RBT 03 2006

Section 3
Finding Ambiguities in Requirements
Copyright 2006 Bender RBT Inc. 1
Objectives
In this section, you will gain an understanding of:

• the limitations of natural language.
• historical examples of ambiguity.
• listing and identifying ambiguity types.
• reviewing an ambiguous requirement.
• documenting ambiguities found in a requirement.

Writing Unambiguous
Requirements
• Requirements are written primarily in natural language.
• All natural languages are inherently ambiguous.
• Formal specification languages are not a viable

alternative.
• Using structured, natural language helps considerably.
• Most developers do not know how to write detailed

unambiguous requirements.
Writing Unambiguous
Requirements
PROLOG - Opening bid rules for Bridge
openbid(1.Suit) < - openpoints(bidder)
/* Bidding Rules - Opening Bid */
& longsuit(L,Suit,bidder) & eq(L,4)
& hand(bidder,S1,L1,.*.*) & le(L1,2)
openbid(0.pass) < - totpoints (P,bidder)
&lt(Suit,S1).
& (le(P,10) & longsuit (L,*,bidder) &
openbid(1.notrump)< - balanced(bidder) &
lt(L,7)
totpoints(P,bidder)
| ge(P,11) & le(P,12)
& ge(P,16) & le(P,18).
| eq(P,13) & quicktricks(Q,bidder) &
openbid(2.notrump) < - balanced(bidder &
lt(Q,2)).
totpoints(P,bidder)
& ge(P,22) & le(P,24).
& longsuit(L,Suite,bidder) & ge(L,5)
openbid(3.notrump) < - balanced(bidder) &
& next longsuit(M,*,bidder) & lt(M,5).
totpoints(P,bidder)
& ge(P,25) & (P,27).
& longsuit(L1,S1,bidder)
openbid(4.notrump) < - balanced(bidder) & totpoints
& next longsuit(L2,S2,bidder)
(P,Bidder)
& eq(L1,5) & (L2,5)
& ge(P,28) & le(P,29).
& ( gt(S1,S2) & Suite=S1
openbid(2.Suit) < - totpoints(P,bidder) &
| gt(S2,S1) & Suite=S2).
longsuit(L,Suit,bidder)
& hand(bidder, Suit,L.Pts.*) & ge(Pts,6)
& longsuit(L,Suit,bidder) & eq(L,4)
& ( eq(L,5) & ge(P,25)
& hand(bidder,Suit,L.P.*) & ge(P,4)
| eq(L,6) & ge(P,23)
& (Suit=spades | Suit=hearts).
| ge(L,7) & ge(P,21).

Formal Specification Languages
• Advantages
– Rigorous Syntax
– Machine (Program) Readable
– Provable Consistency
• Disadvantage
– Not readable by the Subject Matter Experts
How do you verify the requirements are correct

and complete?
One half of two and two = ??

Ambiguity in History
• Napoleon’s
Corporal
• Casper
Weinberger
• Mokusatsu
Pitfalls of Natural Language
A difference between version I and version II exists
only when mixed data types are used, and then
only when operand lengths differ, and then only
sometimes.

Ambiguous Statements
EXAMPLE:
If the light is red, then stop.
Ambiguity Review Checklist
• Dangling Else • Ambiguous Statements

• Ambiguity Of Reference – Verbs, Adverbs, Adjectives
– Variables, Unnecessary Aliases
• Scope Of Action
• Random Organization
• Omissions – Mixed Causes And Effects
– Causes Without Effects – Random Case Sequence
– Missing Effects
– Effects Without Causes • Built-In Assumptions
– Complete Omissions – Functional/Environmental
– Missing Causes Knowledge
• Ambiguous Logical • Ambiguous Precedence
Operators Relationships
– Or, And, Nor, Nand • Implicit Cases
– Implicit Connectors • Etc.
– Compound Operators
• I.E. Versus E.G.
• Negation
• Temporal Ambiguity
– Scope Of Negation
– Unnecessary Negation • Boundary Ambiguity
– Double Negation

Definition of Ambiguous
• If one person wrote it with one intent

and another person read it differently, it
is ambiguous.
Dangling Else
MUST BE, WILL BE, IS ONE OF, SHOULD BE,

COULD BE, CAN BE, SHALL.
EXAMPLE:
“The Marriage Status must be either
Married, Single, or Divorced.”
Else? An error condition?

