Unit-II

Rocks and Minerals

Compiled by
Dr.R.Gobinath
Prof.Tipraj
 Rocks and Minerals

References: Principles and applications of Geochemistry (Ch. 7 & 8)

Igneous Petrogenesis (Ch. 2)
ROCKS & MINERALS
How are rocks formed: the rock cycle

www.geolsoc.org.uk
The Rock
Cycle
The Rock Cycle
 Rock Types

◼ Igneous
◼ Form by solidification of molten rock (magma)
◼ Sedimentary
◼ Form by lithification of sediment (sand, silt, clay, shells)
◼ Metamorphic
◼ Form by transformations of preexisting rocks (in the solid state)
 Igneous Rocks

• Intrusive
• Extrusive
 Intrusive (plutonic)
– Form within the Earth
– Slow cooling
– Interlocking large crystals
– Example = granite
 Extrusive (volcanic)
– Form on the surface of the Earth as a result of
volcanic eruption
– Rapid cooling
– Glassy and/or fine-grained texture
– Example = basalt
Basalt: igneous extrusive
Intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks
Sedimentary Rocks
 Origin of sediment
– Produced by weathering and erosion or by
precipitation from solution
– Weathering = chemical and mechanical
breakdown of rocks
– Erosion = processes that get the weathered
material moving
 Sediment types
– Clastic sediments are derived from the
physical deposition of particles produced by
weathering and erosion of preexisting rock.
– Chemical and biochemical sediments are
precipitated from solution.
 Clastic

Chemical/biochemical
 Lithification
– The process that converts sediments into
solid rock
– Compaction
– Cementation
Cemented sandstone
Metamorphic Rocks
Regional and contact metamorphism
conglomerate

metaconglomerate
granite

gneiss
 Igneous and Sedimentary Rocks
2
Igneous Rock
• Igneous (IHG nee us) rocks form when
melted rock material from inside Earth
cools.
• When melted rock material cools on Earth’s
surface, it makes an extrusive (ehk STREW
sihv) igneous rock.
• When the melt cools below Earth’s surface,
intrusive (ihn TREW sihv) igneous rock
forms.
 Igneous and Sedimentary Rocks
2
Chemical Composition
• The chemicals in
the melted rock
material determine
the color of the
resulting rock.
• If it contains a
high percentage
of silica and little iron, magnesium, or
calcium, the rock generally will be light
in color.
 Igneous and Sedimentary Rocks
2
Chemical Composition
• Light-colored
igneous rocks
are called
granitic (gra
NIH tihk) rocks.
 Igneous and Sedimentary Rocks
2
Chemical Composition
• If the silica content
is far less, but it
contains more iron,
magnesium, or
calcium, a dark-
colored or basaltic
(buh SAWL tihk)
rock will result.
• Intrusive igneous rocks often are granitic, and
extrusive igneous rocks often are basaltic.
 Igneous and Sedimentary Rocks
2
Rocks from Lava
• Extrusive igneous rocks form when melted
rock material cools on Earth’s surface.
 Igneous and Sedimentary Rocks
2
Rocks from Lava
• When the melt reaches Earth’s surface, it is
called lava.
 Igneous and Sedimentary Rocks
2
Rocks from Lava
• Extrusive igneous rocks can form in two
ways.
 Igneous and Sedimentary Rocks
2
Rocks from Lava
• In one way, volcanoes erupt and shoot out
lava and ash.
 Igneous and Sedimentary Rocks
2
Rocks from Lava
• Also, large cracks in Earth’s crust, called
fissures (FIH shurz), can open up.
 Igneous and Sedimentary Rocks
2
Rocks from Magma
• Intrusive igneous
rocks are produced
when magma cools
below the surface
of Earth.
 Igneous and Sedimentary Rocks
2
Sedimentary Rocks
• Pieces of broken rock,
shells, mineral grains,
and other materials make
up what is called
sediment (SE duh munt).
• Sediment can collect in
layers to form rocks.
These are called
sedimentary (sed uh
MEN tuh ree) rocks.
 Igneous and Sedimentary Rocks
2
Sedimentary Rocks
• When sediment is dropped, or deposited,
by wind, ice, gravity, or water, it collects
in layers.
• After sediment is deposited, it begins the
long process of becoming rock.
• Most sedimentary rocks take thousands to
millions of years to form.
 Igneous and Sedimentary Rocks
2
Fossils

• Chalk and other types of fossiliferous

limestone are made from the fossils of
millions of tiny organisms.

