Flyash in Geotechnical Solutions

ANDHRA UNIVERSITY, Visakhapatnam
A Project work on
APPLICATION OF FLYASH IN GEOTECHNICAL SOLUTIONS

Submitted to Andhra University, Visakhapatnam for the partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING
Prepared by
G.VANDANA (316126508011)
K.PAVAN KRISHNA (316126508015)
K.PRASANVITHA (316126508017)
K.JYOTHI SWAROOP (316126508024)
T.DIVYA JYOTHI (316126508045)
Under the Esteemed guidance of
Dr.B.N.D.NarasingaRao
M.E, Ph.D, FIE, FIGS
Professor and Head, Department of Civil Engineering
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

ANIL NEERUKONDA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES (A)
(Affiliated to AU, Approved by AICTE & Accredited by NBA)
SANGIVALASA, BheemunipatnamMandal, Visakhapatnam District-531162
DECLARATION
We do here by declare that this project work entitled ―APPLICATION OF

FLYASH IN GEOTECHNICAL SOLUTIONS” was carried out under the
guidance of Dr. B.N.D.NARASINGA RAO, professor& head, Department of Civil
Engineering, Anil Neerukonda Institute of Technology & Sciences (A), Sangivalasa,
Visakhapatnam is an original work done by us and not submitted earlier for any award
of any degree or diploma on any other university.
G. VANDANA K. PAVAN KRISHNA

(316126508011) (316126508015)
K. PRASANVITHA K. JYOTHI SWAROOP

(316126508017) (316126508024)
T. DIVYA JYOTHI
(316126508045)
Date :
Place :Sangivalasa, Visakhapatnam.
Department of Civil Engineering
ANIL NEERUKONDA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES (A)

Sangivalasa
CERTIFICATE
Certified that the project work report entitled ―APPLICATION OF FLYASH IN

GEOTECHNICAL SOLUTIONS” bonafide work carried out by G.Vandana
(316126508011), K.Pavan Krishna (316126508015), K.Prasanvitha (316126508017),
K.Jyothi Swaroop (316126508024) and T.Divya Jyothi (316126508045) in partial
fulfilment of the for the award of Bachelor of Technology in Civil Engineering Anil
Neerukonda Institute Of Technology & Sciences, Visakhapatnam during the academic
year 2019-2020. It is certified that all corrections/suggestions indicated during
internal and external assessment have been incorporated in the report. The project
work is recommended for acceptance for the award of said degree.
Prof.B.N.D.NarasingaRao Prof.B.N.D.NarasingaRao
Project Guide, Head of the Department
Professor & Head Department Of Civil Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering.
Mr. T V Viswa Teja

Asst. Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering
Examiner
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of our
project would be incomplete without mentioning some people who made it possible,
whose constant guidance and encouragement crowned our effort with success. It is a
pleasant aspect that we have the opportunity to express our gratitude.
We owe our profound gratitude to our project guide Prof. B. N. D. NARASINGA

RAO F.I.E, Ph.D, Professor & Head of the Department, Civil Engineering, ANITS who
took keen interest in our project and guided along, until the completion of our project
by providing all the necessary information.
We express our sincere thanks to Prof. B. N. D. NARASINGA RAO F.I.E, Ph.D,

Professor & Head of the Department, Civil Engineering, ANITS for his help and
support in accomplishing the project.
Our sincere thanks to our honorable Principal T. V. HANUMANTH RAO and

special thanks to our coordinator as well as entire faculty members from Civil
Engineering, ANITS for the valuable information provided by them in their respective
fields. We are also thankful to the non-teaching staff of the department for their
cooperation during the period of our project.
We sincerely thank all those who supported directly or indirectly in successfully

completing our project.
G.VANDANA K. PAVAN KRISHNA

(316126508011) (316126508015)
K. PRASANVITHA K. JYOTHI SWAROOP

(316126508017) (316126508024)
T. DIVYA JYOTHI
(316126508045)
CONTENTS
S.No. Description Page No.
1. Introduction 1-5
2. Objectives 6
3. Scope of Work 7
4. Literature Review 8-11
5. Additional Literature Review (Lockdown) 12-54
6. Methodology 55-60
6.1 6.1 Work plan 55
6.2 6.2 Materials Used 56
6.3 6.3 Experiments Conducted 58
7. Results and Discussion 61-90
7.1 Compaction Characteristics of fly ash 61

7.2 Shear strength of fly ash 61
7.3 CBR of Fly ash 63
7.4 Effect of Lime on OMC and MDD of fly ash (with curing) 65
7.5 Effect of Lime on Shear strength of fly ash (with curing) 65
7.6 Effect of Lime on CBR of fly ash: 72
7.7 Effect of Polypropylene on Compaction characteristics of 76
fly ash
7.8 Effect of Polypropylene on Shear strength of fly ash (with 76
curing)
7.9 Effect of Polypropylene on CBR of fly ash: 82
8. Conclusion 91
9. References 92
LIST OF TABLES
S.No. DESCRIPTION Page.No.
1. Physical properties of Fly ash 4
2. Modified proctor test values without admixtures 62
3. Direct shear test values without admixtures 62
4. CBR values without admixtures 64
5. Modified proctor test values with lime 66
6. Direct shear test values with lime 66
7. CBR values with lime 73
8. Modified proctor test values with polypropylene 76
9. Direct shear test values with polypropylene 77
10. CBR values with polypropylene 83

LIST OF FIGURES
Page.
S.No. Description
No.
1. Microscopic image of Fly ash 2
2. Flow chart for Work Plan 56
3. Flow chart for Laboratory Experiments 57
4. HNFA sample 57
5. NPFA sample 57
6. Lime sample 58
7. Polypropylene sample 58
8. Compaction test apparatus 59
9. CBR apparatus 60
10. Direct shear apparatus 61
11. Stress strain curve of HNFA without admixtures 63
12. Failure envelope of HNFA without admixtures 63
13. Stress strain curve of NPFA without admixtures 64
14. Failure envelope of NPFA without admixtures 64
15. Load - penetration curve of HNFA without admixtures 65
16. Load - penetration curve of NPFA without admixtures 65
17. Stress strain curve of HNFA with 5% Lime 67
18. Failure envelope of HNFA with 5% Lime 67
23. Stress strain curve of NPFA with 5% Lime 70

Page.
S.No. Description
No.
24. Failure envelope of NPFA with 5% Lime 70
29. Load - penetration curve of HNFA with 5% Lime 73
32. Load - penetration curve of NPFA with 5% Lime 75
35. Stress strain curve of HNFA with 2% Polypropylene 77
36. Failure envelope of HNFA with 2% Polypropylene 78
41. Stress strain curve of NPFA with 2% Polypropylene 80
42. Failure envelope of NPFA with 2% Polypropylene 81
47. Load - penetration curve of HNFA with 2% Polypropylene 84

Page.
S.No. Description
No.
50. Load - penetration curve of NPFA with 2% Polypropylene 85
53. Effect of Lime on Angle of Internal Friction of HNFA 87
54. Effect of Polypropylene on Angle of Internal Friction of HNFA 87
55. Effect of Lime on CBR of HNFA 88
56. Effect of Polypropylene on CBR of HNFA 88
57. Effect of Lime on Angle of Internal Friction of NPFA 89
58. Effect of Polypropylene on Angle of Internal Friction of NPFA 89
59. Effect of Lime on CBR of NPFA 90
60. Effect of Polypropylene on CBR of NPFA 90

ABSTRACT
Fly ash (FA) is a waste by- product extracted by mechanical /electrostatic
precipitator, obtained from coal fired power plants. India has some of the largest
reserves of coal in the world. At present scenario, around 300 million-tons of Fly-ash
is produced each year. In India most of the thermal power plants are utilizing
bituminous and sub-bituminous coal and produce large quantities of Fly ash. High ash
content (30% - 50%) coal contributes to these large volumes of Fly ash. Fly-ash is
used in various sectors like brick making, roads & embankments construction, cement
manufacturing, agricultural uses, reclamation of low lying areas, mine filling, Ash
Dyke Raising etc. The unutilized huge quantity of Fly ash has drawn the attention of
researchers to explore new strategies for bulk utilization. Fly ash embankment is one
of the thrust areas to consume Fly ash in bulk. As in India current scenario of
utilization of Fly ash in roads and embankment is only 6%.
The present project deals with determination of geotechnical properties of Fly

Ash from 2 Thermal Power Plants, namely Hinduja National Power Corporation
Limited (HNPC), Visakhapatnam and National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC),
Visakhapatnam. The geotechnical properties are also determined after adding Lime
(5%, 8%, 10%) and Polypropylene (2%, 4%, 6%).
In view of Covid19 pandemic and consequent closing down of colleges,

additional Literature Review has been done on standard practices for use of Fly ash in
embankments to compensate the balance experimental work related to fly ash from a
third thermal power plant and this has been added to Chapter-4. Additional review
was carried on (i) Coal Ashes in Geotechnical Engineering Practice: Beneficial
Aspects‖, Proceedings of National Workshop on Emerging Trends in Geotechnical
Engineering (ETGE 2012), 08th June 2012, (ii) Fly ash as a structural fills, Properties
of fly ash, Fly ash embankments by R.J.McLaren, (iii) Guidelines for Use of fly ash in
Road embankments, IRC: SP 58-2001, Indian Roads Congress Special Publication 58
and (iv) Use of Coal Ash in Railway Embankment, Report Number GE: 0 – S005,
Government of India, Ministry of Railways, Geo-technical Engineering Directorate,
Research Designs and Standards Organization.
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
1.1. General:
Fly ash is a by-product of the pulverized coal combustion process usually

associated with electric power generating plants. Fly ash is a fine grained dust and is
primarily composed of silica, alumina and various oxides and alkalies. It is pozzolanic
in nature and can react with hydrated lime to produces cementitious products. The soil
stabilization is the alteration of soil properties to improve the engineering
performance of soils. The properties most often altered are density, water content,
plasticity and strength. Modification of soil properties is the temporary enhancement
of sub grade stability to expedite construction.
Fly ash can be used as a binder for stabilizing soils for highway bases.
However, limited information exists on the reuse of high carbon off-spec Fly ash in
construction of highway pavements. This is particularly important when high carbon
Fly ash is non-cementitious and calcium-rich activators are required to generate
pozzolanic reactions. Thus, there is a need to evaluate the strength and stiffness of
base layers stabilized with high carbon Fly ash.
Fly ash can be used to stabilize bases or sub grades, to stabilize backfill to
reduce lateral earth pressures and to stabilize embankments to improve slope stability.
Fly ash has been used successfully in many projects to improve the strength
characteristics of soils. Typical stabilized soil depths are 15 to 46 centimeters (6 to 18
inches). The primary reason Fly ash is used in soil stabilization applications is to
improve the compressive and shearing strength of soils.
1|Page
Fig. 1 Microscopic image of Fly ash
―Waste transformations ―are the powerful term used in effective solid waste
management technique. The thermal power plants in India consume more than 300
million-tons of coal and generate nearly 100,000 MW power. This produces Fly-ash
around 163.56 million-tons out of which only 61.37% is being utilized. Though Fly
ash has wide variety of applications in civil engineering industries but bulk utilization
of Fly ash is possible only if it is used as an embankment material. Direct use of Fly
ash in highway embankment projects consumes large volumes of Fly ash and provides
a promising solution to the disposal problem, but also an economic alternative to the
use of traditional materials. Since the intended use of these materials is as
embankment construction materials, emphasis is given to the determination of their
mechanical characteristics, including compaction, permeability, strength, stiffness,
and compressibility.
Usually Fly ash is two types:

 Class C
 Class F
2|Page
 Class C:
Fly ash produced from the burning of younger lignite or sub-bituminous coal,
in addition to having pozzolanic properties, also has some self-cementing properties.
In the presence of water, Class C Fly ash hardens and gets stronger over time. Class C
Fly ash generally contains more than 20% lime (CaO). Unlike Class F, self-cementing
Class C Fly ash does not require an activator. Alkali and sulfate (SO4) contents are
generally higher in Class C Fly ashes.
 Class F:
The burning of harder, older anthracite and bituminous coal typically produces
Class F Fly ash. This Fly ash is pozzolanic in nature, and contains less than
7% lime (CaO). Possessing pozzolanic properties, the glassy silica and alumina of
Class F Fly ash requires a cementing agent, such as Portland cement, quicklime, or
hydrated lime—mixed with water to react and produce cementations compounds.
Alternatively, adding a chemical activator such as sodium silicate (water glass) to a
Class F ash can form a geo polymer.
Fly ash properties are unusual among engineering materials. Unlike soils
typically used for embankment construction, Fly ash has a large uniformity coefficient
and it consists of clay-sized particles. Engineering properties that affect the use of Fly
ash in embankments include grain size distribution, compaction characteristics, shear
strength, compressibility, permeability, and frost susceptibility. Nearly all the types of
Fly ash used in embankments are Class F.
1.2. Uses of Fly ash:

1.2.1. Fly ash can be used for constructing semi rigid or rigid pavement.
1.2.2. This material possesses higher flexural strength then flexible pavement.
1.2.3. These specifications can be adopted for the base courses of higher traffic
density corridors and also sometimes used as wearing courses for low volume roads.
3|Page
1.3. Physical Properties:
 The Fly ash particles are generally glassy solids or hollow and spherical in
shape. The hollow spherical particles are called as cenospheres.
 The fineness of individual Fly ash particle ranges from 1micron – 1mm size.
 The fineness of particles is measured by measuring specific surface area of Fly

ash by Blain‘s specific surface area technique.
 Greater the surface area more will be the fineness of Fly ash. The method used
for measuring fineness of Fly ash is dry and wet sieving.
1.3.1. Physical properties of Fly ash
Table 1: Physical properties of Fly ash
Parameter Fly ash
Moisture content 2%
Particle shape Spherical / irregular
Colour Grey
Specific Gravity 1.9-2.55
Grain size distribution Sandy silt to Silty sand with clay
Porosity 45%-55%
Water holding capacity 45%-65%
4|Page
1.3.2. Chemical Properties:
 The major constituents of Fly ash are SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, and CaO. Other
minor constituents of Fly ash are MgO, Na2O, K2O, SO3, MnO2 and other
unburnt carbon.
 There is wide range of variation in the principal constituents –
• Silica (25-60%)
• Alumina (10-30%)
• Ferric oxide (5-25%)
 When the sum of these three principal constituents is 70% or more and
reactive calcium oxide is less than 10%- technically Fly ash is considered as
siliceous Fly ash or class F Fly ash.
 If the sum of this three constituent is equal or more than 50% and reactive
calcium oxide is not less than 10%, Fly ash will be considered as Calcareous
Fly ash also called as Class C Fly ash.
 The active constituents of class F Fly ash is siliceous or alumina-silicate glass.
 In calcareous or class C Fly ash, the active constituents are calcium alumina-
silicate glass, free lime (CaO), anhydrate (CaSO4), tricalcium aluminate and
rarely, calcium silicate.
Several studies have been carried out in which the engineering properties and the
physical and chemical characteristics of Fly ash were determined in the laboratory.
5|Page
CHAPTER-2
OBJECTIVES
The present study is aimed at utilization of Fly ash in embankments and sub
grades in view of geotechnical engineering applications. To achieve the aim the work
has been planned accordingly.
1. To collect the Fly ash from 3 power plants i.e., Fly ash from
HNPC,NTPC,NTTPS.
2. To determine the engineering properties (i.e., compaction, shear strength,

CBR) with and without adding admixtures for Fly ash samples from
HNPC,NTPC.
3. To study the changes in engineering properties of Fly ash with 2 admixtures in

different proportions for Fly ash samples from HNPC, NTPC.
4. To determine the optimum percentage of admixture for Fly ash samples from
HNPC,NTPC.
5. To carry Additional Review work on use of Fly ash in Embankments as a

substitute for balance experimental work related to the fly ash from third
thermal power plant due to Lockdown.
6|Page
CHAPTER-3
SCOPE OF WORK
The study consists of conducting laboratory tests on Fly ash properties like
optimum moisture content, maximum dry density, permeability, shear strength and
CBR to analyze the consequences of the applications of Fly ash in geotechnical
engineering from 2 power plants also with admixtures.
It was originally proposed to work on Fly ash from Dr. Narla Tata Rao
Thermal power station, Vijayawada and Fly ash samples have also been obtained
from the plant. However, the experimental work related to the Fly ash from this plant
could not be carried out due to COVID19 lockdown. As a substitute to this
experimental work, additional Review has been done on standard practices for use of
Fly ash in embankments based on the UGC guidelines (COVID19) and as suggested
by our Project guide and this has been added to Chapter-4.
7|Page
CHAPTER-4
LITERATURE REVIEW
4.1. Singh R.R et.al (2015):
 As in India current scenario of utilisation of Fly ash in roads and embankment

is only 6%.
 Fly ash possesses most of the important and favourable geotechnical
characteristic for its usage as embankment fill.
 The maximum dry density and optimum moisture content of Fly ash generally
range from 10KN/m3 to 16 KN/m3 and 15% to 40% respectively.
 When the RHA content was increased from 0 to 12%, Unconfined