Ambiguity of Reference
IT, SUCH, THE ABOVE, THE PREVIOUS, THEM, THESE,

THEY
EXAMPLE 1:
“Add field A to field B.
This number must be positive.”
EXAMPLE 2:
“Transaction 1 displays the customer’s name and address.
Transaction 2 displays the customer’s account numbers.
Transaction 3 displays the customer’s account balances.
Such transactions require the security code.”
Scope of Action Message 1

O/R Code = 1
X
O/R Code = 2
Pay Amount X X
Update Dentist X X
Update Patient X X
If it is a member dentist or an Message 2 X
override = 1, then pay the Version 1

O/R Code = 1 O/R Code = 2
amount submitted, update the Message 1 X X
dentist’s record, update the Pay Amount X X
Update Dentist X X
patient’s record, and print Update Patient X X
message 1. Message 2 X
However, if the override code = Version 2
2, then print message 2. Message 1

O/R Code = 1
X
O/R Code = 2
Pay Amount X
Update Dentist X
Update Patient X
Message 2 X
Version 3

Scope of Action
What if message 2 is:
“Patient’s bill not paid.” - version 3

“Patient’s claim exceeds standard rate.” - version ?
Do ambiguity reviews of messages.
Omissions
• Causes without effects

• Effects without causes
• Missing causes
• Missing effects
• Complete omissions

Omissions
Causes without effects:

“Codes 1 through 4 produce the message. It is also
possible for the code to be a 5.”
Effects without causes:

“This message sometimes appears.”
“It is sometimes necessary for the operator to re-
initialize the field.”
Omissions
Missing Causes
Example 1 - “If you drive through a red light
you will get a ticket.”
Missing - you must be caught doing it.
Example 2 - “If the number is 1, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13,
19, 23, or 29 it is a prime number.”
Missing - 2, 17.

Omissions
Missing Effects
Example 1 - “If the account is overdrawn
reject the check.”
Missing - notify the customer.
Example 2 - “If you land on this space go
directly to jail. Do not pass go.”
Missing - do not collect $200.
Omissions
Total Omissions
[This page unintentionally left blank.]

Ambiguous Logical Operators
• OR
• XOR
• AND
• NOR
• NAND
• IMPLICIT CONNECTORS
• CONFUSING COMPOUND
OPERATORS
OR: If A or B then C.
What people write:
“A and B each produce C.”
“A and B produce C.”
“A produces C. B also produces C.”
“If A or B or both produce C.”
“A and/or B produce C.”
“Either A or B produces C.”
“There are 2 transactions - A and B.
They each produce C.”

“A or B Result in C or D.”
Possible Interpretations:
“If A then C. If B then D.”
“If A or B then C and D.”
“If [A or B] and X then C.”
~
“If [A or B] and X then D.”
Inclusive Versus Exclusive “OR”

Example 1: Benefits Eligibility (inclusive “or”)
If you are a current employee
or
an employee who retired within the last two years
or
you are the surviving spouse of a deceased employee,
then you are eligible for the dental plan.
Example 2: Menu (exclusive “or”)
Choose appetizer A or B or C
and
Entree Number One or Two or Three.

AND: If A and B then C.
What people write:

“A and B produce C.”
“A and B together are required to produce C.”
“C is produced when A and B are both
present.”
NOR: If not [A or B] then C.
What people write:

“If it is not A or B then produce C.”
“If it is neither A nor B produce C.”
“If it is neither A or B produce C.”
“If A or B are both missing produce C.”
“The valid codes are A and B.”
“If it is none of the above produce C.”
“If it is not A and not B then produce C.”

NAND: If not [A and B] then C.
What people write:

“If it is not A and B together then produce C.”
“As long as A and B are not together produce C.”
“Produce C unless A and B are both present.”
“If it is not A or it is not B then produce C.”
Implicit connectors:
Harry’s “Going to the Party” Rules

Rule 1: If either Sally or Sarah go, Harry will go.
Rule 2: If Sally does not go with John, Harry will go.
Rule 3: If Sarah does not go with Bob, Harry will go.
What happens if Sarah goes and Bob goes?