• A fossil is the remains or trace of a once-

living plant or animal.
 Metamorphic Rocks and the Rock Cycle
3
Metamorphic Rocks
• New rocks that form when existing rocks
are heated or squeezed but are not melted
are called metamorphic (me tuh MOR
fihk) rocks.
 Metamorphic Rocks and the Rock Cycle
3
Types of Changed Rocks

• A physical characteristic helpful for

classifying all rocks is the texture of
the rocks.

• Texture differences in metamorphic rocks

divide them into two main groups—
foliated (FOH lee ay tud) and nonfoliated.
 Metamorphic Rocks and the Rock Cycle
3
Types of Changed Rocks
• Foliated rocks
have visible layers
or elongated grains
of minerals.
• These minerals
have been heated
and squeezed into • Many foliated rocks
parallel layers, or have bands of different-
leaves. colored minerals.
 Metamorphic Rocks and the Rock Cycle
3
Types of Changed Rocks
• Nonfoliated rocks do not have distinct layers
or bands.
• These rocks,
such as quartzite,
marble, and
soapstone, often
are more even in
color than
foliated rocks.
 Metamorphic Rocks and the Rock Cycle
3
The Rock Cycle
• Scientists have created a model called the
rock cycle to describe how different kinds
of rock are related to one another and how
rocks change from one type to another.

Click image to view movie.

 Metamorphic Rocks and the Rock Cycle
3
The Journey of a Rock
• A blob of lava that oozes to the surface and
cools forms an igneous rock.
• Wind, rain, and
ice wear away at
the rock,
breaking off
small pieces.
These pieces are
called sediment.
 Metamorphic Rocks and the Rock Cycle
3
The Journey of a Rock
• Mineral-rich water seeps through the
sediment and glues, or cements, it together.
It becomes a sedimentary rock.
• Pressure and heat inside Earth can change it
into a metamorphic rock.
• Metamorphic rock deep inside Earth can
melt and begin the cycle again.
 Granite: intrusive igneous rock

quartz hornblende feldspar

What defines a mineral?

• Naturally Occurring
• Inorganic
• Solid
• Specific composition (e.g., Gold - Au, Salt -
NaCl, quartz - SiO2)
• Definite crystalline structure – atoms are
arranged in a specific pattern
• Minerals are the ingredients
of rocks.

Or

• Rocks are made up of

minerals.

Defn: naturally occurring, inorganic

elements or compounds with specific
physical and chemical properties.
Humans cannot survive without
minerals
• 16 minerals needed
for humans to survive
• .03% of what we eat
but we would not
survive without the
minerals
• Sodium, potassium,
calcium, magnesium,
copper, phosphorous
 Minerals make-up many
practical parts of our lives
 Glass is made from 6 minerals
• Silica
• Limestone
• Magnesium
• Boric acid
• Soda
• Aluminum
• 40 billion glass
containers/year in USA
• 35 % are recycled
 Gold in California
• Discovered in the
American River, 1848
• Gold Rush- 1849
• Population of SF- 575
males,177 females, 60
children- March, 1848
• 100,000- December 1849
• Chinese, Welsh, German,
English, Mexican,
Spanish and French
• Diversity of California
 Salt
• Early people collected salt
before they understood
how important the mineral
is for survival
• Mediterranean-salt cakes
were used as money
• Greeks traded salt for
slaves
• England flourished when
fuel for boiling brine
changed from wood to coal
 Minerals are mined for our use