Compressive Stress increased by 97% while CBR improved by 47%.
 Therefore, an RHA content of 12% and a Fly ash content of 25% are
recommended for strengthening the expansive sub grade soil.
 A Fly ash content of 15% is recommended for blending into RHA for forming
a swell reduction layer because of its satisfactory performance in the
laboratory tests.
4.2. K. Bandyopadhyay et.al:
 The CBR test was conducted (as per IS: 2720- Part 16) in CBR mould
remoulded by dynamic compaction with 2.5 Kg rammer at 3 layers of 55
blows at each layer for light compaction and 4.89 Kg rammer at 5 layers of 55
blows at each for heavy compaction and mould was also prepared in static
compaction at compression testing machine of 1000kN capacity at four types
of respective maximum dry density level and optimum moisture conditions.
 Among the four types maximum dry density and OMC, two sets were
prepared in laboratory at heavy compaction, whereas another two sets were
prepared at light compaction in 1000 cc & 2240 cc mould respectively as per
IS specifications.
8|Page
 All the CBR mould were soaked in water at four days before testing to cater
for the worst moisture content, that may prevail in the field. Soaked CBR tests
were conducted at 100% MDD with OMC and 97% MDD with OMC level.
4.3. P. G. S. Gimhan:
 The main aim of this research was therefore to determine the geotechnical
engineering properties.
 The experimental results reveal that the particle size of coal ash (Fly ash and
bottom ash) is predominantly silt sized while containing some sand-sized
fractions as well.
 This FA and BA to find out the feasibility of using them as light weight
embankment or backfill material. A series of laboratory experiments were
conducted on Fly ash.
 FA-BA co-mixed samples to determine their particle size distribution, specific

gravity, index properties, compaction characteristics, shear
 Grain size distribution results reveal that this ash (FA and BA) is similar to
well graded sand range as far as grain size distribution is concerned.
 Specific gravity of FA and BA are lower than that of typical backfill material,
and these lower specific gravities will be advantageous to reduce the
settlement due to the weight of the embankment.
 The suitability of each ash type as an embankment material was discussed

based on the individual test results (index properties, Proctor compaction test,
direct shear test and CBR test).
4.4. Divya Krishnan (2014):
 The study reported that different additives such as cement, lime, silica fume,
and rice husk ash have been used as stabilizers in Fly ash and soils.
 Lime alone has traditionally been used in clay-bearing, highly cohesive soil
whereas Fly ash has been used to bind non-cohesive soil, granular or poorly
cohesive soil.
 Fly ash is mainly used to stabilize the sub base or base course.
 Chemical stabilization is applied as a cost effective, environmental friendly

and efficient method.
9|Page
4.5. Jasvir Singh et.al (2017):
 The objective of this study to check the amount of soil at which sample of soil
and Fly ash gives optimum values of CBR and after that rice husk ash is
added in different proportions in the sample of Fly ash and optimum quantity
of soil to achieve the optimum value of CBR.
 Fly Ash.
92 % Fly Ash + 8% Soil
76 % Fly Ash + 24 % Soil
 The experimental work done on Fly Ash stabilization with Soil and rice husk
ash can be concluded as follows:
 Fly Ash with varying percentage of Soil gives maximum CBR value at 8%
Soil. It increases from 29.4% to 31.8%.With further addition of Soil, it keeps
decreasing.
 TheFly Ash with 8 % Soil was further blended with variable percentage of
rice husk ash (4%, 8%, 12%, 16% & 20%).
 The major improvement in CBR occurred at 8% Soil mixed with 12% rice
husk ash and thereafter, further addition of rice husk ash is causing gradual
change in CBR values.
4.6. Arpan Sen. et.al (2012):
 Based on direct shear test on Fly ash with fiber reinforcement of 0.05%,
0.15% and 0.25%, the increase in cohesion was found to be 10%, 4.8% and
3.73% respectively.
 The increase in the internal angle of friction (φ) was found to be 0.8%, 0.31%
and 0. 47% respectively.
 Since the net increase in the values of c and φ were observed to be 19.6%,
from 0.325 kg/cm2 to 0.3887 kg/cm2 and 1.59%, from 47.72 to 48.483
degrees respectively,
10 | P a g e
 For such a soil randomly distributed polypropylene fibre reinforcement is
recommended.
4.7. Subrahmanyam M.S et.al (1981):
 It has been observed that when the admixture of lime and RHA has been
added to the Fly ash, the maximum dry density decreases and the optimum
moisture content increases irrespective of the ratio of lime to RHA in the
admixture. The reduction in maximum dry density is due to the presence of
RHA, which is a light weight material with specific gravity of 2.06. The
increase in optimum moisture content is due to the additional water required
for the hydration of lime.
 As the curing time is increased, the strength of the treated Fly

ash is increased.
11 | P a g e
CHAPTER-5
ADDITIONAL REVIEW (LOCKDOWN)
5.1 COAL ASHES IN GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING PRACTICE:

BENEFICIAL ASPECTS BY SRIDHARAN A. (2012)
SUMMARY:
• Coal ashes have been shown to have advantageous properties such as low
specific gravity, lower compressibility, higher rate of consolidation, high strength,
high CBR, high volume stability, water insensitiveness to compaction and pozzolanic
reactivity.
• The use of coal ashes having these beneficial properties, which are being
considered as industrial wastes, serves as a very useful material in the field of
geotechnical engineering.
• Among them fly ash is one of the most plentiful and versatile industrial by
product. Disposal of fly ash, which is an industrial waste, is both cost effective and
environment friendly and their use in bulk in the field of geotechnical engineering is
an eco-friendly way of their safe disposal.
• Fly ashes exhibit greater lime reactivity than the pond and bottom ashes due to
their high reactive silica content.
• This paper suggests where exactly coal ashes can be effectively used in the
field of geotechnical engineering.
• This paper also suggests that CBR is a useful parameter in judging the
suitability of the material for its intended use in the road construction and in the
design of pavements.
• The study suggests that Addition of fly ash to cohesive soil will increase the
strength of the resulting mix by virtue of the enhanced frictional strength and
pozzolanic reactions.
• This paper also suggests that the addition of class F type of fly ash to the soil
has resulted in a mix having more CBR than those of soil and fly ash alone and the
CBR of class F fly ash can also be improved by the addition of coarser soil to it which
results in a better grain size packing.
1. ABSTRACT:
Coal ashes have been shown to have advantageous properties such as low
specific gravity, lower compressibility, higher rate of consolidation, high strength,
high CBR, high volume stability, water insensitiveness to compaction and pozzolanic
reactivity. The use of coal ashes having these beneficial properties, which are being
considered as industrial wastes, serves as a very use full material in the field of
geotechnical engineering. Their use in bulk in the field of geotechnical engineering is
an eco-friendly way of their safe disposal.
2. INTRODUCTION:
The burning of pulverized coal in thermal power plants results in the
production of huge quantum of coal ashes namely fly ash and bottom ash. The wet
disposal of these ashes separately or in combination in storage ponds results in pond
12 | P a g e
ashes. The current worldwide production of coal ashes is more than 700 million tones
of which about 70% is fly ash. Huge quantum of coal ashes thus generated coupled
with their very low specific gravity has made the ash handling and disposal problems
very acute.
A proper planning, sensible execution and good management of coal based

thermal power generation projects will help not only in minimizing the coal ash
storage / disposal problems, but also in achieving many ‗positives‘. This requires a
better understanding of physical, chemical and engineering properties of coal ashes.
This paper intends to critically evaluate these properties in general, the

beneficial properties in particular, which have been considered as unwanted wastes
and to suggest where exactly they can be effectively used in the field of geotechnical
engineering.
3. BENEFICIAL PROPERTIES OF COALASHES
3.1. Specific Gravity

The values of specific gravity of coal ashes vary over a wide range (i.e. 1.47 –
2.78). Low values of specific gravity of coal ashes can be attributed to: spongy /
porous nature of ash particles; presence of cenospheres; and unburned carbon content.
Low to very low specific gravity of coal ashes makes them suitable for
the use as the backfill materials in retaining wall construction, as construction fill
materials on weak compressible soils, as fill materials for low-lying areas and as
embankment materials. The advantages realised as a consequence of lower specific
gravity of coal ashes in these applications are
 less lateral pressures on retaining structures

 less over burden pressures on foundation soils
 reduction in the settlement of foundation soils
 reduction in the tendency of weak sub soil to undergo failure
 realisation of relatively steep side slopes of embankments
3.2. Pozzolanic Reactivity
3.2.1. Based on chemical composition, fly ashes have been classified into two groups
namely class F and Class C fly ashes. While class F fly ashes are pozzolanic, class C
fly ashes have both pozzolanic and cementations properties.
3.2.2. A pozzolanic reaction is one in which siliceous material reacts in the presence
of moisture and calcium to form compounds exhibiting cementations properties.
3.2.3. The pozzolanic reactivity or lime reactivity is normally expressed as the

Compressive strength of standard mortar cubes prepared using coal ashes and tested
under specified conditions (IS: 1727, 1967).
3.2.4. Fly ashes exhibit greater lime reactivity than the pond and bottom ashes due to
13 | P a g e
their high reactive silica content.
3.2.5. The engineering performance of fly ashes gets improved with time, by virtue
of the pozzolanic reactions. This property is responsible for them to exert lower lateral
pressure on retaining structures, lower over burden pressures on foundation soils; to
experience reduced secondary settlements and to have an increased shear strength and
CBR with time.
3.3. Compaction Characteristics
3.3.1. The range of specific gravity variation of coal ashes is more when compared
with that of soils, in spite of identical chemical composition and grain size
distribution.
3.3.2. Hence, Sridharan et. al. (2001) felt that it would not be appropriate to
compare the compaction characteristics of coal ashes with those of soils obtained
through conventional compaction curves and that such a comparison would not be
realistic.
3.3.3. They suggested the plotting of dry unit weights and corresponding water
contents of coal ashes after normalizing with a standard specific gravity.
3.3.4. They suggested that 2.65 be taken as the standard value (Gstd) as it represented
most of the soils. If dn and wm are the dry unit weight and corresponding compaction
water content of a coal ash of specific gravity Gm obtained from the compaction test,
then the corresponding normalised dry unit weight and normalised water content can
be calculated using the following equations.
dn=dm Gstd/Gm
Wn wm Gm Gstd
3.3.5. These observations are of primary importance in that the field compaction
does not require much of compaction control. This facilitates the coal ashes to be
effectively used in the construction of pavements and embankments. However, if the
fly ash is of pozzolanic type (i.e. class C), then care should be exercised to avoid
delay between mixing and compacting the fly ash in the field, as the delayed
compaction results in lower dry unit weights and higher OMC.
3.4. Shear Strength
3.4.1 Shear strength parameters depend upon the type of test, placement condition
of the specimen and drainage conditions during testing.
14 | P a g e
3.4.2. The study of shear strength behavior of coal ashes in the shear box apparatus
reveals the following:
 Being cohesionless, non-plastic materials, coal ashes owe all their shear
strength to frictional component except in the compacted, unsaturated state
where apparent cohesion is also present which reduces to zero upon saturation.
 Coal ashes exhibit higher angle of shearing resistance, at both peak and
residual stress levels, even in the soaked conditions.
 Coal ashes have angle of shearing resistance varying in the range 25o – 34o,
even under loose conditions. The strength loss upon saturation is very small.
 In spite of their low unit weights, coal ashes exhibit high shear strengths when
compared with natural soils.
3.4.3. The study of the shear strength behaviour of Indian coal ashes in triaxial
testing apparatus both at the peak and at the residual test levels have indicated the
following
 Variation of effective friction angle is negligibly small, irrespective of whether
it is observed from consolidated undrained test or consolidated drained tests.
 Variation of effective friction angle of fly ash with initial dry density is not
appreciable.
 For pozzolanic fly ashes, shear strength increases with curing period.
 Peak and residual shear strength parameters are comparable.
 Over consolidation increases the angle of shearing resistance appreciably.
3.4.4. High to very high shear strength parameters of coal ashes both at peak and
Residual stress levels, both in the loose condition and compacted / compacted –
saturated condition favour their use in the field as all the problems concerned in the
field with bearing capacity, slope stability of embankments, design of pavements and
retaining structures are dependent on shear strength characteristics.
3.5. California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
3.5.1. The CBR is a useful parameter in judging the suitability of the material for its
intended use in the road construction and in the design of pavements.
3.5.2. The CBR of class F fly ash tends to reduce drastically as the capillary forces
reduce to zero on submergence. However, class C fly ashes retain very high CBR
values even when tested after soaking, which can be attributed to pozzolanic
reactions.
3.5.3. Normally, the design practice is to prefer soaked CBR values. However, it is
justifiable to use soaked CBR values for those areas which are low-lying with poor
drainage facilities, resulting in the submergence of roads.
3.5.4. However, for areas that have good drainage facilities such that the roads will
not get submerged even in the worst rains, it is justifiable to use the un soaked CBR in
the design of pavements.
15 | P a g e
3.5.5. The CBR of soils belonging to groups OH, CH, and MH have been observed
to vary in the range 0-7% (Bowles, 1988). It is also observed that the CBR of coal
ashes are much more than those of many fine-grained soils. This characteristic makes
them suitable for use as sub-base materials in the construction of pavements.
3.6. Compressibility and Consolidation Characteristics
3.6.1. Compressibility characteristics namely compression index (Cc) and coefficient

of volume change (mv) are important from the view point of calculation of settlement
of structures.
3.6.2. Fully saturated fly ashes are more compressible than the partly saturated fly
ashes. Self-hardening fly ashes compacted at OMC and saturated are less
compressible than those compacted at OMC. If the fly ashes are of pozzolanic type,
then the curing period also has appreciable influence on their compressibility.
3.6.3. Normally, 75% - 80% of total settlement of structures founded on fly ashes is
due to primary consolidation, which depends upon their coefficient of consolidation
(cv).
3.6.4. It is preferable to calculate the value of cv from the measured value of

coefficient of permeability (k) and coefficient of volume change from equation given
below.
cv = k / [mvw]
3.6.5. The higher values of cv of coal ashes signify an important fact that the primary
consolidation of structures founded on coal ashes will be practically over during the
period of construction itself. This feature makes the coal ashes superior for use as
foundation base materials, as reclamation fills and as materials of construction for
embankments and dams.
3.7. Permeability
3.7.1. Coefficient of permeability of coal ashes depends upon their grain size
distribution, testing conditions of coal ashes and the pozzolanic reactivity of coal
ashes. Being coarser in size, bottom ashes are relatively more permeable than pond
and fly ashes.
3.7.2. The values of k of most of the fly ashes are in the range of k of silts. The
Permeability of coal ashes remains almost constant over a wide range of over burden
pressure.
3.7.3. These observations indicate that the coal ashes are normally freely draining
materials, and are best suited for use as backfill materials behind the retaining
structures, as sub-base materials in pavements and as embankment shell materials.
3.7.4. The self cementing and pozzolanic fly ashes (i.e., class C type) exhibit lower
permeability than class F fly ashes, and their permeability tends to reduce appreciably
16 | P a g e
with time in the field Such fly ashes can be more effectively used as liner materials in
waste containment structures and as additives in the construction of effective seepage
cutoffs like impervious blankets and cores in water retaining earth structures.
3.8. Swell and Shrink Potential
3.8.1. Coal ashes exhibits high to very high volume stability (i.e., low swell and
Shrink potential), which can be attributed to their non-plastic nature and uniform
gradation.
3.8.2. The non-plastic nature of coal ashes does not allow their shrinkage limit to be
determined in the laboratory. However, it can be inferred that they exhibit high
shrinkage limit owing to their uniform gradation.
3.8.3. Low to very low swell and shrink potential of coal ashes can be taken the best
advantage of in the construction of pavements, embankments, dams and as foundation
base materials.
4. SOILSTABILISATION
4.1. Addition of fly ash to cohesive soil will increase the strength of the resulting
mix by virtue of the enhanced frictional strength and pozzolanic reactions.
4.2. CBR of black cotton soil, which is an expansive soil, varies with the addition
of different fly ash contents to the soil.
4.3. The study suggests that the compaction curves and compacted dry unit
weights are insensitive to the water content variation during compaction. These
observations are of primary importance in that the field compaction does not require
much of compaction control.
4.4. This facilitates the coal ashes to be effectively used in the construction of
pavements and embankments. However, if the fly ash is of pozzolanic type (i.e. class
C), then care should be exercised to avoid delay between mixing and compacting the
fly ash in the field, as the delayed compaction results in lower dry unit weights and
higher OMC.
4.5. The addition of class F type of fly ash to the soil has resulted in a mix having
more CBR than those of soil and fly ash alone.
4.6. The CBR of class F fly ash can also be improved by the addition of coarser
soil to it which results in a better grain size packing.
4.7. The addition of class C type fly ash to a fine-grained clayey soil will continue
to increase the CBR of the resulting mix with time due to the pozzolanic reactions.
4.8. In addition, the fly ashes when used as mechanical admixtures to stabilise
expansive soil reduce the swell – shrink potential of expansive soils, thus providing
them improved volume stability.
17 | P a g e
4.9. Apart from these beneficial characteristics of coal ashes, there are certain
undesirable properties:
 Class F fly ashes are highly dispersive. With the result, they are easily
erodible.
 At very low compacted densities, they exhibit high collapse potential.
 Their frost susceptibility is high.
4.10. However, these undesirable properties can be improved by treating them with
chemical admixtures such as lime or cement or lime – gypsum and / or with
mechanical admixtures such assoils.
5. CONCLUSIONS
5.1. The study reveals that the coal ashes, which are by-products of thermal power
generation industry, are waste materials which are harmful to the environment and to
the people of the region as well.
5.2. However, the study of the physical, chemical and engineering properties of
coal ashes shows that the coal ashes are potential resourceful materials from the
geotechnical engineering applications view point.
5.3. The present paper has discussed many properties of coal ashes which can be
used with the advantage in various geotechnical engineering applications. They are –
low specific gravity, lower compressibility, higher rate of consolidation, higher
frictional strength, higher CBR, negligible swell – shrink potential, water
insensitiveness of compaction characteristics and pozzolanic reactivity.
5.4. The beneficial properties of coal ashes discussed in this paper encourage their
use as:
 Fill materials for low-lying areas
 Construction fill materials on weak compressible soils
 The ever increasing scarcity for good materials in various geotechnical
engineering projects can also be overcome by the use of large scale use of coal
ash
 Back fill materials in retaining structures
 Good foundation base materials
 Sub-base materials for pavements
 Construction of earth embankments and dams
 Mechanical admixtures in stabilizing expansive and cohesive fine-grained
soils.
18 | P a g e
REFERENCES:
1. American Society for Testing Materials (1995), ASTM Designation C 618