Rule 1: Says Harry will go.
Rule 3: Implies Harry will not go.

Implicit connectors:
Harry’s “Going to the Party” Rules
Requirements should be:

If either Sally or Sarah go
and
If Sally does not go with John
and
If Sarah does not go with Bob then Harry will go.
Confusing compound operators:
“If A or B and C produce D.”
If [A or B] and C produce D?
OR
If A or [B and C] produce D?

UNIX 5.4 Ambiguity
[EPERM]
nice will fail and not change the

nice value if incr is negative or
greater than 39 and the effective
user ID of the calling process is
not super-user.
UNIX 5.4 Ambiguity
[EPERM]

nice value if(incr is negative)or
(greater than 39 and the effective
not super-user.)

UNIX 5.4 Ambiguity
[EPERM]

nice value if[(incr is negative) or
(greater than 39]and[the effective
not super-user.)]
Missing Logical Operator(s)
As required, As necessary
All fields are edited, if necessary.
Fees and service charges are applied, as required.

Negation
• Scope of negation
• Unnecessary negation
• Double negation
Negation
Scope of negation:
Example 1:
“If not A or B then C.”
If neither A nor B then C?

OR
If B or not A then C?
Example 2:
“If it is not a member dentist or the code = 2
then use table one.”

Negation
Unnecessary negation:
Example 1:
Ambiguous
If the amount is not under $300 then it must not be
posted without authorization.
Clear
If the amount is $300 or more it must be authorized
before posting.
Negation
Unnecessary negation:
Example 2:
Ambiguous
If John is neither absent nor late he will get a perfect
attendance award.
ABSENT => PRESENT
LATE => ON TIME
Clear
If John is always present and always on time he will
get a perfect attendance award.

Negation
Double negation:
Examples:
Version 1
If Bob does not pass the final he will not pass the
course.
Version 2
If Bob passes the final he will pass the course.
Does version 2 have the exact same meaning as
version 1?
• Ambiguous verbs
• Ambiguous variables
• Unnecessary aliases
• Ambiguous adjectives
• Ambiguous adverbs

Ambiguous verbs:
CALCULATE, UPDATE, PRODUCE, MODIFY
“If it is month end calculate the interest earned.”
Ambiguous variables:
DATA, FIELD, FILE, MESSAGE, STATUS, VALUE
“If the interest amount is greater than $100, send the
customer the notice.”
Interest accrued? Interest paid?
Interest earned? Interest anticipated?
Ambiguous adjectives:
ALL, ANY, CUSTOM, EVERY, FEW, MANY,

STANDARD
“It is against the law to ride down the street
on an ugly horse.”
Law in Wilbur, Washington

Ambiguous adverbs:
ACCORDINGLY, ALMOST, COMMONLY,

FREQUENTLY
“The delete transaction must be processed
quickly.”
“Field A is usually positive.”
Random Organization
Mixed sequences of causes and

effects:
“If A or B produce C.”
“D is created if E and F are
entered.”
Random sequence of cases:

“If A or B then C.”
“If D and E then F.”
(22 pages later)
“D will also result in C.”

Built-in Assumptions
Assumed functional knowledge:
“To determine the amount to be paid, treat

associate members exactly like full members.”
Built-in Assumptions
Assumed knowledge of environmental

constraints:
One and only one
Mutually exclusive
Inclusive
Requires
Masks
Example:
“If A then produce C.
Else if B then produce D.”
This assumes A and B are in a one and only one relationship

Ambiguous Precedence Relationships
If John has enough money he

will buy:
- A car for $24,500.
- A television for $3,000.
- Stereo equipment for $1,200.
- A boat for $28,700.
What if John inherits $28,700?

Does he buy the car, television,
and stereo or the boat?
Implicit Cases
OTHERWISE, ELSE, FOR ALL OTHER, HOWEVER,

BUT, YET:
If it is a member dentist and the procedure was not
pre-authorized, pay from the system table.
If it is a non-member dentist pay 50% of the
amount submitted.
Otherwise, pay the full amount.
Suggested Otherwise case:

If it is a member dentist and a valid pre-authorized
procedure, pay the full amount.