Magmatic copper, magnetite, uranium

 Minerals—Earth’s Jewels

What is a mineral?— Minerals

Defined
• The particular chemical makeup and
arrangement of the atoms in the crystal
is unique to each mineral.
• Rocks usually are made up of two or more
minerals.
• Each mineral has unique characteristics
you can use to identify it.
 Minerals
A mineral is a naturally occurring, solid
crystalline substance, generally inorganic,
with a specific chemical composition
– Natural
– Solid
– Atoms arranged in orderly repeating 3D array:
crystalline
– Not part of the tissue of an organism
– Composition fixed or varies within defined limits

Minerals are the “building blocks” of rock

 Importance and structure
• Naturally occurring
• Inorganic
Halite, salt, sodium
• Crystalline structure chloride
 Atoms make-up minerals
• An atom is the
smallest component
of matter
• Each element is
defined by the
number of protons
• The atom must be
electrically neutral
• The number of
protons equals the
number of electrons
http://www.howstuffworks.com/atom/htm#
Eight elements make-up 99% of
the Earth’s crust

Silicon and oxygen make-up 70 % of the Earth’s crust

Sodium chloride: sketch a
diagram of the sodium and
chlorine atoms
 The configuration of electrons
determines if an atom will respond
with another atom

The sodium atom has one electron on its outer ring. The Chlorine atom
has 7 electrons on its outer ring. The two atoms share electrons
forming an ionic bond.
 Minerals—Earth’s Jewels

How do minerals form?

• Minerals form in several ways. One way is
from melted rock material inside Earth
called magma.
• As magma
cools, atoms
combine in
orderly
patterns to
form minerals.
 Mineral
Formation
• Cooling of magma:
crystallization
• Evaporation: salt
• Hydrothermal
 Minerals—Earth’s Jewels

Formation Clues
• Large mineral
grains that fit
together like a
puzzle seem to
show up in rocks
formed from
slow-cooling
magma.
 Minerals—Earth’s Jewels

Formation Clues
• If you see large,
perfectly formed
crystals, it means
the mineral had
plenty of space in
which to grow.

• This is a sign they may have formed in

open pockets within the rock.
Large individual crystals (rare)

Mass of small grains: each is a crystal, but grown

up against each other
Atomic Structure of Minerals

• NaCl - sodium
chloride
Halite
 Chemical Bonds: Ionic

– Electrical attraction between ions of opposite

charge
• Bond strength increases with the electrical charges
of the ions
• Bond strength decreases as the distance between
the ions increases
– Most minerals are this kind of compound
Ionic Bonding example:
halite

Cation Anion
Na+ Cl-
 Covalent Bonds:
– Electron sharing
– Generally stronger than ionic bonds (e.g.,
diamond)
Large individual crystals (rare)

Mass of small grains: each is a crystal, but grown

up against each other
Atomic Structure of Minerals

• NaCl - sodium
chloride
Halite
 Chemical Bonds: Ionic

– Electrical attraction between ions of opposite

charge
• Bond strength increases with the electrical charges
of the ions
• Bond strength decreases as the distance between
the ions increases
– Most minerals are this kind of compound
Ionic Bonding example:
halite

Cation Anion
Na+ Cl-
 Covalent Bonds:
– Electron sharing
– Generally stronger than ionic bonds (e.g.,
diamond)
 Crystallization of Minerals
– Need starting material with atoms that can come
together in the proper proportions
• Growth from a liquid or a gas

– Time and space for crystallization

– Appropriate temperature and pressure

– Examples
• Magma that has cooled below its melting point
• Supersaturated solution --> precipitation
 Crystallization of Minerals
• Crystals begin as an initial “seed” - a
microscopic crystal
• Atoms keep being added in a 3D array,
repeating the basic arrangement
• Crystal faces are based on the array
structure
 Cations and Anions
– Anions are typically large

