extension approach is the __________ of an agricultural system (FAO, 1988)
a. style of action b. essence c. doctrine d. philosophy
13. They are the first persons in the locality who will adopt an innovation
a. laggards b. innovators c. early majority d. late majority
14. The stage in the adoption process wherein the farmer will seek further information about the
innovation
a. evaluation b. awareness c. trial d. interest
15. Diffusion of an innovation takes place if
a. the benefits of the innovation are easy to observe
b. it is possible to try the innovation on a small scale
c. the innovation is coming from well-known scientists
d. the innovation is widely advertised
16. It is the total process by which an innovation spreads out among clients until a large number
have adopted it
a. intervention b. adoption c. diffusion d. evaluation
17. An important phase in an extension program which identifies the group of farmers to be
reached
a. initial situation c. target group e. methods
b. contents d. evaluation
18. The operational design by which a national government implements its extension policies is
called extension
a. method b. approach c. strategy d. principle
19. If the success of an extension approach is measured by the total productivity of a particular
crop, this approach is the
a. general extension approach c. farming systems development approach
b. commodity specialized approach d. training and visit approach
20. If the measure of success of this particular approach is farm people’s willingness and ability
to provide some share of the cost, individually or through their local government units, this
approach is the
a. general extension approach d. training and visit approach
b. commodity specialized approach e. cost-sharing approach
c. farming systems development approach
21. An extension approach which is controlled locally, often by farmer’s association
a. project extension approach c. farming systems development approach
b. participatory approach d. educational institution approach
22. An extension approach wherein research results are tallored to meet the needs and interests of
local farming conditions is the
a. project extension approach c. farming systems development approach
b. participatory approach d. training and visit approach
23. This extension approach includes a project management staff, project allowances for field
staff, better transportation, facilities, equipment and better housing than regular government
programs
a. project extension approach d. educational institution approach
b. participatory approach
c. farming systems development approach
24. This extension approach is highly disciplined and patterned, with fixed schedule of training of
village extension workers to farmers
a. project extension approach d. training and visit approach
b. participatory approach e. educational institution approach
c. farming systems development approach
25. What would you call the organized and coherent combination of methods or schemes to,
make rural extension effective in or particular area?
a. approach b. strategy c. organization d. management
26. When we talk of the structural and management set-up for extension activities to get
implemented we refer to extension:
a. management b. administration c. organization d. supervision
27. The process whereby information and improved practices spread from their originating source
to thousands of ultimate users is called
a. adoption c. information communication
b. diffusion d. technology transfer
28. The adoption process occurs
a. at the individual level c. among groups
b. between persons d. at the community level
29. The stage in the adoption process wherein the farmer will seek further information about the
innovation
a. awareness b. evaluation c. trial d. interest
30. The stage in the adoption process wherein the farmers would apply a technology on a larger
scale is called
a. adoption b. decision-rejection c. evaluation d. trial
31. The stage in the adoption process where mass media is the best source of information is the
a. awareness stage b. interest stage c. evaluation stage d. trial stage
32. The stage in the adoption process where close friends and other farmers are best sources of
information is the
a. interest stage b. trial stage c. evaluation stage d. adoption stage
33. The first persons in the locality to adopt a technology are called
a. early adopters b. early majority c. innovators d. trend setters
34. One characteristic of the late adopters or the laggards is that they are
a. cosmopolite c. more conservative
b. younger than the majority d. high risk takers
35. Which category of adopters of technologies make up the large block of farmers in the
community
a. innovators b. early adopters c. early majority d. late majority
36. The smallest category of adopters of technologies make up the large block of farmers in the
community
a. innovators b. early adopters c. late majority d. laggards
37. An idea, method, or object which is regarded as new by an individual is called a/an
a. construct b. recommendation c. technology d. innovation
38. Generally, the adoption process follows the following sequence
a. awareness, trial, interest, evaluation, adoption
b. awareness, trial, evaluation, interest, adoption
c. awareness, interest, evaluation, trial, adoption
d. awareness, interest, trial, evaluation, adoption
39. If there is high adoption of fertilizers because the farmers can start using fertilizer on a small
scale, a characteristic of the technology that is working is
a. relative advantage b. simplicity c. observability d. trialability
40. If there are more participants in a dress making class than in reforestation program, it is
because results of the sewing class are highly
a. compatible b. observable c. simple d. advantageous to participants
41. Teaching method means
a. delivery of the subject matter to learners
b. getting learners to interact with subject matter
c. the process of transferring subject matter to the interested learner
d. the strategy used by the teacher in the classroom
42. The teaching method whereby a great number of people come to know about a subject matter
at the same time is called
a. group method c. general patronage method
b. multi-group method d. mass method
43. Farm and home visits is classified under which type of extension teaching method?
a. individual method b. group method c. multi-group method d. mass method
44. The radio is excellent channel for what type of extension teaching method?
a. individual method b. group method c. mass method d. all of then above
45. The process demonstration falls under what type of extension teaching method?
 a. individual method b. group method c. multi-group method d. mass method
46. What teaching method would you use if you need to give instructions to specific farmers?
a. individual method b. group method c. multi-group method d. mass method
47. Field trips fall under what type of teaching method?
a. group method b. multi-group method c. mass method d. all of the above
48. In the case of SARS, what teaching method would be best to use to inform the public about
precautionary measures?
a. individual method b. group method c. multi-group method d. mass method
49. Extension approach is an organized or coherent combination of
a. strategies and methods c. theory and practice
b. principles and philosophy d. programs and activities
50. The objectives of an extension approach is to
a. facilitate the implementation of extension programs
b. ensure participation of all segments of society
c. make rural extension more effective
d. deliver national development programs according to plans
51. Transfer of technology is general nature of what extension approach?
a. project approach c. farming systems development approach
b. training and visit system approach d. general agricultural extension approach
52. What extension approach has for its basic assumption that extension personnel are poorly-
trained, not up-to-date, and tend to stay in their offices?
a. project approach c. farming systems development approach
b. training and visit system approach d. general agriculture extension approach
53. What extension approach has for its basic assumption that better results can be achieved in a
particular location?
a. general agriculture extension approach c. commodity approach
b. project approach d. agriculture extension participatory approach
54. What extension approach has for its basic assumption that technology which fits the farmers,
particularly the small farmers, is not available and needs to be generated locally?
a. cost-sharing approach c. farming system development approach
b. commodity approach d. training and visit system approach
55. What extension approach would disadvantage some farmers because their interest may have
less priority than those of the extension organization?
a. training and visit system approach c. commodity approach
b . sceme approach d. project approach
56. What extension approach fails to adjust extension messages to different localities because the
messages have already been formulated prior to the extension work?
a. training and visit system approach c. project approach
b. cost-sharing approach d. general agriculture extension approach
57. What extension approach requires a large number of extension personnel?
a. agriculture extension participatory approach
b. general agriculture extension approach
c. training and visit system approach
d. commodity approach
58. What extension approach is it where its measure of success is the total productivity of a
particular crop?
a. project approach c. commodity approach
b. farming systems development approach d. training and visit system approach
59. What extension approach is it where its measure of success is the extent of farm people’s
willingness to shoulder some of the expenses whether individually or by the local government
unit?
a. project approach c. commodity approach
b. cost-sharing approach d. general agriculture extension approach
60. When the measure of success of an extension delivery system is the total productivity of a
particular crop, the approach being followed is called
a. commodity specialized approach c. farming systems development approach
b. project approach d. general agriculture extension approach
61. In which extension approach are farmers disadvantaged because extension does not provide
advisory service to other aspects of farming?