Etc.
ETC., INCLUDING, AMONG

If it is transaction 1 then update the
customer’s record, print the customer’s
statement, etc.
The full amount should be paid for full
members, associate members, etc.
Key customers, including corporate and high
net worth customers, are given a discount
on fees and service charges.
I.E. versus E.G.
Definitions:
I.E. - Id Est - That Is
E.G. - Exempli Gratia - For Example
Example
“The parolee monitoring system must maintain a
profile of the individuals (i.e., name, address,
occupation).”

Temporal Ambiguity
AFTER, ANNUALLY, LATER, WEEKLY,

MONTHLY
Accepted transactions will be posted to

the database later.
Accounts are reviewed for discrepancies

at the appropriate time.
Boundary Ambiguity
If the number is positive

Then
Add it to the account balance
Else
Display the error message.
(What if it is zero?)
“The small screen will handle up to fifteen
planes. The large screen will handle larger
numbers of planes.”
(What about the fifteenth plane?)

Exercise: Identify the ambiguities.
1.The dollar amount entered will be added to

the year-to-date totals. This number must
be positive.
2.If the game is held on Saturday or Sunday,
I'll go.
3.There are three error conditions which

produce a message. The data could be
non-numeric, have a negative value, or
exceed the maximum limit.

4.There are three error conditions which

produce the message. The data could be
non-numeric, have a negative value, or
exceed the maximum limit.
5.The field is updated by transaction types 1
and 2.
Exercise: Identify the ambiguities
6.Both procedure codes 1 and 9 result in

claims paid at 40% or 50% of the amount
billed.
7.When the procedure code is not in the
dentist’s record or in the allowable
procedure table, pay from the system
table.

8.Transaction type 1 outputs the name,

number, address, and YTD earnings.
Transaction type 2 displays the YTD
number of claims.
9.Transaction type 1 outputs the name,
number, address, and YTD earnings. The
YTD number of claims can also be
displayed.
10. Transaction type 1 produces a YTD

earnings report. Type 2 produces a claims
per patient report. There is also a
transaction type 3.
11. If the year is divisible by 4, it is a leap
year. However, there is no leap year at the
century years. (i.e., 2100 A.D.).

12. Process transaction 2 similar to

transaction 1.
13. If it rains or snows we will play tennis.
We will play football unless there is a
flood. If it is too cold or raining too heavily,
we will not play baseball.
14. Dentists with membership codes of 2, 3, or 9

are member dentists. For claims referencing a
non-member dentist or for procedures not within
the referenced dentist’s record, a system table is
used to calculate the amount paid. Otherwise,
the amount submitted is paid. However, an
override code of 1 or 9 allows the amount
submitted to be paid for non-member dentists or
for procedures not within the referenced dentist’s
record. When the override code is used, an entry
is made on the paid claims report.

Answers to Exercise
1. The dollar amount entered will be added to the

year-to-date totals. This number must be positive.
What dollar amount? Dollars and cents or just the
dollars? What kind of dollars - U.S., Canadian, Hong
Kong? Entered where, by whom, how? When will they
be added? Is it a mathematical add or a concatenate?
To what year to date totals - calendar, fiscal, booking
year to date? To all of the totals, some of them, to just
one of them? What type of year -fiscal or calendar?
Which number must be positive? What if is not
positive? What if it is zero?
Answers to Exercise
2. If the game is held on Saturday or Sunday, I’ll go.

What game? Does “held” mean played or held up?
On which Saturday or Sunday? What if it’s on both
Saturday and Sunday? What if the game starts on
Friday but carries over into Saturday (e.g., an extra
inning baseball game)? Would you go regardless of
the start time? Would you go regardless of the
weather? What if you cannot get a ticket? What if you
cannot get to the game? Who’s “I”? Where will “I” go?
Is “Saturday” the name of the day of the week or the
name of the playing field?

Answers to Exercise
3. There are three error conditions which produce a

message. The data could be non-numeric, have a
negative value, or exceed the maximum limit.
What does “produce” mean? How many messages?
What is the text of the messages? What data? Are
these the error conditions or what the data “could be”?
Does negative zero count as negative? What is the
maximum limit? Are these error conditions mutually
exclusive? What happens if it passes the edit?
4. Same as 3 with the exception of “the message” versus
“a message”. “The” implies only one message.
Answers to Exercise
5. The field is updated by transaction type 1 and 2.