– 94a, Standard Specifications for coal ash and raw or calcined natural
pozzolan for use as a mineral admixture in Portland cement concrete, Annual
book of ASTM standards, Vol. 104.02, ASTM, Philadelphia.
2. Bowles, J.E. (1988), Engineering properties of soils and their measurement,
McGraw HillBook Company, New York.
3. Gray, D.H. and Lin, Y.K. (1972), ―Engineering properties of compacted fly
ash‖, J. Soil Mech. Found. Div. ASCE, Vol.98, No. SM 4, pp.361-380.
4. H.M.S.O. (1957), Soil mechanics for road engineers, Her Majesty‘s
Stationery Office, London.
5. Indian Standard Institution (1967), IS: 1727, Method of test for pozzolanic
materials, BIS, New Delhi.
6. Kaniraj, S.R. and Gayathri, V. (2004), ―Permeability and consolidation
characteristics of compacted fly ash‖, J. Energy Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 130,
No. 1, pp. 18-43.Krishna, K.C. (2001), CBR Behavoiur of Fly Ash - Soil -
Cement Mixes, Ph.D thesis submitted to IISc, Bangalore, India.
19 | P a g e
5.2.1 FLY ASH AS A STRUCTURAL FILL by R.J. McLaren
SUMMARY:
• Fly ash is composed of the non combustible mineral matter present in coal and
any carbon which remains unburned due to incomplete combustion. The ash content
of many coals varies from 8 to 14 percent of the weight of the coal.
• The formation of fly ash takes place in the furnaces of the boilers which
produce the steam used in generating electrical power. There are three categories of
furnaces which are used in use today at power stations:
• Pulverized coal fired furnace,
• Cyclone furnace,
• Stocker-fired furnaces.
• To collect this high percentage of fly ash, electric utilities have supplemented
mechanical collection devices with electro static precipitators and bag houses.
• After the fly ash has been removed from the flue gas stream, it must be
transported to a storage facility. There are three types of system for handling of fly
ash:
• Vacuum systems,
• Pressure systems,
• Combination vacuum – pressure system.
• The storage techniques for fly ash can be divided into the two broad categories
of dry and wet methods.
1. INTRODUCTION
Fly ash is a by-product of the combustion process necessary for the production
of electrical energy at modern power station which burn fossil fuels. It is the very
fine, light dust which is carried off in the stack gases from the boiler units and
collected by the air pollution control equipment. Fly ash is composed of the
noncombustible mineral matter present in coal and any carbon which remains
unburned due to incomplete combustion. The ash content of many coals varies from 8
to 14 percent of the weight of the coal.
2. PRODUCTION OF FLY ASH

The formation of fly ash takes place in the furnaces of the boilers which
produce the steam used in generating electrical power. There are three categories of
furnaces which are in use today at power stations:
 Pulverized coal fired furnace,
 Cyclone furnace,
 Stoker-fired furnaces.
2.1. Pulverized coal-fired furnaces:

The Pulverized coal fired units are widely used in the electrical power industry
for installation where greater than 50,000 lb. of steam per hour must be produced, and
are especially prevalent in installations requiring a production of over 250,000 lb. of
steam per hour. The coal is dried and pulverized coal so that 80 percent of the
particles are smaller than0.047 mm. The pulverized coal is aerated and transferred to
20 | P a g e
the burners, where the combustion takes place. Oil or gas is used for ignition, and the
coal is burned in suspension. The bottom fly ash is removed from the furnace in a
molten state or in a solid granular form. If the bottom ash leaves the furnace in a
molten state, the boiler is referred to as a wet-bottom boiler; if the bottom ash is
removed in a solid granular form, the boiler is called dry-bottom. The furnace is
designed for a particular method of bottom ash removal, depending upon the fusion
temperature of the ash and variation of furnace temperature with boiler load. Ash
fusion temperature 1000 to 1200 0C favors dry-bottom removal systems. Most of the
ash is produced in pulverized coal-fired units with dry-bottom removal systems exist
from the furnace in the flue gas stream as fly ash.
2.2. Cyclone furnaces:

These units use crushed coal with a diameter of less than 12.7mmas fuel and
are comparable in capacity to pulverized coal-fired furnaces. The coal is burned by
continuous swirling in a high-intensity zone. Between 80-85 percent of the ash melts
and it‘s tapped from the furnace as molten bottom ash. Approximately 90 percent of
the fly ash which leaves the furnace in the stack gases is finer than 0.010 mm. The
principal disadvantage of the use of cyclone furnace is that they produce higher
concentration of nitrogen oxides than are produced in pulverized coal-fired units.
2.3. Stocker-fired furnaces:

Stockers are used to fire boilers which must generate from 10,000 to 250,000
lb. of steam per hour. However, stocked-fired boilers are practical only for power
plants generating less than 40 megawatts of electricity. The stocker-fired units have a
system which mechanically feeds the coal into the furnace, provides the appropriate
quantity of air for combustion, and then mechanically removes the unburned refuse.
There are three types of stockers which are used:
 Underfeed stokers
 Traveling or chain-gate stokers
 Spreader stokers
The Underfeed stoker is suitable for use with semi bituminous (coking)
coals. The traveling or chain-grate stoker is used primarily for those furnaces which
burn anthracite or Middle Western bituminous coals. The fly ash which is produced
by stocker-fired units is coarser than the fly ash produced by pulverized coal-fired
units or cyclone furnaces. Underfeed stockers and traveling gate stockers will produce
10 to 20 percent fly ash, with reminder of the ash being collected as bottom fly ash.
3. Collection of Fly Ash
3.1. As a result of the air pollution control laws of the 1970's, electric utilities
collect a large percentage (99 percent) of the fly ash as compared to previous levels.
To collect this high percentage of fly ash, electric utilities have supplemented
mechanical collection devices with electrostatic precipitators and bag houses. The
electrostatic precipitators have proven to be the most effective devices to date for
removing the fly ash from the gas stream. Reasons for the effectiveness of
electrostatic precipitators include:
 Precipitators can be designed to provide high collection efficiency for all

particle sizes.
21 | P a g e
 Precipitators are economical because of low power requirements.
 Precipitators can handle large gas flows.
 Precipitators can be designed to operate at either high or low gas temperatures
from 90º to 425º.
 Precipitators have long useful life spans.
3.2. The operation of electrostatic precipitators is as follows:

 The suspended fly ash particles are given an electrical charge.
 They are subjected to an electric field to remove them from the gas stream to
collection surface to an outside receptacle.
4. Handling of fly ash
4.1. After the fly ash has been removed from the flue gas stream, it must be
transported to a storage facility. There are three types of systems for handling fly ash:
 Vacuum systems,
 Pressure systems,
 Combination vacuum-pressure systems.
4.2. Vacuum systems have a limit on the effective length to which they can transport
the fly ash. The maximum distance which material can be conveyed by a vacuum
system is dependent upon the configuration of the system and the altitude above sea
level. Pressure systems are generally used where the length of conveyance is too great
for a vacuum system or where the altitude limits the vacuum which can be created.
Combination systems are usually economical where the length of the conveying
system exceeds the capability of a vacuum system to attain a satisfactory conveying
rate.
5. STORAGE OF FLY ASH

The storage techniques for fly ash can be divided into the two broad categories
of dry and wet methods. In 1977, 51 percent of the ash was stored by the wet method
and 49 percent by the dry method. Because of increasingly stringent environmental
regulations, the trend is toward dry storage methods.
5.1. Dry Method:

In the dry method of storage, the fly ash is conveyed by either vacuum or
pressure to a storage silo. The storage silos are made of carbon steel or hollow
concrete stave construction. Flat bottom silos are equipped with aeration stones or
slides to fluidize the ash and induce flow when discharging of the ash takes place.
Some silos require the use of heaters to prevent the formation of moisture which can
hamper the removal of the ash from the silo. The storage silo is used only for the
short-term storage of fly ash. The fly ash can be transported to the stockpile area by
either truck or rail. Except with pneumatic tankers, it is necessary to condition the
material with a small amount of water prior to transport to prevent it from blowing off
of the transport vehicle and creating an environmental problem. There are two
principal types of fly ash conditioners in use:
 The barrel type,
 The vertical type.
22 | P a g e
In a barrel type conditioner, the fly ash is fed at a steady rate by a rotary
feeding device into the inlet of a screw conveyor which forces the fly ash into a
rotating drum. Water is added at various points along the length of the drum as the ash
is tumbled past a series of scrapers toward the discharge opening. The barrel type
conditioner requires continuous monitoring to function satisfactorily and is capable of
conditioning from 150 to 200 tons of ash per hour with 10 to 30 percent water by
weight.
The vertical type conditioner is more suitable for automatic operation. The
vertical conditioner has a capacity of 150 to 325 tons of ash per hour with a 10to 30
percent water addition. This unit has a fluidizing feeder and metering cut-off gate to
control the rate of flow of ash into it. The material enters a compartment on the top of
the conditioner where it drops on to a rotating cone. This action creates a cylindrical
curtain of ash which is sprayed from many directions by high velocity fog-jet nozzles.
The water forces the ash against the walls of the mixing chamber where a pair of
scraper blades channels it toward the discharge nozzle. Both of these types of
conditioners require a minimum water pressure of 80 psi for proper mixing. If the
water is supplied at a lower pressure, it will not penetrate the rapidly moving mass of
fly ash.
5.2. Wet Method:

The wet method of storage involves the addition of large quantities of water to
the dry fly ash to create slurry. The mixing of the water with the dry fly ash occurs at
the vacuum producer in a vacuum handling system. The slurry is then discharged
through an air separator tank into the bottom ash discharge pipe. The ash mixture then
flows by gravity or is pumped, if necessary, to the ash storage lagoon. In the lagoon,
the bottom ash and fly ash settle out and the excess water is carried away.
More than one storage method is often used by a particular power plant. The
method used for handling and storage may influence the attractiveness of potential ash
utilization schemes. Due to the cost involved in reclaiming ash from storage areas,
most ash utilized is obtained from dry silos. Because of the cost and difficulty
involved in reclaiming ash from lagoons, ash handled wet is seldom used. Similarly,
mixing of fly ash with bottom ash may produce undesirable gradations, adversely
affecting utilization potential.
23 | P a g e
5.2.2 PROPERTIES OF FLYASH by R.J.McLaren
SUMMARY:
 Fly ash displays a high degree of variability, both chemical and physical
properties.
 The properties includes grain size distribution, moisture content, density, shear
strength, compressibility, permeability, capillarity, frost susceptibility.
 Fineness of fly ash is also an important gradation characteristic because ashes
of high surface area are generally more chemically reactive and are likely to
develop higher compressive strength of chemically activated.
 It stated that the natural moisture content must be determined experimentally
for each individual fly ash.
 It stated that the density of soil is important because it determines the load
which a fill constructed of the soil will apply to itself or its foundation and
because it influences the permeability, stiffness and strength of the material.
 The shear strength is related to two engineering properties are cohesion and
angle of internal friction. The fly ash which do not have self hardening
properties possess no cohesion however, they exhibit some apparent cohesion
due to capillary forces produced by pore water.
 This study stated that all types of fly ash the quality of initial percolate from
the fill is independent of the depth of the bed.
 The study also found that the soils used for the laboratory experiments were
collected at the power station where the fly ash was generated or were
prepared from standard soil types.
1. INTRODUCTION:
Fly ash is comprised of very fine particles, the majority of which are glassy
spheres, with the remainder being crystalline matter and carbon. The chemical and
physical composition of a particular fly ash is a function of many factors, including:
 Coal rank
 Coal source
 Degree of coal pulverization
 Design of power plant boiler unit
 Loading and firing conditions
 Collection, handling and storage methods
Due to these factors fly ash displays a high degree of variability in both
chemical and physical properties. The parameters which are of interest for using fly
ash as a fill material have been developed by geotechnical engineers. Certain
chemical properties of fly ash are also of interest because they influence the physical
properties. The ash is more chemically active than most soils, and concern has been
expressed as to the detrimental effects the fly ash may have in its interaction with the
environment. In some cases the chemical activity of fly ash may enhance its
engineering properties.
24 | P a g e
2. PHYSICAL AND ENGINEERING PROPERTIES:
The physical and engineering properties of fly ash which are of concern when
it is to be used as an engineering construction material are:
 Grain size distribution
 Moisture content
 Density
 Shear strength
 Compressibility
 Permeability
 Capillarity
 Frost susceptibility
2.1. GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION:
The grain size distribution is of interest because many engineering parameters
are related to the variation of particle size of the material. This distribution is
generally presented in graphical form in a grain size distribution curve. The particle
size is plotted to a logarithmic scale on horizontal axis and the percent of particles by
weight smaller than a particular size is plotted to a linear scale on the vertical axis.
The characteristics of the grain size distribution for a given material can be defined
from grain size curve.
The material having steep curve for example, a very small range of particle
sizes and is said to be uniformly graded.(Sometimes referred to as very poorly
graded). A material having flat curve it is said to be well graded.
Fine grained soils, exhibiting grain size distribution are similar to fly ash, are
generally tested to determine the consistency, or Atterberg limits for the material. In
almost all cases, fly ashes are non plastic as defined by liquid and plastic limits. The
range of water contents between liquid and plastic limits is the plastic range and is
referred to as the Plasticity index of the soil.
2.2. MOISTURE CONTENT:

The moisture content must be determined experimentally for each individual
fly ash. A particular fly ash may be dusty powder depending solely upon moisture
content. Thus, moisture content will affect such engineering properties as compaction
behaviour and shear strength. The natural moisture content of the fly ash must be
known to enable the designer to calculate the quantity of water which will be needed
to bring the fly ash up to its optimum moisture content for compaction.
2.3. DENSITY:
Density as defined for engineering purposes is the weight per unit volume of
the material. The density of soil is important because it determines the load which a
fill constructed of that soil will apply to itself and its foundation and because of its
influences the permeability, stiffness and the strength of the materials. As the density
of granular material increases, so does the strength and stiffness. Alternatively
permeability decreases as density increases.
2.4. SHEAR STRENGTH:

The shear strength of fly ash is used as a fill material will determine to
steepness of fill slopes which can be safely constructed and magnitude of foundation
loads it will support. For retaining walls, the shear strength of the back fill will
25 | P a g e
determine the load the wall must support. Since the fly ash will seldom be loaded in
tension or hydrostatic compression, Shear strength is the primary strength parameter
used in the design of fly ash fill embankments and backfills.
Fly ash which does not have self hardening properties possesses no cohesion;
however, they exhibit some apparent cohesion due to capillary forces produced by
pore water. This apparent cohesion can be destroyed by complete drying or saturation.
2.5. COMPRESSIBILITY:
The compressibility of a fly ash fill determines the rate and magnitude of
settlements of structures founded on a fill. In contract to its Shear strength behaviour
where it behaves as cohesionless material, fly ash behaves very much like a cohesive
Soil in terms of consolidation and settlement.
The amount of settlement that a foundation will experience from the load it
applies to a fly ash fill is proportional to the logarithm of the change in pressure
caused by the foundation load and compression index.
2.6. PERMEABILITY:
The coefficient of permeability as used in the soil mechanics is defined as a
discharge velocity through a unit area under a hydraulic gradient of one. The
engineer‘s coefficient of permeability applies only to the flow of water and was
developed as a convenient means of estimating the quantity of water which will seep
through a mass of earth in a given time period. The permeability of a soil mass is a
function of the viscosity of the water, the size and shape of the soil grains, the degree
of compaction of the soil mass, and the number of discontinuities present in the soil
mass. The permeability of fly ash compacted to its maximum dry density.
2.7. CAPILLARY RISE:

Because of its grain size distribution, this will occur in compacted fly ash. It
was computed that the capillary rise in fly ash could range from 1.8 to 9.6m.
2.8. FROST SUSCEPTIBILITY:

Material with a grain size distribution, such as fly ash is generally susceptible
to frost heave when exposed to freezing temperatures and a source of waters. The
only means of accurately determining if a particular fly ash will be frost susceptible is
to perform laboratory tests under freezing conditions.
3. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES:
3.1. Composition:
Fly ash from bituminous coals contains large quantities of silica, alumina and
ferric oxide and small other quantities of various other oxides and alkalies. Carbon
can also be produced in various amounts. The most important chemical constituents
of fly ash from an engineering view point are free lime CaO and carbon. Free lime
and carbon influence the chemical reactivity of the ash, and carbon will affect the
compaction and strength characteristics. Fly ashes with large amounts of free lime
tend to be very reactive and can exhibit some degree of self hardening.
3.2. Mineralogy:
A mineralogical analysis of fly ash reveals that its principal chemical
constituents present in either a crystalline form or a glass. Typical glass contents of
26 | P a g e
fly ash range from 66 to 88 percent. The glass phase is very important because it is
this portion of the ash which makes it pozzolanic.
The British have performed extensive laboratory tests on fly ash fills and
obtained some results. One conclusion of the study is that for all types of fly ash the
quality of initial percolate from a fill is independent of depth of the bed. The shallow
beds will begin leaching sooner and will loosen their soluble material in a much
shorter time than the deep fly ash beds.
REFERENCES:
1. N.L.Hecht and D.S.Duvall. ―Characterization and utilization of Municipal

and utility Sludge and Ashes: Vol.III – Utility Coal Ash. National Environmental
Research Centre, U.S.Environmental Protection agency, May 1975.
2. John H.Faber. ―Ash Availability and Uses‖. In Proceedings of the Ash

Management Conference, Texas A&M University, September 25-27, 1978.
3. Allen-Sherman-Hoff Company. A Primer on Ash Handling Systems. 1976.
27 | P a g e
5.2.3 FLY ASH EMBANKMENTS by R.J.McLaren
SUMMARY:
• This study provides the details of design process for embankments and
structural fills is an iterative procedure which involves developing a conceptual plan
which will balance the desires of the designer, such as acres of useful land, final
grades for the site, etc., with the physical restraints of the site, such as stability of the
slopes, settlement limitations, etc.
• The design of embankment involves developing conceptual plans, which
satisfy site needs, design requirements pertaining to slope stability, bearing capacity,
settlement and drainage.
• These conceptual designs are finalised based on the engineering properties of
fly ash and specific site conditions.
• The detailed design includes analysis for establishing structural features of the
embankment at the selected site. The design of fly ash embankment is similar to
earthen embankments.
• The fly ash to be used in constructing the embankment should also be obtained
and tested at this time, and groundwater monitoring wells should be installed during
the subsurface investigation if they are to be included in the final design.
• The planning and conducting of subsurface investigations is a specialty which
should be carried out by experienced geotechnical engineers or geologists.
• Many states view the use of fly ash in structural fill applications as merely an
alternate means of waste disposal and will require that the project have a solid waste
disposal permit. The regulations regarding solid waste disposal vary from state to
state.
• The state environmental agencies generally require that a thorough geologic
and hydrologic survey of the disposal area be performed and the results be submitted.
1. INTRODUCTION:
When used as a borrow material in constructing embankments and load
bearing structural fills, fly ash has two major advantages when compared to most
natural soils and rocks: Its availability in urban areas and its light unit weight. Its light
unit weight, typically about 50 to 75 percent of the density of most soils, allows fly
ash to be used with poor foundation soils or for landslide repair.
In comparison to some silty soils, fly ash has a higher optimum moisture
content and exhibits compaction behavior that is less sensitive to variations in
moisture content. Fly ash also has higher shear strength than some natural materials,
especially some silts and clays.
2. CASE HISTORIES:
The following cases histories illustrate the successful use of fly ash as a source
of borrow material for fill construction.
2.1. Correction of a landslide which affected part of U. S. Route 250 west of

Fairmont, West Virginia. Ash was used because of its light weight and higher shear
strength than alternate available natural materials. The slide was repaired by the West
Virginia Department of Highways using 4,500 metric tons (5,000 tons) of fly ash
from the Fort Martin Station of Allegheny Power. Figure – 1is the picture of the slide.
28 | P a g e
Figure - 1. Landside Correction in West Virginia
Source: National Ash Association.
2.2. Construction of a fill embankment, shown in Figure-2, for a housing project

near Montgomery, West Virginia. The fill ranged in thickness up to 3.3 meters (11
feet) and raised the elevation of a 5-hectare (11-acre) housing site, thereby reducing
the susceptibility of the property to flooding. As a result of the increase in elevation,
the property and houses located on it were eligible for FHA financing. Appalachian
Power Company's Kanawha River Station supplied 270,000 cubic meters (350,000
cubic yards) of fly ash for this development.
Figure-2. Fill for a Housing Development Project

Source: National Ash Association.
2.3. Principal constituent in the approach embankments to a railroad overpass in

St. Paul, Minnesota. Fills were constructed to a maximum height of 7.6 m (25 feet)
leading to the 7th Street Bridge spanning the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul, and
Pacific Railroad. The fly ash was used because of reduced transportation costs per
cubic yard of fill due to the low unit weight of the ash in comparison to other
available materials. An additional advantage was that the ash was readily available
from Northern States Power Company's High Bridge Power Plant and had better
compaction characteristics than alternate available natural materials. The fill was
constructed by the Sheehy Bridge Construction Company using 38,000 cubic meters
(50,000 cubic yards) of fly ash in the summer of 1970.
2.4. Construction of an embankment by the Illinois Department of Highways for a
2.4 km (1.5 mile) section of expressway in Waukegan, Illinois. The average height of
the embankment beneath the four-lane highway was 1.1 m (3.5 feet). The
embankments far the entrance and exit ramps were a maximum of 6.1 m (20 feet) in
29 | P a g e
height. Construction of the embankment began in 1972 and was completed in 1974. A
total of 204,000 cubic meters (267,000 cubic yards) of fly ash was placed. The ash
was supplied by the Waukegan Plant of Commonwealth Edison and was used because
it was less expensive than any alternate natural borrow materials.
2.5. Fly ash as a structural fill material has been used more extensively in Great
Britain, in many cases because of weak subsoil. It has been used as a source of fill
material in other European countries, as well. Fly ash was utilized on the following
three projects in Great Britain because of weak subsoil. These projects are notable
because of their large size:
2.5.1. The M.9 (Stirling Edinburgh Motor Way), on which 540,000 metric tons
(600,000 tons) of fly ash was used to construct embankments over a sub grade of soft
plastic clay in the period 1965 to 1968.
2.5.2. The Alexandria Bypass, which used 450,000 metric tons (500,000 tons) of fly
ash for construction over a sub grade of alluvial silt in the early 1970's.
2.5.3. The Seven Oaks Bypass, which used 225,000 metric tons (250,000 tons) and
was constructed over areas of unstable foundation soils in 1967.
2.6. Fly ash has also been used as a load bearing fill for industrial projects and
schools in Great Britain. Two typical examples are:
2.6.1. As a construction base for a 7-story office building and parking garage in
Guildford, Surrey. The site was previously occupied by a gas manufacturing plant and
the soil was contaminated with phenols as well as abandoned pipes, tanks, and old
foundations. The property was excavated to rock, and in the spring of1972, 20,000
cubic meters (26,000 cubic yards) of fly ash were placed as fill to bring the property
back to final grade. Foundations for the new building bear directly on the fly ash fill.
2.6.2. Connecting embankments as part of a reinforced concrete and earthwork jetty

for the Oakham Ness Tanker Terminal near Rochester. The terminal was connected to
the shore by a one and a quarter mile long jetty; the portions crossing the salt water
marsh were constructed of fly ash. Approximately 60,000 cubic meters (80,000 cubic
yards) of fly ash were used on the project constructed in the mid 1960‘s.
3. INVESTIGATION OF PRE-CONSTRUCTION SITE CONDITIONS
3.1. Before designing an embankment or structural fill to be constructed of fly ash

or any natural soil, a complete investigation of the geologic and hydrologic conditions
at the site must be undertaken.
3.2. The first step is a preliminary site study involving a review of available
information about the proposed site, such as U.S.G.S. Topographic and Geologic
Maps, SCS Soil Maps, aerial photographs (if available), and a site reconnaissance by
a geologist or geotechnical engineer.
3.3. Based on the preliminary site study and the conceptual design of the proposed
embankment, a more detailed subsurface investigation is usually conducted.
30 | P a g e
3.4. The investigation may include borings, test pits, or other methods of obtaining
specific data on subsurface conditions at the site.
3.5. Samples of the fly ash to be used in constructing the embankment should also
be obtained and tested at this time, and groundwater monitoring wells should be
installed during the subsurface investigation if they are to be included in the final
design.
3.6. Since the behavior of fly ash is particularly sensitive to inundation, the
groundwater level, as well as any seeps or springs, should be given particular
attention in the subsurface investigation.
3.7. The planning and conducting of subsurface investigations is a specialty which

should be carried out by experienced geotechnical engineers or geologists.
4. DESIGN PROCEDURES:
4.1. Embankment and Structural Fill Design

The design process for embankments and structural fills is an iterative
procedure which involves developing a conceptual plan which will balance the desires
of the designer, such as acres of useful land, final grades for the site, etc., with the
physical restraints of the site, such as stability of the slopes, settlement limitations,
etc. The designer may have to develop several preliminary layouts for the site before
this proper balance is achieved. In order for a fill to be constructed to the required
elevation and to safely support the load of any structure placed upon it, the fill
material must possess the following qualities
4.1.1. Sufficient strength to safely support its own weight and the weight of the
structures placed upon it. To establish that the fill material has sufficient strength, it
must be analyzed for slope stability and bearing capacity.
4.1.2. Permanence of strength of the fill material. As moisture content and degree of
saturation are important factors in the strength of fly ash, proper drainage of both
surface and subsurface water is very important.
When fly ash is used as a fill material, it is capable of meeting the above
requirements provided proper design procedures have been followed. The procedures
include:
4.1.3. Thorough investigation using the appropriate laboratory test of the properties of
the particular fly ash being used to construct the fill. The characteristics of the fill
(i.e., allowable slopes, estimated settlement, etc.) must be evaluated by the analytical
methods or in lieu of this; the fill design can be based on conservative estimates of the
material's properties. For bearing capacity and slope stability analyses, it is
recommended that the cohesion of the ash be assumed as zero.
4.1.4. A proper plan to handle both surface and subsurface drainage during and after
construction. Care must be taken to ensure that water will not enter the fill at some
future date and cause a loss of stability or excessive leach ate.
31 | P a g e
4.2. Drainage Design
Any springs or seeps beneath the fill area must be drained away by the use of
herringbone drains or by a blanket of properly sized and graded material. In cases of
high groundwater table, a blanket of drainage material should be provided to a
minimum height of 92 can (36 inches) above grade in the area of potential high
groundwater activity to act as a capillary cutoff. Drain or drainage blankets should be
properly graded to serve as effective filters and prevent the migration of the fly ash
particles into the drains, yet be permeable enough to permit the passage of water.
4.2.1. Protection of Underground Pipes

Chemical tests on some fly ashes have indicated that these ashes may be
corrosive to pipes embedded in the fill (2). Each fly ash should be individually
evaluated, and if protection of the pipes is deemed necessary, wrapping the pipes in
polyethylene sheeting or embedding and backfilling with an inert material can be used
as a precautionary measure.
4.2.2. Concrete Protection

The sulfate content of fly ash has caused some concern about the possibility
of sulfate attack on adjacent concrete structures. While there have been no reported
cases of sulfate attack when fly ash has been used as an embankment or backfill
material, certain precautions are advisable. These precautions consist of painting the
adjacent concrete faces with tar, bitumen paint, or a rubberized compound which also
offers moisture protection to the concrete.
5. PERMITTING PROCEDURES
Many states view the use of fly ash in structural fill applications as merely an
alternate means of waste disposal and will require that the project have a solid waste
disposal permit. The regulations regarding solid waste disposal vary from state to
state. However, there are some basic requirements which are applicable to disposal
sites in all states. The state environmental agencies generally require that a thorough
geologic and hydrologic survey of the disposal area be performed and the results be
submitted to their office. They also require a chemical analysis of any waste material
which might contain hazardous components and a detailed plan for the design of the
disposal site/structural fill, which must be prepared by a registered professional
engineer. Some states may also require periodic surface and groundwater monitoring
as part of the permit requirements. Based on the December 1978 draft regulations of
the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976, it appears that the use of fly
ash in structural fills will not be restricted except for those fly ashes which present a
hazardous leach ate problem.
6. CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURES
The construction procedures outlined in this manual are based on the

experience gained by researchers in the U.S. and Europe from trial embankments and
actual construction projects. These guidelines cannot possibly anticipate all the
problems which could be encountered on a particular job site. Therefore, certain
adjustments to these procedures may be necessary based on actual field conditions.
Most of the discussion in this section deals with fly ash construction procedures, but
some coverage is also given to basic construction practices.
32 | P a g e
6.1. Site Preparation
The following procedure has proven to be the most effective means of
preparing a site prior to the placement of fly ash:
6.1.1. All surface drainage onto the site must be diverted to allow the site to dry out
prior to clearing operations and also to prevent water from entering the site during
construction.
6.1.2. Trees and brush must be cut and removed completely from the embankment
area.
6.1.3. Topsoil and localized pockets of soft material should be removed from beneath
the fill area. The removal of soft soils which have low shear strengths as compared to
fly ash will prevent deep seated slides. Alternately, if large quantities of soft soils are
present, their existence should be considered in the design of the embankment. In
particular, the possibility of slope failures through the embankment foundation should
be considered.
6.1.4. A sufficient amount of topsoil should be retained on-site so that the fill can be
covered to eliminate the problems of erosion and dusting, and so that the site can be re
-vegetated. In contrast to other fill materials, covering with topsoil is necessary to
support vegetation on some ashes and beneficial on all.
6.2. Delivery and On-Site Storage of Fly Ash

The fly ash will normally be delivered to the construction site in covered
dump trucks, so that moisture loss and dusting of the fly ash can be prevented.
However, in Great Britain, fly ash has occasionally been delivered by rail when large
quantities wore needed and were not available within a reasonable trucking distance.
The dry fly ash from hoppers or silos must be conditioned with water at the power
plant before delivery to the site in order to prevent a dusting problem on route. The
amount of water normally added to the ash at the plant to prevent dusting is on the
order of 10 to 15 percent. However, it may prove more economical to haul the fly ash
at moisture content near optimum so that the ash will be ready for compaction when it
reaches the site.
33 | P a g e
REFERENCES
1. L. K. Moulton. "Site Preparation and Drainage."Presented at the Technology

and Utilization of Power Plant Ash in Structural Fills and Embankments Short
Course, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia, August 13-16, 1978.
2. Investigation of Fly Ash for Use as Compacted Fill. St. Paul, Minnesota: Twin
City Testing and Engineering Laboratory, Inc., October 1970.
3. PFA Utilization. London, England: Central Electricity Generating Board,

1972.
4. R. J. Petersdorf. Coal Ash Used as a Fill Material for Highway Embankments,

