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CHIEREGATI, A.C. and PITARD, F.F. The challenge of sampling gold. Fourth World Conference on Sampling & Blending, The Southern African Institute
of Mining and Metallurgy, 2009.

The challenge of sampling gold

A.C. CHIEREGATI* and F.F. PITARD†
*University of São Paulo; Brazil
†Francis Pitard Sampling Consultants LLC; United States

Sampling gold is one of the greatest challenges in the mining industry. There is probably no other
material for which the achievement of sampling precision and accuracy is so critical. Gold has its
peculiarities, especially regarding the segregation effect. Because of its density, a strong
segregation phenomenon takes place as soon as gold is liberated. Furthermore, the gold content of
an analytical sub sample and the gold content of the sample from which it was selected can be
very different. All these problems are amplified as the gold grade becomes lower, as gold deposits
become marginal, and as the distribution of gold in rocks becomes erratic. This paper analyses
two low grade and erratic gold deposits in Brazil and discusses some sampling problems and the
solutions adopted for reconciliation between the mine and the mill. The results show that good
estimation of gold content is only possible with proper sampling practices and process control.
Keywords: sampling, reconciliation, gold.

Introduction importance of correct sampling in that the resulting

Theoretical and especially practical problems generated by
the sampling of materials containing precious metals have
been given enormous attention by many specialists for a
long time. Since relatively small amounts of material can
involve large amounts of money, there are probably no
other materials than precious metals for which the
achievement of sampling precision and accuracy is so
critical. However, there are no other materials whose
sampling is as challenging1.
One of the main distinctions between precious metals and
other metals is the fact that they are economical at very low
levels. Base metals, for example, are often estimated in
percent, while gold, platinum, palladium, and so on, are
often estimated in parts per million. To obtain
representative samples of a precious metals deposit is as
difficult as to obtain representative samples of a diamond
deposit where, even in a relatively high grade deposit, each
stone is contained in many m3 of the sample.
Precious metals, and especially gold, whose modes of
occurrence are many, present various sampling difficulties:
(1) the gold content of a sample and the gold content of the
surrounding ore can be very different, furthermore, the gold
content of a tiny analytical sub sample and the gold content
of the sample from which it was selected can also be very
different; (2) the density of gold is enormous (19.3 g/cm3),
promoting strong segregation phenomena as soon as gold is
liberated; (3) gold nuggets do not comminute very well,
smearing and easily coating sampling equipment. All these
problems are amplified as gold grade becomes lower, as
gold deposits become marginal and as the distribution of
gold in rocks becomes erratic.
These problems should be solved in different ways. Since
the sampling results are applied to the development of
resource and grade control models as well as to
reconciliation calculations, the correction of sampling
practices and equipment solve many problems. We should
always keep in mind that the reliability of the results relies
on the reliability of the samples, and this alone shows the
estimates can provide a precise and unbiased estimator of
the deposit’s real grade.
Mine-to-mill and reconciliation concepts
The mine-to-mill concept arose with the objective of
reducing the costs of mining operations, and can be defined
as the integration of the mining processes from geology to
milling, using information technology to provide the plant
operators with accurate information about the quality of the
ore. This approach allows these professionals to reduce the
grade variability of the ore fed in the mill, increasing its
predictability. This predictability can be measured based on
the reconciliation results. The objective of introducing
mine-to-mill concepts is to transform the collection and use
of data from being random and plagued with duplication to
one of order and consistency, creating an integrated system
that extends from geology to metallurgy.
In a mining industry context, reconciliation equates to the
comparison of an estimate (resource, reserve and grade
control models) with a measurement (information or the
official production of the processing plant). The outcome of
these comparisons are often a group of factors such as the
mine call factor MCF, which give an indication of how
accurate an estimate turned out to be. These factors are then
applied to resource and reserve estimates and grade control
predictions to provide some approximation of the amount
of metal that could be expected to be produced by the
plant2. For example, if historically the plant has produced
20% less gold than predicted by resource estimates,
common practice is to apply a MCF of 0.80 to the grade
predicted by the resource model when estimating what the
total metal production might be.
To further complicate the process, the application of a
factor will often disguise the causes of the error responsible
for the discrepancy. We call the practice of applying factors
‘reactive reconciliation’. However, reconciliation should be
done in a proactive way, avoiding the application of factors
but taking corrective actions, such as changes to sampling