What field? How is it updated? Is it 1 and 2 both
together or 1 and 2 each? What is the meaning of 1
and 2? What if it is not 1 or 2?
6. Both procedure codes 1 and 9 result in claims paid at
40% or 50% of the amount billed.
What do codes 1 and 9 mean? Which percent is used?
Who is paid? How are they paid? What if it is neither 1
nor 9?

Answers to Exercise
7. When the procedure code is not in

the dentist’s record or in the
allowable procedure table, pay from
the system table.
What procedure code? Scope of
negation? What is the “allowable”
table? Pay whom? What system
table? Else?
Answers to Exercise
8. Transaction type 1 outputs the name, number,

address, and YTD earnings. Transaction type 2
displays the YTD number of claims.
Outputs versus displays? Outputs/displays
where? Whose name, number, etc.? What does
YTD mean? Does type 2 just display the number
of claims or is it a chained transaction adding to
what type 1 displayed? What if it is neither 1 nor
2?

Answers to Exercise
9. Transaction type 1 outputs the

name, number, address, and YTD
earnings. The YTD number of
claims can also be displayed.
Same issues as number 8 plus what
causes the number of claims to be
displayed?
Answers to Exercise
10. Transaction type 1 produces a YTD earnings report.

Type 2 produces a claims per patient report. There is
also a transaction type 3.
What does “produces” mean? What is in the reports?
What does type 3 do? What if it’s neither 1 nor 2 nor
3?

Answers to Exercise
11. If the year is divisible by 4, it is a leap year.

However, there is no leap at the century years (i.e.,
2100 A.D.).
What type of year - fiscal or calendar? All years
are divisible by 4, just not evenly. What is the
definition of leap year? What is the definition of a
“century year”? “i.e.” instead of “e.g.”. What does
“A.D.” mean? The rule is incomplete. If the year is
divisible by 400 it is a leap year; if it is divisible by
4,000 it is not; if it is divisible by 40,000 it is. This
also does not take into account when the
Gregorian calendar came into use in various parts
of the world.
Answers to Exercise
12. Process transaction 2 similar to transaction 1.

What does “similar” mean? How is transaction 1 processed?
13. If it rains or snows we will play tennis. We will play football unless there
is a flood. If it is too cold or raining too heavily, we will not play baseball.
Precedence problem. Which sport do we play when the conditions
overlap? Where is the weather happening? Who is “we”. What kind of
tennis, baseball, and football? Where are we playing these sports? Are
we playing this tennis indoors? What is the definition of “flood”, “too
cold”, “raining too heavily”? What item is “too cold”? What is the else
case?

Answers to Exercise
14. What do codes 2, 3, and 9 mean in English? What about codes 1,

4, 5, etc.? Are they non-members? How many other codes are there,
what are they, and what do they mean? Started talking about members
then switched to non-members - confusing. What is meant by
“procedures”? What is a “referenced” dentist? What system table is
used? What is the calculation? Who is paid? How are they paid? What
is the otherwise case? Does “however” modify the “otherwise” or
everything up to that point? Is there any link between override code 9
and membership code 9? Are there other override codes and what do
they do? What happens if you put in an override for the case of a
member dentist and the procedure is in the dentist’s record? What entry
is made on the report? Wouldn’t you want to make entries for everything
that is paid, not just the override cases?
Ambiguity Review Process
1. Make copy of original requirements.

2. Have a non-domain-expert review for ambiguities.
3. Revise requirements to eliminate ambiguities as
needed.
4. Have one or more domain experts review
requirements individually.
5. Domain experts meet to compare notes.
6. Revise requirements for content and correctness
as necessary.

Documenting Ambiguities
1. Provide overview of the issues found.