Airport Spur Demonstration Project. Milwaukee, Wisconsin: Wisconsin Electric
Power Company, December 1977.
34 | P a g e
5.3 GUIDELINES FOR USE OF FLY ASH IN ROADEMBANKMENTS AS
PER IRC SP 58
SUMMARY:
• Due to industrialisation and rapid economic growth, demand for electricity has
risen tremendously. To meet this demand, a number of coal based thermal power
plants have been set up. At present, in India thermal power plants produce about 90
million tones of fly ash per annum and hardly 13 per cent of it is utilised.
• The properties of fly ash vary depending upon type of coal, its pulverisation
and combustion techniques, their collection and disposal systems, etc. In spite of
variations in its properties, fly ash possesses several desirable characteristics, such as,
lightweight, ease of compaction, faster rate of consolidation, etc.
• The study provides salient details regarding design and construction of road
embankments using fly ash. The design of fly ash embankments is basically similar to
design of soil embankments.
• The design of embankment involves developing conceptual plans, which
settlement and drainage.
• These conceptual designs are finalised based on the engineering properties of
fly ash and specific site conditions.
• The detailed design includes analysis for establishing structural features of the
earthen embankments.
• However, special emphasis is required with respect to provision of earth cover
for fly ash embankments since ash is easily erodible. The design analysis of an
engineered fill or embankment requires the shear strength of fill material to be
determined. This is accomplished in the laboratory by conducting triaxial shear or
direct shear test.
• The chemical characteristics of fly ash, which need to be evaluated, are
pozzolanic property, leach ability and self-hardening characteristics. These materials
are to be tested as per MOST Specifications for fill materials used in embankment
construction.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Due to industrialization and rapid economic growth, demand for electricity has
risen tremendously. To meet this demand, a number of coal based thermal power
plants have been set up. At present, in India thermal power plants produce about 90
million tones of fly ash per annum and hardly 13 per cent of it is utilized.
1.2 When pulverized coal is burnt in the furnace of the power stations, about 80
per cent of the ash produced is very fine in nature. And is collected by using either
electro-static precipitator or cyclone precipitator. This is called fly ash. The remaining
ash sinters and falls down at the bottom of the furnace. This is known as bottom ash.
When fly ash and bottom ash are mixed and disposed in the form of water slurry to
ash ponds, it is called pond ash. For the purpose of embankment construction either
pond ash, bottom ash or mound ash can be used. Fly ash being a very fine material is
not recommended for embankment construction.
35 | P a g e
1 .3 Fly ash is causing environmental pollution, creating health hazards and
requires large areas of precious land for disposal. For environmental protection and
growing awareness of the ill effects of pollution, disposal of ash generated at thermal
power plants has become an urgent and challenging task. Fly ash can be utilized in
many ways but bulk utilization is possible in the field of civil engineering applications
especially construction of road embankments. The environmental degradation caused
due to the use of topsoil for embankment construction is very high. Moreover, many
power plants are situated in urban areas, and therefore, fly ash can provide an
environmentally preferable alternative to natural borrow soil.
1.4. The properties of fly ash vary depending upon type of coal, its pulverization
and combustion techniques, their collection and disposal systems, etc. Ash collected
from the same ash pond may exhibit different physical and engineering properties
depending on point of collection, depth, etc. Obviously, ash from two different
thermal power plants can be expected to have different properties. In spite of
variations in its properties, fly ash possesses several desirable characteristics, such as,
lightweight, ease of compaction, faster rate of consolidation, etc. Also, spreading and
compaction of fly ash can be started much earlier in comparison to soil after a rainfall.
Fly ash would be a preferred material for construction of embankments over weak
subsoil.
2. SCOPE
These guidelines provide salient details regarding design and construction of

road embankments using fly ash. The Indian Roads Congress (IRC) and Ministry of
Road Transport & Highways (M/o. RT4H) specifications for earthen embankments
can be broadly applied in general for construction of fly ash embankments. In case of
any deviations, these specifications will take precedence.
3. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
3.1. The design of fly ash embankments:

The design of fly ash embankments is basically similar to design of soil
embankments. The design process for embankments involves the following steps:
 Site investigations
 Characterization of materials
 Detailed design
The design of embankment involves developing conceptual plans, which

settlement and drainage. These conceptual designs are finalized based on the
engineering properties of fly ash and specific site conditions.
3.2. Site Investigations

The following information concerning the site and surrounding areas must be
collected:
3.2.1. Topography: The existing configuration of the site and the proposed
developments, topographic information is essential for determining fill volumes,
surface drainage and overall site layout.
36 | P a g e
3.2.2. Hydrology: The nature of existing and potential development of surface water
and ground water conditions, flooding if expected
.
3.2.3. Subsoil investigations: The nature and extent of soil and rock strata, which
influence the design, and performance of project.
3.3. Characterization of Materials

The materials to be used in embankment construction should be characterised
to determine their physical and engineering properties.
Suitability of the material and design parameters is obtained through characterisation
tests.
3.3.1. Fly ash

3.3. 1.1. The following information on the fly ash to be used should be made
available for the Engineer's approval before Commencement of work:
 Particle size analysis of the material.

 The maximum dry density (MDD) and optimum moisture content (OMC) as
per IS Heavy Compaction test (commonly known as modified proctor test),
and the graph of density plotted against moisture content.
3.3.1.2. Once the Engineer has approved the above information, it shall form the basis
for compaction. The density of fly ash is considerably lower than density of many
types of soils. So, unlike soils, fly ash with low MDD value should not be rejected for
using it as a fill material. In general, fly ash of density lower than 0.9 gm/cc may not
be suitable for embankment construction. The design parameters should be rechecked,
when fly ash of lower densities is encountered.
3.3.1.3. To determine engineering properties of fly ash, tests shall be earned out in
accordance with the procedures laid down in IS: 2720 (Method of Tests for Soils-
relevant parts).Shear strength parameters, for evaluation of the stability of proposed
slopes and the bearing capacity of foundations located on the fill. Compressibility
characteristics, for predicting the magnitude and duration of the fill settlement.
Permeability and capillarity are required to assess seepage and to design drainage
systems.
3.3.1.4. The design analysis of an engineered fill or embankment requires the shear
strength of fill material to be determined. This is accomplished in the laboratory by
conducting triaxial shear or direct shear test. Shear strength is affected by sample
density and moisture content. To determine shear strength parameters C and Φ
laboratory shear strength tests should be conducted on samples compacted to densities
equivalent to those expected to be attained in the field.
1- IS: 2720(Part4):1985
2- IS: 2720(Part8): 1983
3.3.1.5. Fly ash gets consolidated at a faster rate and primary consolidation is
completed very quickly. So it has low compressibility and shows negligible post
construction settlements.
37 | P a g e
3.3.1.6. Liquefaction generally occurs when fly ash is deposited under loose saturated
condition during construction. There is very little possibility of liquefaction to occur,
to avoid the possibility of any liquefaction to occur, the following precautions must be
taken:
 Proper compaction of the fill material as per specifications
 In case water table is high, it should be lowered by providing suitable drains or
capillary cut-off
 By sandwiching ash between intermediate horizontal soil layers.
3.3.1.7. Typical values for different geotechnical properties of fly ash are given in
Figure-1 for guidance. In general fly ash with properties as given in Figure-1 is
acceptable for embankment construction.
Figure-1
3.3.1.8. The chemical characteristics of fly ash, which need to be evaluated, are
pozzolanic property, leach ability and self-hardening characteristics. The pozzolanic
property of fly ash would be of importance if stabilisers, like, lime are used. Self-
hardening property of bituminous coal ashes is insignificant. Fly ash to be used as fill
material should not have soluble sulphate (S03) content exceeding 1.9 gm per litre
when tested according to BS: 1377 Test 10
3.3.2. Earth cover
3.3.2.1. The fly ash embankments should be covered on the sides and top by soil to
prevent erosion of ash.
3.3.2.2. Good earth suitable for embankment construction can be adopted as cover
material for fly ash embankments.
38 | P a g e
3.3.2.3. Gravel may be used to construct granular cut-off at the bottom.
3.3.2.4. These materials are to be tested as per MOST Specifications for fill materials
used in embankment construction. The soil used for cover should not have maximum
dry density less than 1.52gm/cc when height of embankment is up to 3 m and in areas
not subjected to extensive flooding.
3.3.2.5. Otherwise the maximum dry density of cover soil should not be less than 1 .6
gm/cc when tested according to IS: 2720(Part 8) - 1983.
3.3.2.6. Subgrade/earthen shoulder material should have minimum compacted dry

density of 1 .75 gm/cc when tested according to IS: 2720 (Part 8) - 1983.
3.3.2.7. Plasticity index of cover soil should be between 5 to 9 per cent when tested
according to IS: 2720 (Part 5) - 1985.
3.4. Detailed Design
3.4.1. The detailed design includes analysis for establishing structural features of the
earthen embankments. However, special emphasis is required with respect to
provision of earth cover for fly ash embankments since ash is easily erodible. The
thickness of side cover (measured horizontally) would be typically in the range of 1 to
3m. Height and side slope of the embankment govern the thickness of earth cover. For
embankment up to 3 m height, in general, the earth cover thickness of about 1m
would be sufficient.
3.4.2. The three most common types of failure of embankment are:
 Toe failure - occurring when foundation soil is stronger than fill Material.
 Slope failure - occurring in a layered embankment when a strong layer limits
the extent of development of failure surface.
 Base failure - occurring when the foundation soils beneath the base of the
embankment have low strengths.
Regardless of the type of failure, the basic principle of stability analysis is to

compare those factors contributing to instability to those resisting a failure. The
design methods use limits equilibrium method for stability analysis of embankment.
In this method, stability is considered along a failure surface. Generally in the slip
circle method failure plane is assumed to be circular. A particular critical circle gives
the minimum factor of safety. For more details on stability analysis, IRC: 75-1 979
may be referred.
3.4.3. Calculation of factor of safety of different circles until theoretical circle is

located is a very time consuming process. Computer programme provides quick
solution. Using a computer, different types of embankment cross-section can be
quickly analysed and proper cross-section can be selected. The software for stability
analysis of high embankments available with the Indian Roads Congress, approved by
Ministry of Road Transport & Highways, Government of India.
39 | P a g e
This computer programme is based on the 'Simplified Bishop Method'. The
sliding earth mass is divided into a number of slices. The factor of safety is
determined by comparing a sum of activating moments and resisting moments of all
the slices.
3.4.4. It is recommended that factor of safety for embankments constructed using fly
ash should not be less than 1 .25 under normal serviceability conditions and when
checked for worst combination under seismic and saturated conditions, it should not
be less than 1.0.
3.4.5. Intermediate soil layers are often provided in the fly ash embankment for ease
of construction. Embankment with intermediate soil layers can be adopted in case
height of the embankment is more than 3 m.
The compacted thickness of intermediate soil layers shall not be less than 200
mm. One or more layers shall be constructed depending upon the design
requirements. The vertical distance between such layers may vary from 1 .5 to 3 m.
The top 0.5 m of embankment should be constructed using selected earth to form the
Subgrade for the road pavement.
Typical cross-sections of fly ash embankment with and without intermediate
soil layers are shown in Figs. 2 and 3 respectively.
Fig-2. Typical Cross-Section of Embankment with

Alternate Layer of Fly Ash and Soil.
40 | P a g e
Fig-3. Typical Cross-Section of Embankment with
Core of Fly Ash
3.4.6. Properly benched and graded slopes prevent the erosion of fly ash particles. Fly
ash embankments should be benched at 4 to 6 m vertical intervals to drain surface
water run-off to the ends of the embankment, rather than allowing full volume of the
run-off to travel down the face of the embankment to the toe. Run-off from pavement
surfaces should be collected and discharged into proper drainage system.
4. CONSTRUCTION OF FLY ASH EMBANKMENTS
4. 1. Clearing and Grubbing

This work consists of cutting, removing and disposal of trees, bushes, shrubs,
roots, grass, rubbish, etc., from the alignment and within the area of road land which
will accommodate road embankment, drains, and such other areas as specified on the
drawings. During clearing and grubbing, the contractor shall take adequate
precautions against soil erosion, water pollution, etc. All trees, stumps, etc., falling
within fill area should be cut to at least 500mm below ground level and pits shall be
filled with suitable material and compacted thoroughly so as to make the surface at
these points conform to the surrounding area.
4.2. Stripping and storing of top Soil

When constructing embankment using fly ash, the top soil from all areas to be
covered by the embankment foundation should be stripped to specified depth not
exceeding 1 50 mm and stored in stock piles of height not exceeding 2 m, for use in
covering the fly ash embankment slopes, cut slopes and other disturbed areas where
re-vegetation is desired. Top soil should not be unnecessarily trafficked either before
stripping or when in stockpiles. Also, these shall not be surcharged or otherwise
loaded and multiple handling should be kept to minimum.
4.3. Setting Out

After the site has been cleared, the limits of embankment should be set out
true to lines, curves, slopes, grades and sections as shown on the drawings. The limits
of the embankment should be marked by fixing batter pegs on both sides at regular
intervals as guides before commencing the construction.
The embankment should be built sufficiently wider than the design dimensions
so that surplus material may be trimmed, ensuring that the remaining material is of the
desired density and in position specified, and conforms to the specified slopes.
Bench marks and other stakes should be maintained as long as in the opinion
of the engineer, they are required for the work.
41 | P a g e
4.4. Dewatering
If the foundation of the embankment is in an area with stagnant water, and in
the opinion of the Engineer it is feasible to remove it, the same should be removed by
pumping or any other means as directed by the Engineer, and the area of the
embankment foundation should be kept dry. Care should be taken to discharge the
drained water so as not to cause damage to works, crops or any other property.
Construction of embankments underwater logged conditions shall be governed
by provisions of IRC: 36- 1970.
4.5. Compacting the Ground Supporting Embankment

4.5.1. Where necessary, the original ground should be leveled, scarified, mixed with
water and then compacted by rolling so as to achieve minimum 97 percent of MDD
determined as per IS: 2720
(Part 8)- 1 983 for the foundation soil.
4.5.2. Where so directed by the Engineer, any unsuitable material occurring in the
embankment foundation shall be removed and replaced by approved materials laid in
layers, to the required degree of compaction.
4.6. Handling and Transportation of Fly Ash
4.6.1. Pond ash is typically delivered to the site in covered dumper truck to minimize
loss of moisture and dusting. Pond ash generally contains enough moisture to prevent
dusting and may even contain excess moisture to create road spillage during transport.
In such cases, periodic inspection and lifting of ash from relatively dry areas of the
pond would be needed.
4.6.2. The fly ash may require on site temporary stockpiling if the rate at which the
ash is supplied to the project site is more than the contractor's demand for an efficient
rate of placement. Such cases should be avoided to the extent possible, and in case
stockpiling at site is inevitable, adequate precautions should be taken to prevent
dusting by spraying water on stockpiles at regular intervals. Otherwise, the surface of
the fly ash stockpile may be covered with tarpaulins or a thin layer of soil or other
granular material not subject to dusting. Traffic movements may be restricted to those
areas which are kept moist, to prevent tyres of passing vehicles dispersing ash into the
air.
4.7. Spreading and Compaction
4.7.1. The side soil cover of required width shall be provided along with the core and
mechanically compacted as the embankment progresses upwards. The addition of side
cover subsequent to the construction of the core is prohibited. The fill material should
be spread by mechanical means, finished by motor grader. The motor grader blade
shall have hydraulic control so as to achieve the specified slope and grade. The most
efficient lift thickness is a function of roller weight and vibratory energy. Smaller
vibratory rollers with dead weights of 10 to 15KN perform well on loose layer
thickness of the order of 1 00-1 50 mm.
4.7.2. Moisture content of the fill material shall be checked at the site of placement
prior to commencement of compaction. Moisture content of fly ash laid for
compaction shall normally vary from OMC (determined as per IS: 2720 (Part 8):
42 | P a g e
1983) to OMC ± 2 per cent.
At moisture contents higher than the appropriate range, fly ash may liquify
and would be difficult to handle and compact. Moisture content of cover soil shall be
maintained at its OMC.
The water shall be mixed thoroughly by balding, discing or harrowing or by
suitable means until uniform moisture content is obtained throughout the depth of the
layer. If the material delivered to the construction site is too wet, it shall be dried by
aeration and exposure to sun, till the moisture content is acceptable for compaction.
4.7.3. Fly ash can be compacted using vibratory or static rollers. Towed or self-
propelled vibratory rollers are recommended. Regardless of the equipment used, fly
ash must be compacted as earlyas possible after spreading. The contractor shall
demonstrate the efficiency of the equipment he intends to use by carrying out
compaction trials. The procedure to be adopted for these site trials shall be first
submitted to the Engineer for approval.
4.7.4. Each layer of fly ash shall be thoroughly compacted to the specified density.
When vibratory roller is adopted for compaction, two passes without vibration
followed by 5 to 8 passes with vibration would be sufficient to compact individual
layers. Mass per meter width of roller is recommended to be 2300-2900 kg/m and
frequency range 1 800-2200 rpm. The construction of fly ash core and earth cover on
the sides should proceed simultaneously.
4.7.5. Each compacted layer shall be finished parallel to the final cross-section of the
embankment. The following end product specifications as given in Table 1. have been
suggested for construction of fly ash embankments.
Table 1. Specifications for Compaction
Minimum dry density after compaction as

percentage of MDD IS:2720 (Part 8)- 1983 95%
Minimum dry density after compaction when used in

bridge abutments - for embankment length equal to 1.5 times the 100%
height of the embankment
4.7.6. At locations where compactions of the ash fill/earth is impracticable using