– Cations are relatively small

– Crystal structure is determined

largely by the arrangement of
the anions
Common cations and anions

Radii given in angstroms; 10-8 cm

 Ions can be compound

• So far, we’ve talked about individual

atomic ions
• Many common minerals are silicates

SiO4 4-

Complex ions act

as a single ion in
forming crystal
structure
 Cation Substitution
• Crystal structure determined by those
large anions
• Various cations can substitute for each
other in many minerals
– Same crystal structure
– Different chemical composition
 Polymorphs
• Minerals with the same composition, but
different crystal structure.
Common Rock-Forming Minerals
Minerals fall into a small number of related “families” based mainly on the
anion in them
 Silicates
– Most abundant minerals in the Earth's crust
– Silicate ion (tetrahedron), SiO44-

◼ Quartz (SiO2), K-feldspar (KAlSi3O8), olivine

((Mg, Fe)2SiO4), kaolinite (Al2Si2O5(OH)4)
Quartz (SiO2)
 Silicate structure

• Most of the most common rocks in the

crust are silicates
• Silicate tetrahedra can combine in several
ways to form many common minerals
• Typical cations:
K+, Ca+, Na+, Mg2+, Al3+, Fe2+
Different numbers of oxygen ions are shared among tetrahedra
 Carbonates
– Cations with carbonate ion (CO32-)

– Calcite (CaCO3), dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2),

siderite (FeCO3), smithsonite (ZnCO3)

– Make up many common rocks including

limestone and marble

– Very important for CCS!

Calcite (CaCO3)
CaCO3 + 2H+ = Ca2+ + CO2 + H2O
Smithsonite (ZnCO3)
 Oxides
– Compounds of metallic cations and oxygen

– Important for many metal ores needed to

make things (e.g., iron, chromium, titanium)

– Ores are economically useful (i.e., possible to

mine) mineral deposits
Hematite (Fe2O3)
 Sulfides
– Metallic cations with sulfide (S2-) ion
– Important for ores of copper, zinc, nickel,
lead, iron
– Pyrite (FeS2), galena (PbS)
Galena (PbS)
 Sulfates

– Minerals with sulfate ion (SO42-)

– Gypsum (CaSO4.H2O), anhydrite (CaSO4)

Gypsum
 Gypsum

Cave of the Crystals

•1,000 feet depth in the silver and lead

Naica Mine

•150 degrees, with 100 % humidity

•4-ft diameter columns 50 ft length

 Mineral Identification
• Colour: caused by trace elements or impurities within a mineral
• Lustre: how a mineral surface reflects light
• Texture: how the mineral feels to the touch
• Streak: the colour of a mineral when it is scratched on a streak plate
(i.e., colour when broken up)
• Hardness (Moh’s scale: 1-10 – diamond is 10, talc is 1)
• Cleavage: how a mineral breaks (typically along planes of weakness
– related to bonding
• Fracture: splitting with no orientation
• Density
• Flame: colour under a flame
• Special properties like double refraction, radioactivity,
taste, pleochroism, fluorescence
 Mineral groups
1) Silicates (SiO4) – make up 96% of minerals, e.g., olivine
2) Carbonates (CO3): e.g, calcite CaCO3
3) Oxides: metal and oxygen (e.g., hematite, magnetite)
4) Sulfides: element + S2 (pyrite – FeS)
5) Sulfates: element + SO4 (gypsum – CaSO4nH2O)
6) Halides: element + halide (salt - NaCl)
7) Native elements: e.g., Cu, Au, Ag
pyrite

gypsum
 Crystal Habit
• appearance – shape and size of crystals

stibnite

hematite

Botryoidal: grape-like Dendritic: tree-like

Bladed
 Crystal Form
Any grouping of crystal faces or facets that are arranged in the same
symmetry is referred to as a crystal's "form." There are approximately 48
unique crystal forms.
 Atomic structure of crystals

The relative size of ions determine how atoms pack and

which ions can serve as substitutes.
Crystal structure:

• determined by radius size…

Silicates

Silicate tetrahedron O2-

olivine, quartz Si4+
Single chain structure 2-
O2- O2-O
pyroxene
Double chain structure SiO44-: although it is
hornblende geometrically balanced, it is
not charge balanced – needs
Sheet silicate structure ions or other tetrahedra to
micas balance charge

Framework silicate structure

Feldspars
How are minerals formed?