2. Document each individual issue.
3. Divide issues into three categories
- Hard ambiguities
- Definition of terms/acronyms
- “I assumed you meant”
4. Provide document owner with ambiguity
write-up and a copy of the marked up
document.
Documenting Ambiguities
5. Working jointly with requirements authors,
perform “triage” on the hard ambiguities:
– Major issues (impacts architecture,
business policy):
Cannot continue until resolved.
– Significant issues (impacts single
component):
Can continue in limited areas.
– Minor issues (narrow, localized impact):
Do not affect other functions.

Logging Ambiguity Defects
1. Log all the defects found in a single review as

one incident with the number of issues noted.
2. After the next revision, log open issues
individually for tracking.
3. Review trends in the type and number of
issues found.
4. Identify problem functions.
Functions with on-going ambiguity issues have
higher failure rates later.
Additional Benefits from

Ambiguity Reviews
• Timely feedback reduces issue

resolution time.
• Explicit feedback leads to defect

avoidance.
• Writing is accelerated.
• Critical to outsourcing

Savings Via Early Testing
Ambiguity Reviews of Specifications
(source: Bender RBT Inc.)
• Defects found
– Mutual Funds project
# Functions 180
# Issues 1,713
– Embedded code project
# Functions 65
# Issues 595

2-64
Savings Via Early Testing

Ambiguity Reviews of Specifications
(source: Bender RBT Inc.)
• Costs per defect found during ambiguity reviews
– .85 hour/defect
– $75 hour fully burdened rate ($150K year)
– $63.75 per defect
• Costs if found in integration test/system test

– $750 to $3,000 per defect (SEI)
• Cost if found in production

– $10,000 per defect (HP)
– $140,000 per defect (IBM)

2-65

The RBT Process
1. Validate Requirements Against Objectives
2. Apply Scenarios Against Requirements
3. Perform Initial Ambiguity Review
4. Perform Domain Expert Reviews
5. Create Cause-Effect Graph
6. Logical Consistency Check and Test Case Design By RBT
7. Review Of Test Cases By Requirements Authors
8. Validate Test Cases With Users/Domain Experts
9. Review Of Test Cases By Developers
10. Walk Test Cases Through Design
11. Walk Test Cases Through Code
12. Verify Code Against Test Cases Designed from requirements.

RBT 03 2006

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Section 3

Finding Ambiguities in Requirements

Copyright 2006 Bender RBT Inc. 1

In this section, you will gain an understanding of:

Copyright 2006 Bender RBT Inc. 2

Copyright 2006 Bender RBT Inc. 1

• All natural languages are inherently ambiguous.

• Formal specification languages are not a viable

• Using structured, natural language helps considerably.

• Most developers do not know how to write detailed

Copyright 2006 Bender RBT Inc. 2

How do you verify the requirements are correct

Copyright 2006 Bender RBT Inc. 5

One half of two and two = ??

Copyright 2006 Bender RBT Inc. 6

Copyright 2006 Bender RBT Inc. 3

Copyright 2006 Bender RBT Inc. 7

Pitfalls of Natural Language

A difference between version I and version II exists

only when mixed data types are used, and then

only when operand lengths differ, and then only

Copyright 2006 Bender RBT Inc. 8

Copyright 2006 Bender RBT Inc. 4

If the light is red, then stop.

Copyright 2006 Bender RBT Inc. 9

Ambiguity Review Checklist

• Dangling Else • Ambiguous Statements

Copyright 2006 Bender RBT Inc. 5

• If one person wrote it with one intent

Copyright 2006 Bender RBT Inc. 11

MUST BE, WILL BE, IS ONE OF, SHOULD BE,

Else? An error condition?

Copyright 2006 Bender RBT Inc. 12

Copyright 2006 Bender RBT Inc. 6

IT, SUCH, THE ABOVE, THE PREVIOUS, THEM, THESE,

Scope of Action Message 1

override = 1, then pay the Version 1

dentist’s record, update the Pay Amount X X

However, if the override code = Version 2

2, then print message 2. Message 1

Copyright 2006 Bender RBT Inc. 7

What if message 2 is:

“Patient’s bill not paid.” - version 3

Do ambiguity reviews of messages.

Copyright 2006 Bender RBT Inc. 15

• Causes without effects

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Causes without effects:

Effects without causes:

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Ambiguous Logical Operators

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Copyright 2006 Bender RBT Inc. 23

Ambiguous Logical Operators