rollers, such as, fill portions adjacent to masonry structures/steep abutments or around
concrete drainpipes embedded in embankment, hand held vibratory tampers shall be
used for compaction. The required moisture contents and compaction requirements
shall be same, as for the rest of the embankment; however, compacted layer thickness
should not exceed 100 mm in such cases.
4.7.7. The Engineer may permit measurement of field density according to agreed
procedure. Subsequent layers shall be placed only after the finished layer has been
tested for its density requirements. The contractor shall maintain record of all such
tests. When density measurements reveal any soft areas in the embankment, further
compaction shall be carried out as directed by the Engineer. In spite of that if
specified degree of compaction is not achieved, the material in the soft areas shall be
removed and replaced by approved material, and moisture content brought to
43 | P a g e
permissible limits and recompacted to the required density.
4.8. Precautions against Corrosion
4.8.1. The sulphate content in fly ash should be within the limits specified in section
3.3. 1.8. The sulphate content of fly ash may sometimes cause concern about
possibility of sulphate attack on adjacent concrete structures. While no reported
failures have occurred, certain precautions are advisable, in case sulphate attack on
concrete structures is suspected. These consist of painting the adjacent concrete faces
with bitumen or compounds, which offer moisture protection to concrete. Corrosion
of cast iron, lead, copper, PVC or terra cotta pipes would be minimum due to contact
with fly ash. There have been reported failures of aluminum conduit materials buried
in fly ash. If protection of pipes is necessary, polythene sheeting, bituminous coating
or embedding and backfilling with inert materials, like, suitable soil of minimum
cushion thickness of 500mm shall be adequate.
4.8.2. Where significant volumes of seepage are encountered, pipes should be used to
drain the water out of the embankment area. Perforated pipe is usually placed in the
vicinity of seep. One-third solid wall pipe with two-third slotted portion can be used
to drain the water out of embankment area. PVC or ABC pipe materials are preferred
because of their long-term performance.
4.9. Finishing Operations
4.9.1. Finishing operations shall include the work of shaping and dressing the
shoulders/verge/road bed and side slopes to conform to the alignment, levels, cross-
sections and dimensions shown on the drawing or as directed by the Engineer subject
to the tolerance. Both upper and lower ends of side slopes shall be rounded off to
improve appearance and to merge the embankment with the adjacent terrain.
4.9.2. In case turning is proposed, top soil should be provided so that after seeding, a
dense cover can develop. The depth of top soil should be sufficient to sustain plant
growth, the usual thickness being 75 to 100mm. Slopes shall be roughened and
moistened slightly before the application of top soil in order to provide satisfactory
bond.
4.93. Embankments constructed in flood prone areas should be protected by stone

pitching as per the provisions of IRC: 89-1 985.
5. QUALITY CONTROL
5.1. Quality of compacted material shall be controlled through periodic checks on the
compaction process or the end product, singly or in combination as directed. The end
product must conform to the specifications.
5.2. Control Test on Borrow Material
5.2.1. If fly ash from more than one source is being used at the project site,
monitoring must be done to identify the ash type being placed. The tests required to
be conducted on fly ash to be used as borrow material for embankment are indicated
44 | P a g e
below. The frequency of testing indicated refers to the minimum number of tests to be
conducted. The rate of testing must be stepped up as found necessary, depending on
the compaction methods employed at the project.
 IS Heavy Compaction Test: At the rate of 2 tests per every 3000 m3 of ash, as
per IS: 2720 (Part 8) - 1 983.
 Moisture Content: One test for every 250 m3 of ash, as per IS: 2720(Part2)-
1973.
5.2.2. The samples collected for testing moisture content should be representative of
the material being placed. Because fly ash may air dry relatively rapidly, samples
should not be taken from the surface of the lift, but should represent the overall
moisture content.
5.3. Analysis and Acceptance of Density Results
5.3.1. Control shall be exercised on each layer by taking at least one measurement of
density for each 1000 square meters of compacted area, or closer as required to yield
the minimum number of test results for evaluating a day's work on statistical basis.
The determination of density shall be in accordance with IS: 2720(Part 28) - 1974.
Test locations shall be chosen by random sampling technique. The number of tests to
be conducted and acceptance criteria shall be as outlined in MOST Specifications for
Road and Bridge Works, Section 900.
REFERENCES
1. IS: 2720 (Part 2) - 1973, Methods of Test for Soils - Determination of Water
Content, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
2. IS: 2720 (Part 4) - 1 985, Methods of Test for Soils - Grain Size Analysis, Bureau
of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
3. IS: 2720 (Part 5) - 1 985, Methods of Test for Soils Determination of Liquid and
Plastic Limits, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
4. IS: 2720 (Part 8) - 1983, Methods of Test for Soils - Determination of Water
Content-Dry Density Relation Using Heavy Compaction, Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi.
5. IS: 2720 (Part 28)-1974, Methods of Test for Soils - Determination of Dry Density
of Soils in Pace, by Sand Replacement Method, Bureau of Indian Standards, New
Delhi.
6. IS: 2720 (Part 29) - 1977, Method of Test for Soils - Determination of Dry Density
of Soils in Pace, by Core Cutter Method, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
7. BS: 1377-1975, Methods of Tests for Soils in Civil Engineering Proposes.
45 | P a g e
8. IRC: 34-1970, Recommendations for Road Construction in Water Logged Areas,
Indian Roads Congress, and New Delhi.
9. IRC: 36-1970, Recommended Practice for the Construction of Earth Embankments

for Road Works, Indian Roads Congress, and New Delhi.
10. IRC: 75- 1 979, Guidelines for the Design of High Embankments, Indian Roads
Congress, New Delhi.
11. IRC: 89-1985, Guidelines for Design and Construction of River Training and
Control Works for Road Bridges, Indian Roads Congress, and New Delhi.
12. IRC: SP: 50- 1 999, Guidelines on Urban Drainage, Indian Roads Congress, New
Delhi.
13. IRC Highway Research Board Special Report 16, 'State-of-the-Art: Reinforced
Soil Structures Applicable to Road Design and Construction, Indian Roads Congress,
New Delhi, 1996.
14. Ministry of Surface Transport, (now Ministry of Road Transport & Highways),
Government of India, 'Specifications for Road and Bridge Works', 1995.
15. Fly Ash Mission, Department of Science & Technology, Government of India,
Technical Reports on Characterisation of Indian Fly Ashes, (Prepared by IISc,
Bangalore), 2000.
16. Electric Power Research Institute, California, 'Fly Ash Design Manual for Road
and Site Applications'(Prepared by GAI Consultants), 1 992.
17. CRRI Project Reports on Okhla Flyover Project and Second Nizamuddin Bridge
Approach Embankment, Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi, 1999.
46 | P a g e
5.4 STUDY REPORT ON USE OF COAL ASH IN RAILWAY
EMBANKMENT – AS PER GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
DIRECTORATE, RESEARCH DESIGNS AND STANDARDS
ORGANIZATION (RDSO)
SUMMARY:
• The Study has shown the suitability of fly ash as a fill material for the
construction of embankments.
• The study reveals that fly ash is cohesionless and highly erodible in nature, has
low density and high void ratio, as such, it may not behave as ideal material for
construction of railway embankments.
• To overcome these inherent geotechnical short comings, construction of
embankment with fly ash requires specialised method wherein fly ash has to be used
in combination with naturally occurring soil.
• The properties to be kept in view are grain size, density; shear strength,
compaction characteristics & permeability.
• This paper suggests that the collapsibility of coal ash is one of the most
important parameters for using ash as a fill material.
• The permeability of compacted fly ash is low so in cases where the water table
is very high surface water likely to percolate down the embankment, it is advisable to
provide for drainage a coarse material 300-450 mm thick below the fly ash.
• It suggests that the fly ash obtained from coal fired electric power plants can
be used as alternative material for construction of road embankments.
• Usage of fly ash for embankment construction leads to its bulk utilization,
replacing good earth and is especially attractive in urban areas where borrow material
has to be brought from long distances.
• Fly ash/ Pond ash can be used for sub base and base course construction and
stabilization and usually used in combination with lime to form the matrix that
cements the aggregate particles together.
• The most important parameter for selection of a material for roads &
embankments is compaction behaviour.
• It also stated that the utilization of soil in place of fly ash would have resulted
in erosion of top soil from a large area of agricultural land and resultant degradation
of land.
1. INTRODUCTION:
There is a shortage of topsoil in most urban areas for filling low-lying areas, as
well as for constructing road/rail embankments. The other option is to use waste
materials arising from different sectors such as domestic, industrial and mining etc. In
this report, the focus is on the use of industrial solid waste like coal ash as a fill
material for construction of railway embankment.
The term fill is used to describe ground that has been formed by material
deposited by man. Thus fill or made ground, as it is some time called, results from
human activity in contrast to natural soil, which has its origin in geological processes.
The fill material can be classified as below:
1.1. Non Engineered fill:

Non engineered fill generally arise as the byproduct of human activities
associated with the disposal of waste material. The fill is not placed with a subsequent
engineering application. In view of little control that may have been exercised in
47 | P a g e
placing the fill, there is extreme variability, which makes it very difficult to
characterize the engineering properties of these fills and predict their behavior.
1.2. Engineered fill:

Engineered fill is a fill that has been selected, placed and compacted to an
appropriate specification in order to achieve some required engineering performance.
Thus the fill is designed and built with a specific use in mind.
2. PRODUCTION OF VARIOUS TYPES OF ASH:

In thermal power plants, coal ash is solid residue resulting from pulverized
coal. The process of combustion produces two type of residues - one which settles at
the bottom of the furnace and the other which is carried away by the flue gases to be
collected by electro static precipitators. The former residue is called bottom ash and
the latter fly ash.
Fly ash is a finely divided residue resulting from the combustion of pulverized
coal in boiler and collected from electrostatic precipitators. It is a pozzolanic material,
which in the presence of water reacts with lime and forms cementitious materials.
3. IRC RECOMMENDATIONS:
The design of fly ash embankment is basically similar to design of soil
embankment. The design process for embankments involves the following steps:
 Site investigations
 Characterisation of materials
 Characterisation of materials
3.1. Characteristics of materials:

The materials to be used in embankment construction should be characterised
to determine their physical and engineering properties. If fly ash is to be used, the
following information is required for approval before commencement of work.
3.1.1. Particle size analysis.
3.1.2. OMC & MDD value determined by heavy compaction.
3.1.3. Densities of fly ash density lower than 0.9 gm/cc not suitable for embankment
construction.
3.1.4. Shear strength parameters – required for evaluation of the stability of proposed
slopes and the bearing capacity of foundations located.
3.1.5. Compressibility characteristics - required for predicting the magnitude and

duration of the fill settlement.
3.1.6. Permeability and capillarity - to assess seepage and to design drainage system.
3.1.7. Specification for compaction of the fill material.
3.1.8. Position of water table - High water table should be lowered by providing
suitable drains.
48 | P a g e
3.1.9. Details of intermediate horizontal soil layers between which ash is to be
sandwiched.
4. RECOMMENDATIONS BY IRC:
4.1. Fly ash to be used as fill material should not have soluble sulphate content
exceeding 1.9 gm. per litre (expressed as SO3) when tested according to BS: 1377.
4.2. Coal used in Indian thermal power plants has high ash content. As a result,
enrichment of heavy metal is lower as compared to fly ash produced by thermal
power plants abroad.
4.3. The design of fly ash embankment is similar to earthen embankments.
4.2. Special emphasis is required with respect to provision of earth cover.
4.3. The thickness of side cover would be typically in the range of 1m to 3 m.
4.4. For embankment up to 3 m height, in general, the earth cover thickness about 1 m
is sufficient.
4.5. The side cover should be regarded as a part of embankment for design analysis.
4.6. The FOS for embankments constructed using fly ash should not less than 1.25
under normal serviceability conditions.
4.7. Intermediate soil layers are often provided in the fly ash embankment for ease of
construction to facilitate compaction of ash and to provide adequate confinement.
4.8. Properly benched and graded slopes prevent the erosion of fly ash particles.
5. APPLICATIONS AREAS OF FLYASH IN ROAD EMBANKMENTS:
The use of fly ash / pond ash for road and embankment applications can be
classified as follows:
 In embankment construction (including RE wall)
 In sub base and base course
 In semi rigid and rigid pavements (concrete roads)
5.1. Fly ash in embankment (including RE wall):
5.1.1. For material to be used in embankments construction, the properties of concern

are specific gravity, compaction characteristics, workability, internal angle friction,
cohesion etc. Indian fly ashes generally have comfortable scores on these properties.
5.1.2. The most important parameter for selection of a material for roads &
embankments is compaction behaviour. Ash has a favorable point than soils here.
Compaction curves (moisture content v/s dry density curve) for soil & pond ash show
good compaction characteristics on addition of moisture. But the curve for soil shows
steep rise in dry density with increase in moisture content up to optimum moisture
content (OMC) and fall in dry density subsequently. Satisfactory compaction (dry
49 | P a g e
density above 95% of that at OMC) is achieved for a limited range of moisture
content (about 2% - 5%). Further, fly ash is easy to compact and can be compacted by
using either static or vibratory rollers.
5.1.3. Fly ash has internal angle of friction in the range of 300 to 420, which is quite
high as compared to that of soils (280 to 350). Fly ash when moist possesses apparent
cohesion too. So, it can provide greater stability of slopes as compared to soil and side
slopes steeper than soils can be provided in the embankments.
5.1.4. Fly ashes have permeability in the range of 10-6 to 10-4 cm/sec. Its high
permeability ensures free & efficient drainage. After embankment, water gets drained
out freely, which means its workability is better than soil, especially, during the
monsoon. Work on fly ash fills / embankments can be re-started within a few hours of
rain while in case of soils, one is required to wait for much longer periods.
5.1.5. Further, fly ash gets consolidated at a faster rate and primary consolidation gets
over very quickly. So, it has low compressibility & shows negligible subsequent
settlements. Thus, it can be used in bridge abutments also. Further, fly ash provides
better bonding with geo grid material, as it has more friction angle as compared to
soil. Hence, it provides a better & steeper RE wall as compared to soils.
5.2. FLY ASH IN SUB BASE AND BASE COURSE:
5.2.1. Fly ash can be usefully employed for construction of sub base/base course.
Mixing of soil and fly ash in suitable proportions improves the gradation as well as
plasticity characteristics in the mix, thereby improving the compacted strength.
5.2.2. Fly ash (preferable) / Pond ash can be used for sub base and base course
construction and stabilization. The fly ash is usually used in combination with lime to
form the matrix that cements the aggregate particles together. Generally clay soils are
stabilized with fly ash alone whereas silty soils respond well to stabilization with fly
ash and lime or cement.
6. ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF FLY ASH:

The properties of ash depend primarily on type of coal and its pulverization,
burning rate, temperature, method of collection, etc. The significant properties of fly
ash that must be considered when it is used for construction of road embankments are
gradation, compaction characteristics, shear strength, compressibility and
permeability properties. Individual fly ash particles are spherical in shape, generally
solid, though sometimes hollow. Fly ash possesses a silty texture and its specific
gravity would be in the range of 2.2 to 2.4, which is less than natural soils. Fly ash is a
non-plastic material. Fly ash displays a variation of dry density with moisture content
that is smaller than the variation exhibited a well-graded soil. The tendency of fly ash
to be less sensitive to variations in moisture content than natural soils can be
explained by the higher void content of fly ash.
Normal soils have 1 to 5 percent air voids when compacted at maximum dry
density. Fly ash contains 5 to 15 per cent air voids at maximum dry density. The
higher air voids tend to limit the buildup of pore-water pressures during compaction,
thus allowing the fly ash to be compacted over a large range of moisture content. For
50 | P a g e
the same reason, fly ash does not experience density increases from the changes in the
compactive efforts of the same magnitude as experienced in case of fine-grained soils.
Fly ash exhibits shear strength characteristics similar to those of a cohesionless soil. It
has a significant value of untrained angle of internal friction and a minimal cohesion
intercept in partially saturated condition. The permeability of fly ash ranges from 8 x
10-6 cm/sec to 7 x 10-4 cm/sec. Generally medium to coarse type of ash have
permeability values of about 10-4 cm/sec and hence can be considered to have good
permeability.
7. EMBANKMENT CONSTRUCTION USING FLYASH:
The most distinguishing feature of un-reinforced fly ash embankment would