1) Solution: if a solution is supersaturated,

minerals will precipitate
2) Magma: minerals form during cooling of a magma –
the slower a magma cools, the larger the crystals
Intrusive: cools slowly beneath Earth’s surface (e.g.,
basalt)
Extrusive: cools rapidly at Earth’s surface (e.g.,
granite)Metamorphism
3) Metamorphism: transformation due to changes in
pressure and temperature
 Phase Diagrams
A phase diagram is common way to represent the various phases of a substance
and the conditions under which each phase exists.
A phase diagram is a plot of pressure (P ) vs temperature (T). Lines on the diagram
represent conditions (T,P) under which a phase change is at equilibrium. That is, at
a point on a line, it is possible for two (or three) phases to coexist at equilibrium. In
other regions of the plot, only one phase exists at equilibrium.

Phase diagram for water

Triple point: where 3 phases
coexist
 Binary phase diagram for a solid solution of Olivine

fsolid fliq

Fayallite (Fa) % Fo (Mg2SiO4) Forsterite (Fo)

Solidus: the temperature below which the substance is stable in the solid state
Liquidus: the temperature above which the substance is stable in the liquid state
Lever Rule: to determine quantitatively the relative composition of a mixture in a
two-phase region in a phase diagram
Magma: mixture of molten rock, gases and mineral phases,
produced by mantle melting
Mantle melts between ~800-1250ºC due to:
1) Increase in temperature
2) Decrease in pressure
3) Addition of volatile phases

Upwelling mantle
plumes – hotspots
Hawaii, Iceland
Magma: mixture of molten rock, gases and mineral phases,
produced by mantle melting
Mantle melts between ~800-1250ºC due to:
1) Increase in temperature
2) Decrease in pressure
3) Addition of volatile phases

Partial melting

Adiabatic rise of
mantle material with
no heat loss –
decompression
melting

Mid-Ocean Ridges
Magma: mixture of molten rock, gases and mineral phases,
produced by mantle melting
Mantle melts between ~800-1250ºC due to:
1) Increase in temperature
2) Decrease in pressure
3) Addition of volatile phases (e.g., water)
0

50 Mantle solidus is depressed

by addition of water
Depth (km)

100

Subduction zone settings

150
Wet mantle plumes
200
 Mantle melting: endmember models
Batch melting: Melt remains in contact with residual crystals at all times, so
the bulk composition remains constant
Fractional melting: Melt leaves the system as soon as it is formed, so the
bulk composition of the residual solid changes continuously.

• Incompatible elements: preferentially partition into the melt phase (D<1)

• Compatible elements: preferentially partition into the solid phase (D>1)
• Partition or distribution coefficient (D) = Csolid/Cliquid

Spider diagram
showing depleted
MORB vs. enriched
OIB sources
Concentrations
normalized to
bulk earth, C1
chondrites, or
primitive mantle Most incompatible Less incompatible
Relating trace element concentrations to melt fraction (F)

Batch melting equation: Cliq/Csol = 1/(F+D(1-F))

Fractional melting equation: Cliq/Csol = (1/D)*(1-F)(1/D-1)

E. Klein, “The Crust”, T.I.G series

Spider diagram of crust vs mantle

Workman and Hart, 2005

 Rare Earth Element diagrams
• REE are a group of 15 elements with atomic numbers ranging from
57 (La) to 71 (Lu) – LREE vs. HREE
• Although they are geochemically similar, they have different partition
coefficients so are sensitive tracers of source enrichment, the
degree of melting and/or fractional crystallization