a. cost-sharing approach c. farming systems development approach
b. commodity specialized approach d. training and visit system approach
62. It is a prepared oral presentation of a subject by a trainer or a resource person
 a. small group discussion b. lecture c. meetings d. panel discussion
63. This is a planned and guided visit of a group of participants to a specific site or sites for the
purpose of obtaining first hand information about an organization and its services or products
a. field day b. field trip c. result demonstration d. excursion
64. This is a method of acting roles from real life situation and understanding the dynamics of
these roles
a. role playing b. case study c. theater arts d. balagtasan
65. An activity where a group of people meet together to discuss informally and deliberately on a
topic of a mutual concern is
a. brainstorming b. group discussion m c. panel discussion d. meeting
66. It is one, if not the oldest, of all teaching methods which emphasizes the principle of learning
by doing
a. result demonstration b. method demonstration c. demonstration d. hands-on
67. This is well organized plan for bringing about widespread adoption of a particular practice
a. political campaign c. promotional campaign
b. educational campaign d. campaign
68. This is the best method of extension teaching
a. demonstration b. field trip c. farm and home visits d. a variety of methods
69. A method of extension teaching which shows after a period of time what happened after a
practice is adopted is
a. method demonstration b. result demonstration c. meetings d. field trip
70. In this method, the step by step procedure of doing a thing is shown
a. method demonstration b. result demonstration c. meetings d. field trip
71. The Philippines adopted the Training and Visit System as a result of then appraisal of the
country’s agricultural extension service by the
a. World Bank Mission c. ASEAN Mission
b. Bell Bank Mission d. New Society Agricultural Task Force
72. Project outcomes in the technology promotion process are
a. outputs b. effects c. impacts d. all of the above
73. The integrated approach believes on the principle of
a. complementation b. competition c. democracy d. none of the above
74. In selecting an approach in technology promotion, major considerations are:
a. objective and nature in technology c. agency resources
b. competition d. all of the above
75. A plan has a time duration which can be described as:
a. long-range plan b. short-range plan c. medium-range d. all of the above
76. Almost all plans are guided by a deep-seated beliefs or a general statement that guides the
organization.
a. objectives b. mission c. philosophy d. policies
77. To make the organizational plan operational, it is broken down into:
a. programs b. projects c. tasks d. activities
78. The program is composed of realistic, doable and practical
a. projects b. tasks c. activities d. rules
79. Planning as a major component of all program development process is basically a
__________
a. diffusion process c. evaluation process
b. decision making process d. learning process
80. It is the stage of deciding in advance what to do, when to do, how to do it, who will do it, why
and how much is needed.
a. program planning b. program evaluation c. program monitoring
81. Plans are made to ensure __________
a. effectiveness and efficiency c. satisfaction
b. productivity and profitability d. all of the above
82. Plans are important because:
a. serve as bases for evaluating accomplishments
b. guide implementers
c. base s for monitoring evaluation
d. all of the above
83. When problem are identified, the next step usually done is to __________
a. evaluate b. prioritize c. internet d. list
84. __________ is the process of establishing a viable and functional community organization
that is created to contribute to sustainable development of rural communities
 a. community organizing c. brigade organizing
b. fraternity organizing d. all of the above
85. To gain a first-hand knowledge of the community, it is important to stay and live with the
people. This is called
a. evaluation b. immersion/integration c. conversion d. communication
86. This type of publication covers a wider scope of subject matter such as rice growing. This
usually contains a complete summary of the information available on particular subject.
a. leaflet b. newsletter c. bulletin d. newspaper
87. Poster, photographs enlargement, models, drawing and other devices are used to put up this
method/channel for purposes of conveying a theme related to agricultural development. What is
this?
a. exhibits b. puppets c. publication d. television
88. The media which are prepared to publicize an extension activity and summarize the outcome
of results demonstration.
a. circular letters b. mass media c. educational campaign d. news stories
89. In reality, which of the following is more likely to happen in each stage of adoption process?
a. rejection b. adoption c. invention d. discontinuance
90. The most universally used extension teaching method
a. individual method b. group method c. mass method d. automated method
91. One of the important factors to consider in the choice of extension methods is
a. print media and publications c. subject matter
b. meetings d. brainstorming
92. The factor in the choice of extension teaching methods which considers the question as to
who will teach and who are to be taught
a. human factor b. objectives c. technology d. time
93. The participation of the rural people in determining, implementing and directing plans and
programs to achieve development is increased
a. efficiency b. equity c. empowerment d. sustainability
94. It means that the innovation is a product of research and experimentation
a. technologically available c. educationally attainable
b. economically feasible d. socially acceptable
95. Refers to the process of getting approval of the idea or innovation from the power structure of
the relevant social system.
a. evaluation b. diffusion c. initiation d. legitimization
96. It means using land, labor, capital and management ability in the best possible combination to
produce a marketable product
a. efficacy b. efficiency c. effectiveness d. effortless
97. They are considered important links in the process of legitimizing innovations because of
their unique position between the very early and the relative late adopters
a. innovators c. early majority adopters
b. late majority adopters d. early adopters
98. These are skeptical conservative and are more than normally careful in adopting an
innovation
a. innovators c. early majority adopters
b. late majority adopters d. early adopters
99. It is analysis of the progress or shortcoming of a program or project set out to be
accomplished
a. monitoring b. evaluation c. inventory d. validation
100. It is carried throughout the life of the project to enable modification or corrective action or
design, time table, etc.