be use of fly ash as core material with earth cover. In case of un-reinforced
embankments, side slope of 1:2 (Vertical: Horizontal) is generally recommended.
Providing good earth cover using loamy soil should protect the slopes of the
embankments. The thickness of side cover would be typically in the range of 1 to 3 m.
The thickness of cover depends on the height of the embankment, site conditions,
flooding if expected, etc.
This cover material can be excavated from the alignment itself and reused as
shown in the Fig below. Stone pitching or turfing on this cover is necessary to prevent
erosion due to running water. Intermediate soil layers of thickness 200 to 400 mm are
usually provided when height of embankment exceeds 3 m. These intermediate soil
layers facilitate compaction of ash and provide adequate confinement. Such
intermediate soil layers also minimize liquefaction potential. Liquefaction in a fly ash
fill generally occurs when fly ash is deposited under loose saturated condition during
construction.
To avoid the possibility of any liquefaction, fly ash should be properly
compacted to at least 95 per cent of modified proctor density and in case water table is
high, it should be lowered by providing suitable drains or capillary cut-off. Fly ash
can be compacted using either vibratory or static rollers. However vibratory rollers
are recommended for achieving better compaction. Compaction is usually carried out
at optimum moisture content or slightly higher.
The construction of fly ash core and earth cover should proceed
simultaneously. High rate of consolidation of fly ash results in primary consolidation
of fly ash before the construction work of the embankment is completed. The top 0.5
m of embankment should be constructed preferably using selected earth to form the
subgrade for the road pavement.
8. SLOPE FAILURE OF FLYASH EMBANKMENT:
8.1. The Noida-Greater Noida Express-highway near Delhi, which is 23 km long, was
constructed in a total span of approximately 3 years. It is a six lane express highway
with divided carriageway. The height of the embankment on the total stretch is
generally 1 to 2m.However, at certain locations where the alignment crosses an under
pass, the height of approach embankment varies from 6 to 8 m. The entire
embankment was constructed using fly ash in its core and soil cover was provided
along the slope and top portion of the embankment to prevent erosion. Intermediate
soil layers were also provided with in the fly ash core. The highway was opened to
traffic in the year 2003. In August 2004, after the heavy rainfall in quick succession, it
was observed that the side slopes in high embankment portion had severely eroded
51 | P a g e
and gullies were formed throughout the high embankment slope. It was also observed
at few spots that due to the piping action, the water had undermined the entire soil
cover provided on the side slopes resulting in the exposure of fly ash layers.
8.2. Detailed investigations were undertaken and causes of failure were identified as
follows:
8.2.1. Severe erosion on the super elevated portion had taken place due to heavy run-
off from six-lane carriageway, which was discharged on one side of the embankment.
8.2.2. Absence of longitudinal kerb channel and chutes allowed water to drain off
along the slope.
8.2.3. Deep pits were made in the embankment slopes to fix utilities like electric poles
and crash barriers, which were backfilled with loose soil.
8.2.4. Runoff water entered into the embankment side cover and caused deep cavities
exposing fly ash at many locations. The remedial measures suggested included filling
of the cavities with granular material and compaction of side slopes, provision of toe
wall, provision of kerb channel and chutes at regular intervals to take away the rain
water safely and provision of stone pitching along with filter medium on the side
slopes. The repair and restoration of the embankment is under progress.
9. FLY ASH IN RAILWAY EMBANKMENT:
9.1. Railway used fly ash from Kolaghat thermal Power plant in Tamluk-Digha new
rail link project from ch.10.92 to ch.12.28 in about 1.30 km in length. This location is
situated near Haldi Bridge where embankment had failed twice during construction.
9.2. RDSO officials visited Tamluk–Digha section of South Eastern Railway along
with railway officials for performance appraisal of fly ash embankment. Main
observations of visit are as under
9.2.1. The axle load of the section is 17 tons and GMT 0.22.
9.2.2. The sectional speed is 80 kmph and speed restriction of 30 kmph is imposed
between km 12/0 to km 13/3 where fly ash was used due to erosion.
9.2.3. The track attention near Haldi bridge location was reported as 2 per month.
9.2.4. Erosion of side slope occurred due to removal of side cover of fly ash
embankment on account of movement of cattle or any other reason. The large amount
of fly ash had eroded and settlement occurred.
9.3. Case History of Fly Ash Embankment in DMRC:

For the rail corridor of mass rapid transport system for Delhi, the base car
depot was planned at Shastri Park on the east side of river Yamuna near ISBT. This
area of 64 hectare is located at the reduced level of 203 to 204 meters above sea level
where as 100 years HFL is 208.9 m hence it was decided to fill the base depot area
with soil.
52 | P a g e
On review it was decided that if a potion of earth work can be done by using
pond ash being generated at IP and Rajghat power stations of Delhi
Vidyut Board, then a lot of saving in terms of time and money can be achieved due to
reduced lead of carting of fly ash as compared to the soil which is generally not
available near Delhi.
Mass filling at Shastri Park was to be completed in a short span of 12 months
so as to give adequate time for consolidation of newly built embankment before
construction of structures or starting the track laying over the filled up soil. A total
quantity of about 17 lakhs cum of earth was required for constructing the main line
track embankment at 6 m to 9 m height and about 30 ha of depot area at 6 m height.
Advantages Considered:
Due to following advantages, it was decided to use fly ash to the extent of
two- thirds requirement of the earthwork:
 Utilization of soil in place of fly ash would have resulted in erosion of topsoil
from a large area of agricultural land and resultant degradation of land.
 Disposal of fly ash is a big problem for thermal power stations, hence
scientific disposal of fly ash by DMRC will pave the way for large scale
utilization of fly ash in the construction of earthen embankment for roads and
rails.
 Due to quick draining characteristics, work can be continued in monsoon.
 Being a friction material, (no cohesion) proper compacted fly ash shows very
small long-term settlement.
 Construction speed is faster as compaction vs moisture content curve is more
even resulting in wider range of moisture.
 The cost of transportation of fly ash was less as compared to soil. Fly ash
being lighter material, required less haulage and hence was economical.
 Availability of good quality soil in such huge quantities was difficult.
9.4. Problems Faced and Solutions Found:
 During the winter season, the moisture content in the pond ash was very high
and due to non availability of sun-shine consecutively for many weeks;
moisture content could not be kept near OMC. Hence, stacking and rehandling
of material was done to achieve the desired compaction level of 95% of
modified dry density.
 Spillage of fly ash on roads during transportation is an area of great concern
and carelessness can create a very serious pollution problem within the city.
Hence preventive and corrective measures were taken to control this menace.
On daily basis, it was ensured that all dumpers carrying fly ash were fully
covered by tarpaulin overloading of dumpers was strictly not allowed.
10. QUALITY CONTROL:
A self contained fully equipped soil-testing laboratory was established before

starting the work. Some of the tests were Sieve analysis, Moisture content
determination, Modified proctor test as per IS 2720, Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit.
Following were the main considerations as part of the quality assurance programme.
Each source of soil fly ash was decided and approved before bringing the
53 | P a g e
material at site.
Field control on compaction was achieved by ensuring moisture contents near
OMC, adequate plain and vibro passes of compactor and compaction level by core
cutter method were ensured.
REFERENCES:
7. Use of Coal Ash in Embankment Stability Analysis and Design
Consideration by Sri Manoj Dutta.
8. Engineering properties of Coal Ash by Sri Manoj Dutta.
9. Collapse behavior of coal ash by Sri A.Trivedi & V.K.Sud.
10. Construction of Road embankment and reinforced earth wall using Fly
Ash by Dr. Sudhir Mathur and others.
11. Fly ash in road & embankment by Dr. Vimal Kumar and other Engineered
Fills by Thomas Telford.
54 | P a g e
CHAPTER-6
METHODOLOGY
6.1. Work Plan:
The following work plan was formulated to achieve project objectives
Literature review
Procurement of Materials
Carry out tests on Fly Ash without

any admixtures for various
Geotechnical properties in GTE
lab
Carry out tests on Fly ash

containing admixtures for various
Geotechnical properties in GTE
lab
Extracting of Results
Comparison of Results
Conclusion
Fig. 2 Flow chart for Work Plan
55 | P a g e
Laboratory Investigations:
CBR
Direct shear test
Permeability
Fig. 3 Flowchart For Laboratory Experiments
6.2. Materials Used:
Fly Ash samples are collected from 2 power plants namely:
1. Hinduja National Power Corporation Limited (HNPC) – Visakhapatnam.

2. National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) – Visakhapatnam.
Hereafter, the fly ash from HNPC, Visakhapatnam is referred as HNFA and the
fly ash from NTPC, Visakhapatnam is referred as NPFA.
Fig. 4: HNFA Fig. 5: NPFA
56 | P a g e
ADMIXTURES:
1. Lime
Fig. 6: Lime Sample
2. PlasticFibre - Polypropylene
Fig.7:Polypropylene
57 | P a g e
6.3. Experiments Conducted
Based on the proposed methodology, various laboratory investigations are done. Fly
as materials obtained from the field are analyzed in the laboratory for their index and
engineering properties. The detail description of laboratory investigations are given in
the below sections.
6.3.1. PROCTOR COMPACTION TEST (IS 2720 – (Part - 7) 1980):
An oven-dried sample, approximately 3 kg is taken in the pan and thoroughly mixed

with sufficient water. The proctor mould is weighed. The soil is compacted in 5 layers
giving 25 blows per layer with the 4.56 kg rammer. The compacted soil is trimmed by
removing the collar and weighed. The soil is removed from the mould by taking a
small sample of soil for determination of moisture content of the soil sample. Then
the water is added in sufficient amounts to increase the moisture content of the soil
sample by one or two percentage points and the above procedure is repeated for each
increment of water added. The procedure is continued until there is decrease in the
wet unit weight of the compacted soil. The maximum dry density and optimum
moisture content is determined from the graph.
Fig. 8 Compaction test apparatus
58 | P a g e
6.3.2. CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST (IS 2720 – (Part - 16) 1979):
A representative sample of the Fly ash weighing approximately 5 kg is taken and

mixed thoroughly at OMC. The mixed soil is compacted in to the mould using heavy
compaction. For heavy compaction, the soil is compacted in 5 equal layers; each
layer is subjected to 56 blows by the 4.56 kg rammer. The mould, containing the
specimen, with the base plate in position, but the top face exposed, is placed on the
lower plate of the testing machine. To prevent upheaval of soil into the hole of the
surcharge weights, 2.5 kg annular weight is placed on the soil surface prior to seating
the penetration plunger after which the remainder of the surcharge weights is placed.
The stress and strain gauge are then set to zero. Reading of the load is taken at
penetrations of 0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5,3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0, 11.0,
12.0,13.0,14.0 and 15.0mm
Fig. 9 CBR apparatus
6.3.3. DIRECT SHEAR TEST (IS 2720 – (Part - 13) 1986):
59 | P a g e
The Fly ash sample were compacted at OMC by using IS heavy weight compaction
test. The soil specimen of size 60*60mm was extracted and the extracted specimen
was placed in apparatus. The direct shear apparatus was used to determine the angle
of internal friction and cohesion.
Fig. 10 Direct shear apparatus
60 | P a g e
CHAPTER-7
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
7.1. Compaction Characteristics of fly ash
Table 2: Modified proctor test without admixtures
FLY ASH MDD (KN/m³) OMC

(%)
HNFA 13.9 13.2
NPFA 14.4 16.8
OMC (2 Days curing) for HNFA without any admixture is 13.2% and MDD is
13.9 KN/m³ and cohesion is 0 KN/m² and Angle of Internal friction is 29º. CBR value
for HNFA is 18.9 % (Table-2, 3 & 4). OMC is higher for NPFA compared to that for
HNFA (Table-2).
OMC (2 Days curing) for NPFA without any admixture is 14.4% and MDD is
13.9 KN/m³ and cohesion is 0 KN/m² and Angle of Internal friction is 23.23º. CBR
value for NPFA is 19.1 % (Table-2, 3&4).
7.2. Shear strength of fly ash
Table 3: Direct shear test without admixture
FLY ASH COHESIOH ‘C’ (KN/m²) ANGLE OF INTERNAL

FRICTION ‘ø’ (°)
HNFA 0 29.0
NPFA 0 23.23
61 | P a g e
Angle of Internal friction is higher for HNFA (29º) compared to that of NPFA
(23.23º) (Table-3).
400 kPa
250 200 kPa
200 100 kPa

Shear Stress kPa
150
100
50
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Shear Strain(%)
Fig. 11Stress strain curve of HNFAwithout admixtures
300
250 y = 0.598x
Shear Stress, kPa
R² = 0.992
200
150
100
50
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Normal Stress, kPa
Fig. 12 Failure envelope of HNFA without admixtures
62 | P a g e
Fig. 13Stress strain curve of NPFA without admixtures
250
y = 0.503x
200 R² = 0.969
Shear Stress, kPa
150
100
50
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Normal Stress, kPa
Fig. 14 Failure envelope of NPFA without admixtures
7.3 CBR of Fly ash
Table 4: CBR without admixtures
FLY ASH CBR VALUE (%)
HNFA 18.9
NPFA 19.1
63 | P a g e
CBR value is more for NPFA (19.1%) when compared to HNFA (18.9%) (Table-4).
Fig. 15 Load- Penetration Curve of HNFAwithout admixtures
Fig. 16 Load- Penetration Curve of NPFAwithout admixtures
64 | P a g e
7.4 Effect of Lime on OMC and MDD of fly ash (with curing)
When lime is added the MDD values increased with increase in lime content
from 5% to 8% and decreased at 10% lime for HNFA and for NPFA the MDD value
increased at 5% lime, decreased at 8% and 10% lime content (Table 5).
OMC values got increased with increase in lime content from 5% to 8% and
decreased at 10% lime content for NPFA. For HNFA the values got increased at 5%
and 8% and again decreased at 10% lime content (Table 5).
Table 5: Modified proctor test with lime
FLY 0% 5% 8% 10%
ASH
Lime Lime Lime Lime
MDD OMC MDD OMC MDD OMC MDD OMC
(kPa) (%) (kPa) (%) (kPa) (%) (kPa) (%)
HNFA 13.9 13.2 16.3 13.9 16.8 13.3 16.4 12.8
NPFA 14.4 16.8 14.5 14.6 13.9 17.2 12.4 16.2
7.5 Effect of Lime on Shear strength of fly ash (with curing)
Angle of Internal friction of HNFA increased marginally from 29.01º (0%

lime) to 33.34º (5% lime) with addition of Lime and it is gradually reduced to 29.52º
(10% lime). See also Fig.53.
Angle of Internal friction of NPFA decreased from 23.23º (0% lime) to 10.80º
(5% lime) with addition of Lime and it is gradually increased to 29.6º (10% lime)
(Table 6). See also Fig.57.
65 | P a g e
Table 6: Direct shear test with lime
FLY ASH 0% 5% 8% 10%
Lime Lime Lime Lime
C Φ C Φ C Φ C Φ
(kPa) (º) (kPa) (º) (kPa) (º) (kPa) (º)
HNFA 0 29.01 0 33.34 0 32.82 0 29.52
NPFA 0 23.23 0 10.80 0 28.6 0 29.6
250
400 kPa
200 200 kPa
Shear Stress kPa
100 kPa
150
100
50
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Shear Strain(%)
Fig. 17Stress strain curve of HNFA with 5% lime
66 | P a g e
Fig. 18 Failure envelope of HNFA with 5% lime
250
400 kPa
200 200 kPa
Shear Stress kPa
100 kPa
150
100
50
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Shear Strain(%)
Fig. 19 Stress strain curve of HNFA with 8% lime
67 | P a g e
250
400 kPa
200 200 kPa
Shear Stress kPa
100 kPa
150
100
50
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Shear Strain(%)
Fig. 21Stress strain curve of HNFAwith 10% lime
68 | P a g e
300
y = 0.679x
250 R² = 0.977
Shear Stress, kPa

200
150
100
50
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Normal Stress, kPa
Fig. 23Stress strain curve of NPFA with 5% lime
69 | P a g e
250
y = 0.503x
200 R² = 0.969
Shear Stress, kPa 150
100
50
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Normal Stress, kPa
Fig. 24 Failure envelope of NPFA with 5% lime
400kpa
60
200kpa
50
100kpa
Shear Stress kPa
40
30
20
10
0
0 2 4 6 8
Shear Strain(%)
Fig. 25Stress strain curve of NPFAwith 8% lime
70 | P a g e
70
y = 0.160x
60 R² = 0.548
Shear Stress, kPa

50
40
30
20
10
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Normal Stress, kPa
250
200
SHEAR STRESS Kpa
150
100KPa
100
200KPa
400KPa
50
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
SHEAR STRAIN(%)
Fig. 27Stress strain curve of NPFA with 10% lime
71 | P a g e
300
y = 0.679x
250 R² = 0.977
Shear Stress, kPa

200
150
100
50
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Normal Stress, kPa
7.6 Effect of Lime on CBR of fly ash:
CBR for HNFA increased significantly from 18.9% (0% lime) to 72.4% (8%
lime) with addition of Lime and the CBR value decreased to 60.8% (10% lime).
Hence optimum percentage of lime for HNFA is 8% (Table 7). See also Fig.55.
Table 7: CBR with lime
FLY 0% 5% 8% 10%
ASH
Lime Lime Lime Lime
CBR VALUE CBR VALUE CBR VALUE CBR VALUE

(%) (%) (%) (%)
HNFA 18.9 54.3 72.4 60.8
NPFA 19.1 10.8 17.5 19.4
CBR for NPFA decreased from 19.1% (0% lime) to 10.8% (5% lime) with
addition of Lime and CBR value increased to 17.5% (8% lime) and 19.4% (10%
72 | P a g e
lime). Hence optimum percentage of lime for NPFA is 10% (Table 7). See also
Fig.59.
CBR value of NPFA without Lime is 19.1% and the optimum % of Lime for
NPFA is 10% (19.4%) (Table-7).
CBR value of HNFA without Lime is 18.9% and the optimum % of Lime for
NPFA is 8% (72.4%) (Table-7).
1400
1200
y = 195.0x - 102.4
1000
R² = 0.939
800
LOAD,kgf
600
400
200
0
-5 -200 0 5 10 15 20
-400
PENETRATION,mm
Fig. 29 Load-Penetration Curve of HNFA with 5% lime
450
400
350
Test Load, kgf
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 5 10 15 20
Penetration, mm
73 | P a g e
450
400
Test Load, kgf 350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Penetration, mm
450
400
350
300
Test Load, kgf
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 5 10 15 20
Penetration, mm
Fig. 32Load-Penetration Curve of NPFAwith 5% lime
74 | P a g e
600
500
Test Load, kgf 400
300
200 y = 74.79x - 59.09