Shaw et al., 2009

 Oman ophiolite

Samples of the mantle

1) Ophiolites Hacker

– Slabs of oceanic crust and upper mantle

– Thrust at subduction zones onto edge of
continent
2) Dredge samples from oceanic fracture zones
3) Nodules and xenoliths in basalts
4) Kimberlites
– Diamond-bearing pipes blasted up from the
mantle carrying xenoliths from depth
Mafic Rocks – Magnesium, Iron rich, usually dark coloured
Felsic or SiAlic Rocks – Silicon, Aluminum rich, usually light coloured
Mineral Properties
❖ Used to identify minerals

1. Color
• Least useful property in identifying
minerals.
• Why?
All of these are varieties of quartz!
2. Streak
• The color of a minerals powder.
• “streak test”
3. Luster
• How the minerals surface reflects
light.
• Metallic vs. non- metallic.
4. Hardness
• The ability of a mineral to resist being
scratched.
• “Scratch test”

• If mineral A can scratch mineral B, what

does that tell us about the relative
hardness of each mineral?
Moh’s Hardness Scale
Soft

Hard
5. Fracture/ Cleavage
Fracture Cleavage
• Mineral breaks • The tendency of
unevenly or a Mineral to
irregularly break evenly
along its weakest
plane.
6. Crystal Form
• Some minerals tend to form crystals that
aid in the identification of the mineral.
7. Specific Gravity
• The ratio of the density of the mineral to
the density of water (1 g/cm3)

• If a mineral has a specific gravity of 5

that means it is 5 times as dense as
water.
8. Others
• Acid test – Calcite
• Magnetic – Magnetite
• Taste - Halite
❖A minerals properties are
due to the internal
arrangement of its atoms.
Silicate Minerals
• Minerals that contain a combination of
silicon and oxygen.

Silicon-oxygen tetrahedron
The basic structural unit of silicate minerals
Rocks
Monomineralic Polymineralic
• 1 Mineral • More than 1 Mineral

❖ Rocks are classified by

how they are formed!!!
Sedimentary Rocks:
1. Clastics
• Rocks that form when sediments (sand,
silt etc.) are lithified.
Processes
• Compacting and cementing
• Vary due to grain size! (see ref tables p.
7)
2. Non-Clastics
A. Organics (bioclastics)
• Form from living things.

Examples: Coal, limestone

B. Chemical (crystaline)
• Formed from the evaporation or precipitation
of sea water.

Examples: Halite, gypsum

Igneous:
- Form when liquid rock cools and solidifies
Intrusive Extrusive
• Cools below the • Cools at the Earths
earths surface surface (quickly!)
(slowwwwly!)
• Lava
• Magma • “Volcanic”
• “Plutonic”
❖The longer the rock takes to cool, the
larger the crystals!

• Cools slow …..Large crystals

• Cools fast …….small crystals
• Cools immediately……NO Crystals (glass)
Vesicular- gas pockets
Metamorphic:
• Rocks that are changed due to extreme
heat and/or pressure.
• DO NOT MELT!!! (they recrystalize)

Metamorphic rocks become…

1. Harder
2. More dense
3. Banded or foliated
4. Distorted
Banding
Foliated
Regional Metamorphism
• Occurs when large areas of rock are
changed.
• Usually deep below the surface where
crustal plates collide.

• The Adirondacks!
Contact Metamorphism
• Occurs when liquid rock comes into
contact with other rocks.
Bedrock Of New York State
 Identifying Characteristics of
Rocks
Igneous Sedimentary
• Intergrown crystals • Cemented fragments
• Glassy texture (sediments)
• Fossils
• Organic material

Metamorphic
•Banding
•Foliated
The Rock Cycle
BONUS:
• CLASSIFY this rock as igneous,
sedimentary or metamorphic and
EXPLAIN why you classified it that way.
BONUS:
Name the mineral that has the following
properties:
• Non-metallic
• Can scratch fluorite but cannot scratch
quartz
• Exhibits cleavage
• Contains the elements sodium &
hydrogen
 Disclaimer

All the content are sourced from internet

through reliable sources, all sources are
duly acknowledged and the work of
respective authors is highly appreciated, this
is not original work of above mentioned
authors and a compilation done for
educational purpose only