a. terminal evaluation c. follow-up evaluation
b. inventory d. process evaluation

Mock Exam

1. Which of the following is not a definition of agricultural extension?

 a. Non-formal system of education which organized to provide rural people useful
& practical knowledge/technology in agriculture & teaching them apply on their
farms/homes
b. Teaching & influence process
c. Technology transfer
d. The introduction of technical “know-how” to the farming population to increase
agricultural production & thereby raise the standard of living
2. This is considered as a lifelong process of learning
a. Education c. Management
b. Administration d. Extension
3. This principle considers the involvement of the people in the planning, implementation &
evaluation of extension services
a. Participation c. Leadership
b. Cooperation d. Interests & needs
4. Majority of the Filipinos live in this area & are involved in agricultural economy
a. Urban area c. Urban area
b. Rural area d. Agricultural area
5. This refers to the extent to which an innovation or its results can be seen
a. Compatibility b. relative advantage c. observability d. trability
6. This is the principle of extension which considers the level of knowledge & economic
status of the people
a. Grassroot approach c. Participation
b. Cooperation d. Leadership
7. This is known for being basically pictorial using drawings and/or protographs with a text
as brief & vivid as possible. Its size & appearance are similar to a poster but often
contains more written material and a variety of information
a. Newsletter b. Circular letter c. Wall newspaper d. Sign
8. The population of the Philippines on 2002
a. 68 million b. 86 million c. 78 million d. 80
million
9. These are systematic displays of models, specimens, charts, posters, etc. in a sequence to
create awareness & interest to increase people’s knowledge & to stimulate action
a. Newspaper b. exhibits c. wall newspaper c.
publications
10. The Philippines is composed of ____ regions
a. 13 b. 16 c. 20 d. 15
11. At his stage of adoption process, the individual develops curiosity or concern in the new
idea/practice
a. Awareness b. interest c. evaluation d. trial
12. Much is to be desired in terms of environmental _______ like floods, wildlife nearing
extinction, pollution, garbage & trash, insecticide/rodenticides
a. Degradation b. improvement c. development d. Management
13. The first persons in the locality to adopt an innovation are called
a. Early adopters b. innovators c. early majority d.
laggards
14. An attribute or characteristic of a technology/innovation that refers to the extent to which
new idea or practice fits into the farmer’s view about what ought to be, what he does on
the farm & how he does it.
a. Compatibility b. relative advantage c. complexity d. triability
15. Extension work in the Philippines started in 1565 thru the establishment of model farms
by this group
a. Spaniards b. Americans c. Japanese d. Taiwanese
16. The degree to which an innovation or a new idea is superior to the one it intends to
replace is
a. Compatibility b. observability c. complexity d. relative advantage
17. A moderated meeting in which a limited number of experts or specialists representing
different fields of discipline give short presentations on the same subject
a. Informal group discussion c. general meetings
b. Panel discussion d. symposium
18. The national extension Program was appraised by the World Bank Mission in
a. 1978 b. 1979 c. 1980 d. 1977
19. This is a short series of lecture, usually two to five speakers each with a different
viewpoint
a. Illustrated lectures c. informal group discussion
b. Panel discussion d. symposium
20. This involves meeting individually with the farmer at the farm or home to give the
extension worker an opportunity to work out practical solutions to specific problems
a. Farm and home visit c. informal contact
b. Model farmer d. office calls
21. The art or skill of performance is referred to as
a. Method b. Technique c. Device d. Instruction materials
22. An extension approach which promotes the production of a certain important crop
emphasizing the available production factors
a. Area approach c. commodity approach
b. Farming system approach d. participatory extension approach
23. It is a prepared oral presentation of a subject by a trainer or a resource person
a. Small group discussion c. meetings
b. Lecture d. panel discussion
24. In this approach, farmers are involved in the whole process of decision-making from data
collection and analysis identification, identification of problems, constraints and
opportunities, preparation and improvement of plans to implementation and monitoring
and evaluation
a. Farmer field school c. participatory extension
approach
b. Farming system approach d. participatory technology
development
25. This is a method of acting out roles from real life situation and understanding the
dynamics of these roles
a. Role playing b. case study c. theater arts d.