R² = 0.999
100
0
0 5 10 15 20
-100
Penetration, mm
Fig. 33Load-Penetration Curve of NPFA with 8% lime
800
700
600
500
LOAD,kgf
400
300
200
100
0
0 5 10 15 20
PENETRATION,mm
Fig. 34Load-Penetration Curve of NPFA with 10% lime
75 | P a g e
7.7 Effect of Polypropylene on Compaction characteristics of fly ash
Table 8: Modified proctor test with polypropylene
FLY 0% 2% 4% 6%
ASH
Polypropylene Polypropylene Polypropylene Polypropylene
MDD OMC MDD OMC MDD OMC MDD OMC
(kPa) (%) (kPa) (%) (kPa) (%) (kPa) (%)
HNFA 13.9 13.2 12.4 20.6 12.57 22 12.85 27.2
NPFA 14.4 16.8 14.4 15.2 12.7 21.4 13.1 21.2
7.8 Effect of Polypropylene on Shear strength of fly ash (with curing)
Table 9: Direct shear test with polypropylene
FLY 0% 2% 4% 6%
ASH
Polypropylene Polypropylene Polypropylene Polypropylene
C Φ C Φ C Φ C Φ
(kPa) (º) (kPa) (º) (kPa) (º) (kPa) (º)
HNFA 0 29.01 0 35.97 0 31.13 0 28.81
NPFA 0 23.23 0 43.34 0 46.80 0 53
Angle of Internal friction of HNFA increased marginally from 29.01º (0%

Polypropylene) to 35.97º (2% Polypropylene) with addition of Polypropylene and it is
gradually reduced to 28.81º (6% Polypropylene). See also Fig.54.
76 | P a g e
Angle of Internal friction of NPFA increased significantly from 23.23º (0%
Polypropylene) to 53º (6% Polypropylene) with addition of Polypropylene (Table 9).
See also Fig.58.
250
400 kPa
200 200 kPa
Shear Stress kPa
100 kPa
150
100
50
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Shear Strain(%)
Fig. 35Stress strain curve of HNFA with 2% polypropylene
Fig. 36 Failure envelope of HNFAwith 2% polypropylene
77 | P a g e
400 kPa
250
200 kPa
200 100 kPa
Shear Stress kPa
150
100
50
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Shear Strain(%)
Fig. 37 Stress strain curve of HNFA with 4% polypropylene
450
400 y = 0.983x
R² = 0.828
350
Shear Stress, kPa
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Normal Stress, kPa
Fig. 38 Failure envelope of HNFA with 4% polypropylene
78 | P a g e
250
400 kPa
200 200 kPa
Shear Stress kPa
150 100 kPa
100
50
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Shear Strain(%)
Fig. 39 Stress strain curve of HNFA with 6% polypropylene
400
350 y = 0.898x
R² = 0.887
Shear Stress, kPa
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Normal Stress, kPa
Fig. 40 Failure envelope of HNFAwith 6% polypropylene
79 | P a g e
450
400
350
Shear Stress kPa
300
250
200
150 400kpa
100
200kpa
50
0 100kpa
0 5 10 15 20
Shear Strain(%)
Fig. 41Stress strain curve of NPFA with 2% polypropylene
450
400 y = 0.964x
R² = 0.996
350
Shear Stress, kPa
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Normal Stress, kPa
Fig. 42 Failure envelope of NPFA with 2% polypropylene
80 | P a g e
600
Shear Stress kPa 500
400
300
200 400kpa
100 200kpa
100kpa
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Shear Strain(%)
Fig. 43 Stress strain curve of NPFA with 4% polypropylene
600
y = 1.239x
500 R² = 0.976
Shear Stress, kPa
400
300
200
100
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Normal Stress, kPa
Fig. 44 Failure envelope of NPFAFA with 4% polypropylene
81 | P a g e
600
500
Shear Stress kPa
400 400kpa
200kpa
300
100kpa
200
100
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Shear Strain(%)
Fig. 45 Stress strain curve of NPFA with 6% polypropylene
600
y = 1.364x
500 R² = 0.983
Shear Stress, kPa
400
300
200
100
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Normal Stress, kPa
Fig. 46 Failure envelope of NPFA with 6% polypropylene
7.9 Effect of Polypropylene on CBR of fly ash:
CBR values increased for HNFA from 18.9% (0% Polypropylene) to 65.2%
(2% Polypropylene) with addition of Polypropylene and the CBR value decreased to
82 | P a g e
27.4% (4% Polypropylene) and 13.5% (6% Polypropylene). Hence optimum
percentage of polypropylene for HNFA is 2% (Table-10). See also Fig.56.
CBR values increased for NPFA from 19.1% (0% Polypropylene) to 26.1%
(2% Polypropylene) with addition of Polypropylene and the CBR value decreased to
24.3% (4% Polypropylene) and 19.7% (6% Polypropylene). Hence optimum
percentage of polypropylene for NPFA is 2% (Table 10). See also Fig.60.
Table 10: CBR with polypropylene
FLY 0% 2% 4% 6%
ASH
polypropylene polypropylene polypropylene Polypropylene
CBR VALUE CBR VALUE CBR VALUE CBR VALUE

(%) (%) (%) (%)
HNFA 18.9 65.2 27.4 13.5
NPFA 19.1 26.1 24.3 19.7
CBR value of NPFA without Polypropylene is 19.1% and the optimum % of

Polypropylene for NPFA is 2% (26.1%) (Table-10).
As the CBR value of NPFA for 2% polypropylene is 26.1%, the optimum %

for NPFA is 2% polypropylene.
CBR value of HNFA without Polypropylene is 18.9% and the optimum % of

Polypropylene for NPFA is 2% (65.2%) (Table-10).
83 | P a g e
450
400
350
300
Test Load, kgf
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Penetration, mm
Fig.47Load-Penetration Curve of HNFAwith 2% polypropylene
3000
2500
TEST LOAD,Kgf
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 5 10 15 20
PENETRATION,mm
Fig.48Load-Penetration Curve of HNFA with 4% polypropylene
84 | P a g e
3000
2500
y = 156.3x - 515.8
2000 R² = 0.996
1500
LOAD,Kgf
1000
500
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
-500
-1000
PENETRATION,MM
Fig. 49Load-Penetration Curve of HNFA with 6% polypropylene
1600
1400
1200
1000
LOAD,kgf
800
600
400
200
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
PENETRATION,mm
Fig. 50Load-Penetration Curve of NPFAwith 2% polypropylene
85 | P a g e
2500
y = 139.8x - 200.0
2000 R² = 0.999
1500
1000
load,kgf
500
0
-5 0 5 10 15 20
-500
-1000
penetration,mm
Fig. 51Load-Penetration Curve of NPFA with 4% polypropylene
3000
2500
2000
1500
LOAD,kgf
y = 169.1x - 463.5
R² = 0.998
1000
500
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
-500
PENETRATION,mm
Fig. 52Load-Penetration Curve of NPFA with 6% polypropylene
86 | P a g e
ANGLE OF INTERNAL 34
33
32
FRICTION
31
30
29
28
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
%Lime
Fig. 53 Effect of Lime on Angle of Internal Friction of HNFA
40
35
30
ANGLE OF INTERNAL FRICTION
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
%polypropylene
Fig. 54 Effect of Polypropylene on Angle of Internal Friction of HNFA
87 | P a g e
80
70
60
50
CBR
40
30
20
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
%Lime
Fig. 55 Effect of Lime on CBR of HNFA
70
60
50
40
CBR
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
%polypropylene
Fig. 56 Effect of Polypropylene on CBR of HNFA
88 | P a g e
35

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
%Lime
Fig. 57 Effect of Lime on Angle of Internal Friction of NPFA
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
% POLYPROPYLENE
Fig. 58 Effect of Polypropylene on Angle of Internal Friction of NPFA
89 | P a g e
25
20
15
CBR
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
% Lime
Fig. 59 Effect of Lime on CBR of NPFA
30
25
20
CBR
15
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
%Polypropylene
Fig. 60 Effect of Polypropylene on CBR of NPFA
90 | P a g e
CHAPTER-8
CONCLUSIONS
Following conclusions are drawn based on the results obtained in this study:
1. Fly ash is one of the most plentiful and versatile industrial by-product.
Disposal of fly ash, which is an industrial waste, is both cost effective and
environment friendly way receives high attention in the world.
2. Since, the current usage of fly ash in India is still around 25% and below 45%
even in developed countries like U.S.A, there is a huge scope for fly ash in
upcoming years. So let us make use of a billion dollar resource that has been
wasted so far.
3. OMC is higher for NPFA compared to HNFA (Table-2).
4. Angle of Internal friction is higher for HNFA (29º) compared to that of NPFA
(23.23º) (Table-3).
5. CBR value is more for NPFA (19.1%) when compared to HNFA (18.9%)
(Table-4).
6. By considering above conditions ―NTPC fly ash‖ is best suitable for fly ash
use in embankments and sub grade when no admixtures are used.
7. In NPFA, there is no significant effect of addition of lime on CBR ( Table-7).
8. It is not suggested to use lime as admixture for NPFA.
9. CBR for NPFA increased from 19.1% (0%) to 26.1% (2%) with addition of
polypropylene. Hence, optimum percentage of polypropylene for NPFA is 2%.
10. CBR for HNFA increased significantly from 18.9% (0%) to 72.4% (8%)
addition of lime. Hence optimum percentage of lime for HNFA is 8%.
11. CBR for HNFA increased significantly from 18.9% (0%) to 65.2% (2%)
addition of polypropylene. Hence optimum percentage of polypropylene for
HNFA is 2%.
12. As the CBR value of NPFA for 2% polypropylene is 26.1%,the optimum %
for NPFA is 2% polypropylene.
13. As the CBR value of HNFA for 8% Lime is 65.2%,the optimum % for NPFA
is 8% Lime.
91 | P a g e
REFERENCES
1. ArpanSen, Rishabh kashyap (2012) "Soil stabilization using waste fiber
materials" Department of Civil Engineering National Institute of Technology,
Rourkela.
2. Bandyopadhyay, K., Sunanda Bhattacharjee "Laboratory CBR values of Fly

ash under different conditions" IGC 2009, Guntur,India.
3. DivyaKrishnan.K (2014), ―Soil Stabilisation Using Phosphogypsum and

Flyash‖, International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology (IJETT)
– Volume 9.
4. IRC: SP 58 (2001) Guidelines for Use of fly ash in Road embankments, IRC:
SP 58-2001, Indian Roads Congress Special Publication 58, New Delhi 2001
5. IS 2720: Part 8:1980, Methods of Test for soils-Part 8: Determination of water

content-Dry Density Relation using Heavy Compaction..
6. IS 2720: Part 8:1980, Methods of Test for soils-Part 8: Determination of water

content-Dry Density Relation using Heavy Compaction.
7. IS 2720: Part 13:1986, Methods of Test for soils-Part 13: Direct shear test.
8. Jasvir Singh, Harpreet Singh Maan(2017), "Soil Stabilization using Fly Ash
and Rice HuskAsh",International Journal of Innovative Research in
Science,Engineering and Technology,Vol. 6, Issue 7,July 2017.
9. McLaren, R.J. (1979) Fly ash structural fill handbook. Research Project 1156-
1, Final report, December 1979, pp 1-223, GAI Consultants Inc, Pensylvania,
EPRI, and California. Chapters 2, 3 and 6 only
10. Pandian N. S. (2004) ―Fly ash characterization with reference to geotechnical

applications‖, J. Indian Inst. Sci., Nov.–Dec. 2004, 84, 189–216.
11. Prashanth J.P, (1998) "Evaluation of the properties of Flyash for its use in
Geotechnical Applications" Ph.D Thesis, IISC.Bangalore.
12. RDSO (2016) Study Report on Use of Coal Ash in Railway Embankment,
Report Number GE: 0 – S005, Government of India, Ministry of Railways,
Geo-technical Engineering Directorate, Research Designs and Standards
Organization, Manak Nagar, Lucknow – 11, February-2006.
92 | P a g e
13. Singh R.R, Er. NitinGoyal and Er. NavpreetKaur (2015) ―Fly Ash as an
Embankment material‖, SSRG International Journal of Civil Engineering
(SSRG-IJCE), volume 2, March 2015IS 2720: Part 16:1987, Methods of Test
for soils-Part 16: Laboratory Determination of CBR.
14. SP 36: Part 1: 1987 Compendium of Indian standards on soil engineering, Part
1: Laboratory testing of soils for civil engineering purposes.
15. Sridharan, A. (2012) ―Coal Ashes in Geotechnical Engineering Practice:

Beneficial Aspects‖, Proceedings of National Workshop on Emerging Trends
in Geotechnical Engineering (ETGE 2012), 08th June 2012, organized by
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati,
edited by A. Murali Krishna, pp.11-25.
16. Subrahmanyam.M.S, Lee LihCheran& Lee So Cheran, ―USE OF RICE HUSK

ASH FOR SOIL STABILIZATION‖, Geol. Soc. Malaysia. Bulletin 14.
December 1981; pp. 143-151.
93 | P a g e

Flyash in Geotechnical Solutions

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Flyash in Geotechnical Solutions

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ANDHRA UNIVERSITY, Visakhapatnam

APPLICATION OF FLYASH IN GEOTECHNICAL SOLUTIONS

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

We do here by declare that this project work entitled ―APPLICATION OF

G. VANDANA K. PAVAN KRISHNA

K. PRASANVITHA K. JYOTHI SWAROOP

ANIL NEERUKONDA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES (A)

Certified that the project work report entitled ―APPLICATION OF FLYASH IN

Mr. T V Viswa Teja

We owe our profound gratitude to our project guide Prof. B. N. D. NARASINGA

We express our sincere thanks to Prof. B. N. D. NARASINGA RAO F.I.E, Ph.D,

Our sincere thanks to our honorable Principal T. V. HANUMANTH RAO and

We sincerely thank all those who supported directly or indirectly in successfully

G.VANDANA K. PAVAN KRISHNA

K. PRASANVITHA K. JYOTHI SWAROOP

4. Literature Review 8-11

5. Additional Literature Review (Lockdown) 12-54

7. Results and Discussion 61-90

7.1 Compaction Characteristics of fly ash 61

S.No. DESCRIPTION Page.No.

1. Physical properties of Fly ash 4

2. Modified proctor test values without admixtures 62

3. Direct shear test values without admixtures 62

4. CBR values without admixtures 64

5. Modified proctor test values with lime 66

6. Direct shear test values with lime 66

7. CBR values with lime 73

8. Modified proctor test values with polypropylene 76

9. Direct shear test values with polypropylene 77

10. CBR values with polypropylene 83

2. Flow chart for Work Plan 56

3. Flow chart for Laboratory Experiments 57

8. Compaction test apparatus 59

10. Direct shear apparatus 61

11. Stress strain curve of HNFA without admixtures 63

12. Failure envelope of HNFA without admixtures 63

13. Stress strain curve of NPFA without admixtures 64

14. Failure envelope of NPFA without admixtures 64

15. Load - penetration curve of HNFA without admixtures 65

16. Load - penetration curve of NPFA without admixtures 65

17. Stress strain curve of HNFA with 5% Lime 67

18. Failure envelope of HNFA with 5% Lime 67

19. Stress strain curve of HNFA with 8% Lime 68

20. Failure envelope of HNFA with 8% Lime 68

21. Stress strain curve of HNFA with 10% Lime 69

22. Failure envelope of HNFA with 10% Lime 69

23. Stress strain curve of NPFA with 5% Lime 70

25. Stress strain curve of NPFA with 8% Lime 71

26. Failure envelope of NPFA with 8% Lime 71

27. Stress strain curve of NPFA with 10% Lime 72

28. Failure envelope of NPFA with 10% Lime 72

29. Load - penetration curve of HNFA with 5% Lime 73

30. Load - penetration curve of HNFA with 8% Lime 74

31. Load - penetration curve of HNFA with 10% Lime 74

32. Load - penetration curve of NPFA with 5% Lime 75

33. Load - penetration curve of NPFA with 8% Lime 75

34. Load - penetration curve of NPFA with 10% Lime 76

35. Stress strain curve of HNFA with 2% Polypropylene 77

36. Failure envelope of HNFA with 2% Polypropylene 78

37. Stress strain curve of HNFA with 4% Polypropylene 78

38. Failure envelope of HNFA with 4% Polypropylene 79

39. Stress strain curve of HNFA with 6% Polypropylene 79