balagtasan
26. Adoption of an innovation means to use it
a. Fully b. impractically c. partially d. impartially
27. These methods of extension teaching are particularly useful in making large group of
people aware of new ideas and practices or alerting them to sudden emergencies
a. Group b. individual c. mass d. media
28. Communication barriers are also called because they
a. Accelerate b. hasten c. facilitate d. impede
29. Extension is described as this process because it starts where the people are and with
what they have and gradually works up to what they ought to be
a. Educational b. continuous c. democratic d.
autocratic
30. To communicate an innovation means any of the following activities except
a. Creating b. sharing c. joking d. talking
31. This is the best method of extension teaching
a. Demonstration c. farm and home visits
b. Field trip d. a variety of methods
32. Extension is teaching preferably
a. Community people b. middlemen c. consultants d.
professional
33. The new paradigm in agriculture is to look at farming as a/an
a. Way of life b. family traditions to uphold c. business
d. art
34. An extension worker is a rolled into one being such on the except as
a. Adviser b. planner c. insulter d. teacher
35. When one’s actions are not according to one’s belieft, the following that will be
experienced is called
a. Affective resonance c. Active-reactive-resonance
b. Cognitive dissonance d. experiential imbalance
36. Process through which an individual passes from the first knowledge of it until he
confirms its use is called
a. Evaluation b. innovation-decision c. implementation d. planning
37. The element of the communication process which generates the development oriented
technology is
 a. Channel b. receiver c. message d.
source
38. The story that a picture tells refers to
a. The introduction c. The content
b. The title d. The caption
39. Possible consequence of the communication process is called
a. Effects b. receiver c. message d. source
40. Which of the following is/are goa;s of AFMA
a. Poverty Alleviation and Social Equity c. Food Security
b. Global competitiveness d. A, B, and C
41. The degree of similarity between two communicators is technically known as
a. Conformity b. homophily c. heterophily d. uniformity
42. A form of communication used in rallies and demonstration
a. Interpersonal b. interpersonal c. discussion d. shared
43. To establish an information-exchange relationship a change agent must be prove his
credibility in terms of the following except
a. Competence b. emphaty c. dishonesty d.
trustworthiness
44. An extension approach wherein foreign advice is provided to local staff
a. General b. participatory c. project d. commodity
45. First and foremost an extension worker must be
a. Client-centered c. self-centered
b. Reward-centered d. innovation-centered
46. An action which leads to desirable outcome is likely to be repeated in similar
circumstances is the basic law of
a. Extension b. communication c. learning d. motivation
47. In arriving at a diagnostic conclusion he must view the problematic solution from
a. Agency’s perspective c. client’s perspective
b. Community’s perspective d. his own perspective
48. The extension approach is highly disciplined and patterned, with fixed schedule of
training of village extension workers to farmers
a. Project extension approach c. farming systems development
approach
b. Participatory approach d. training and visit approach
49. The agent’s main goal is to develop self-renewing behavior on
a. Agency system c. client system
b. Himself d. others
50. The following are some attributory considerations for appropriateness of the channel
except
a. Competence of the user c. kind and quality of the receiver
b. Introductory music that is being used d. purpose of the communication
51. The various government and non-government research center/agencies in the country are
continuously generating ______ in livestock crops, fisheries, forestry and natural
resources
a. Technologies b. breeder seeds c. infrastructure d. natural
resources
52. Technologies can be categorized as
a. Product b. process c. service and information d. research
53. The function of the university/college that provides pre-service trainings, backstopping of
subject-matter specialist and releases farm, home and fishery information is
a. Extension b. mass media c. instruction d. research
54. Technologies are ready for dissemination if these have met the following criteria
a. General adaptability c. social acceptability
b. Economic profitability d. all of the above
55. The process of technology ________ may require different methods of extension in order
to become effective
a. Adoption b. diffusion c. learning d. teaching
56. Knowledge, skills and attitudes are human factors to consider in the choice of
a. Extension method c. teaching learning process
b. Technology d. subject matter
57. The first stage of diffusion is ___________ wherein the target users/clients merely know
the technology or innovation
 a. Awareness b. interest c. trial d. evaluation
58. The values, standards, perceptions and positions of the extension officer and farmer are
part of the
a. Attitude of the source towards the subject matter
b. Attitude toward receiver/source
c. Socio-cultural environment of the teaching-learning process
d. Subject matter to be taught
59. This stage refers to the large scale and continuous use for the technology, characterized
by the feeling of satisfaction on the part of the user
a. Evaluation b. adoption c. interest d. trial
60. Which of the following does nor affect the choice of an extension method?
a. Facilities available c. subject matter/technology
taught
b. Interest and abilities of extensionist d. teaching technique
61. The technology can be described as ______ if the magnitude of expected benefits likes
increases net income, more employment, higher foreign exchange earning/savings
a. Technically feasible c. socially acceptable
b. Economically viable d. environmental
62. Color slides, lantern slides, filmstrips, overhead projector and cinema films are examples
of the method called
a. Display visual b. projected visuals c. presentation visuals d. story board
63. The technology is categorized as competent technology and _______
a. Package of technology c. source of technology
b. Stage of technology d. receiver technology
64. A visual which contains graphically certain process like the life cycle of pests and pest
control technique is
a. Bulletin board b. mobile units c. handouts d. wall chart
65. It is the step by step way of guiding perspective adopters in knowing trying and adopting
specific technology
a. Style b. approach c. teaching d. method
66. An institution which has trilogy of functions, namely research, instruction and extension
a. Parish office c. Local government unit
b. Philrice d. University/College
67. This approach reaches a great number of people at the same time in a short period of time
a. Mass approach c. commodity approach
b. Participatory approach d. community approach
68. Which of the following are informal sources of farm information
a. Banks b. farm magazines c. farmers COOP d. lay
leaders
69. This approach covers the promotion of technology that starts from production storing,
processing and marketing
a. Commodity approach c. single purpose approach
b. Community approach d. mass approach
70. This approach is used by an agency whether public or private to develop a community in
all aspects such as economic, social cultural, political and environmental
a. Commodity approach c. single purpose approach
b. Community approach d. mass approach
71. Project outcomes in the technology promotion are:
a. Outputs b. effects c. impacts d. all of the above
72. Technically, a _______ is a written document covering specific period of time, that
contains the organization/agency’s vision, mission, goals, program trusts, approaches and
strategies, policies and rules, structure, manpower and funding requirement
a. Project b. plan c. program d. mission
73. The program is composed of realistic, doable and practical __________.
a. Projectsb. tasks c. activities d. rules
74. The common document available in the barangay that describes the geographic,
economic, social, demographic, political, institutional and historical is called _______.
a. Barangay profile c. barangay workplan
b. Barangay budget d. barangay road
75. The agency/barangay development plan in made operational and ready for
implementation by preparing a detailed _______ with an approved budgetary
requirements
 a. Workplan/plan of work c. monitoring plan
b. Proposal d. outline
76. Programs and projects in extension are based on existing _____ affecting a great number
of people.
a. Local/ political leaders c. climate
b. Problems and needs d. religion
77. ________ is defined as the gap between the existing or current situation and the ideal or
desired situation
a. extension b. problem c. need d. objective
78. Solutions to identified problems & needs can be in the form of
a. Programs b. projects c. tasks & activities d. all of the
above
79. ___________ is the process of establishing a viable & functional community
organization that is created to contribute to sustainable development of rural communities
a. community organizing c. brigade organizing
b. fraternity organizing d. all of the above
80. CO is a process that revolves around the lives, experiences & aspirations of the people. It
is described to be ____________.
a. People centered c. resource centered
b. Environment centered d. process centered
81. Community based approach can be described as:
a. People centered c. resource centered
b. Community centered d. all of the above
82. Before any organizing can be done, an initial __________ should first be undertaken
a. Community study c. feasibility study
b. Climatic study d. political study
83. In the CO process, the best method for data gathering is ___________
a. Integration b. evaluation c. cooperation d.
unification
84. Every barangay has IRA wherein 20% development fund is allocated. IRA means
a. Internal Rural Appraisal c. Internal Rapid Appraisal
b. Internal Revenue Allotment d. None of the above
85. When we say the communication is dyadic in nature, we mean
a. Interpersonal communication c. extrapersonal communication
b. Intrapersonal communication d. transpersonal communication
86. Which of the following is not among the barriers in communication
a. Sensational dimension c. cultural dimension
b. Social dimension d. time & space dimension
87. Information superhighway is a term given to the
a. South/North expressways c. Internet
b. Lightrail superhighway d. use of cell phones
88. Internet café is a place where one can
a. Buy coffee & entertain friends c. download information from the net
b. Chat & order coffee d. get access to computers, play games & download
coffee
89. It is a private network of computers
a. Intranet b. extranet c. internet d. infonet
90. The evaluation stage of the adoption process is sometimes called
a. Confirmation stage c. knowledge stage
b. Implementation stage d. mental trial stage
91. When farmers prefer a sweet potato variety with high dry matter content as a substitute
for staple food, the characteristic of the innovation that applies to this
a. Compatibility b. complexity c. triability d. observability
92. The characteristic of innovation is often expressed in economic profitability
a. Compatibility b. complexity c. observability d. relative
advantage
93. The late adopters are also called
a. Innovator b. laggards c. opinion leaders d. risk-
takers
94. The stage of the adoption process whereby the farmer learns of the existence of the idea
but knows little about it
a. Adoption b. awareness c. evaluation d. trial
 95. When the farmer considers the new idea or innovation as it affects him, the stage of the
adoption process that applies to this is
a. Awareness b. evaluation c. interest d. trial
96. The degree to which innovation is perceived as relatively difficult to understand
a. Compatibility b. complexity c. observability d. triability
97. The adopter category who is described as venturesome & risk-takers
a. Early adopter b. innovator c. laggards d. late
adopter
98. The degree to which innovation may be experimented with on limited basis
a. Compatibility b. complexity c. relative advantage d.
triability
99. This adopter category is referred to as a localite & has the greatest degree of opinion
leadership in most social systems
a. Early adopter b. innovator c. laggards d. Late
majority
100. It is implementational, a particular trick, strategy or individual artistry of the
extension worker
a. Approach b. techniques c. Method d. none
of the above

Answer Key – Review Exam

1. A 21. B 41. B 61. B 81. D
2. B 22. C 42. D 62. B 82. D
3. C 23. A 43. A 63. B 83. B
4. D 24. D 44. C 64. A 84. A
5. A 25. A 45. B 65. A 85. B
6. C 26. C 46. A 66. C 86. C
7. C 27. B 47. A 67. B 87. A
8. B 28. A 48. D 68. D 88. A
9. A 29. C 49. A 69. B 89. A
10. A 30. A 50. A 70. A 90. A
11. A 31. A 51. D 71. A 91. C
12. B 32. C 52. B 72. D 92. A
13. B 33. C 53. B 73. A 93. C
14. D 34. C 54. C 74. A 94. A
15. B 35. D 55. C 75. D 95. D
16. C 36. A 56. D 76. C 96. B
17. C 37. D 57. B 77. A 97. C
18. C 38. C 58. C 78. A 98. B
19. B 39. D 59. B 79. D 99. B
20. E 40. B 60. A 80. A 100. D
ANSWER KEY – Mock Exam
1. C 21. B 41. B 61. B 81. A
2. A 22. C 42. A 62. B 82. A
3. A 23. B 43. C 63. A 83. A
4. B 24. C 44. C 64. D 84. B
5. C 25. A 45. A 65. D 85. A
6. A 26. A 46. C 66. D 86. A
7. C 27. C 47. C 67. A 87. C
8. D 28. D 48. D 68. D 88. C
9. B 29. B 49. C 69. A 89. A
10. B 30. C 50. B 70. B 90. D
11. B 31. D 51. A 71. D 91. A
12. C 32. A 52. - 72. B 92. D
13. B 33. C 53. A 73. A 93. B
14. A 34. C 54. D 74. A 94. B
15. A 35. B 55. A 75. A 95. B
16. D 36. B 56. A 76. B 96. B
17. B 37. D 57. A 77. C 97. B
18. A 38. C 58. C 78. D 98. D
19. D 39. A 59. B 79. A 99. A
20. A 40. D 60. D 80. A 100. B