THE CHALLENGE OF SAMPLING GOLD 107

Paper 21:text 10/9/09 11:28 AM Page 108
methodologies and equipments, to ensure that the error
between estimates and actual data is minimal. Therefore,
the estimates become forecasts and can form a basis for
decision making, ensuring that what happens in the future
corresponds to what was planned at the present.
Another point to consider is that the mine normally will
rely upon blasthole samples and some form of interpolation
to determine dig lines for the operators. As with the
exploration model, the blasthole model is an estimate and is
subject to standard estimation problems. Typically, the mill
values are perceived to be the most accurate, and are the
basis for reconciliation in most cases. However, it does not
mean the mills are immune from sampling problems.
Mine reconciliation can be seen as the ultimate test of the
quality of grade estimates in resource and grade control
models. However, successful reconciliation can be illusory.
In many cases, errors at one point of the process are offset
by errors at other points in the operation, resulting in an
excellent reconciliation. This can hide compensating biases
in the system that may surface at some later date3.
An appropriate practice of reconciliation is only possible
if there is information about each mining and processing
operation, and this information must be based on reliable
data. Therefore, the optimization of sampling protocols is a
must for the development of a reliable reconciliation
system, since only a correct sampling procedure can
generate reliable data. Sampling should be understood as a
science and technology available for practical industrial
use, after all, it is a key element for decision-making,
allowing improvements in industrial efficiency and the
qualification of products.
Experimental works
The two mining operations studied here were low grade
gold deposits, mined in open pits and processed in
gravimetric concentration circuits and column or heap
leaching. The anomalous gold mineralization is located
within highly deformed regions, related to hydrothermal
processes. The first deposit presents erratic distribution of
gold, with coarse and fine gold associated to the higher and
the lower grade ore, respectively. The second deposit
presents lateral continuity and a more predictable
distribution of grade. Here, the gold occurs mainly as free
grains of fine gold.
Over one year, these operations were evaluated with
regard to sampling, mine planning and reconciliation
practices. The problems identified and the solutions adopted
are summarized in the following items. Pitard’s conditions
for minimizing sampling errors were the basis for the
development of this work. Validation is presented as
reconciliation results.
Minimizing sampling errors
According to Pitard1, there are six conditions to fulfill in
order to eliminate, or at least minimize, most of the
sampling errors when the constituent of interest is a
precious metal:
• All the sampling equipment is designed, built and used
in such a way that all preparation errors are only
relevant to the second order. Special attention needs to
be taken to minimize loss and contamination by plating
gold on sampling equipment
• The increment delimitation must be correct
• The increment extraction must be correct
• The increments must be numerous enough to minimize
the segregation and grouping error until it becomes
relevant only to the second order. We shall emphasize
108 FOURTH WORLD CONFERENCE ON SAMPLING & BLENDING
that the homogenization of liberated gold is impossible;
therefore, the only hope to minimize this error is by
minimizing the fundamental error and increasing the
number of increments per sample
• For the sampling of one-dimensional lots, the interval
between each increment is small enough to render the
long range heterogeneity fluctuation error relevant only
to the second order
• The sampling selection scheme is chosen with respect
to the periodic heterogeneity fluctuation error.
When all the above conditions are fulfilled, the only error
left is the fundamental error, which is the smallest error for
a sample collected under ideal conditions. The fundamental
error is the only error that can never have zero variance,
since it is generated by the intrinsic constitution
heterogeneity of a particulate solid. Its importance may be
secondary for the great majority of the constituents, but,
normally it becomes greater for the constituents that occur
in smaller concentrations, and much greater for trace
constituents in high purity materials and for low grade
precious metals. The only way to minimize the fundamental
error is by optimizing sampling and preparation protocols.
Reconciliation components
Reconciliation is a common activity carried out at most
mining operations around the world and can be defined as a
comparison between the grade reported by the plant and the
grade predicted by models. Of course these values rarely
match, due to the different variables involved.
The mine/mill reconciliation problem often has multiple
causes. But the problem can be solved, or at least
minimized, if a good strategy is undertaken. Pitard 4
suggests dividing the complex problem into its basic
components, and then solving them one at a time. These
components are presented in Table I.
The following items discuss some problems observed on
both gold deposits under study, and suggest a solution for
each component analyzed. Of course, in such an approach,
priorities must come into account, therefore, we decided to
analyse two components per stage.
Table I
The causes of mine/mill reconciliation problems (after Pitard4)
Stage Causes
Geological • true, in situ nugget effect
models • sampling and sub-sampling errors
• analytical errors
• interpolation errors
• excessive rejection of outliers
• ore density
• definition of ore boundaries
Mining and • in situ nugget effect
grade control • drift of mineralized boundaries upon blast
• loss of fines in stockpiles or during sampling
• sampling and sub-sampling errors
• analytical errors
• dilution
• blastholes parallel to mineralization
• ore grade contouring
Mill and • material balance based on non-probabilistic sampling
flotation plant • process cycles either unknown or misunderstood
• calibration of weightometers and flowmeters
• inappropriate sampling equipments
• analytical accuracy
• poor laboratory sub-sampling
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Geological Models
In situ nugget effect
The nugget effect describes how well sampling results can
be reproduced by repeated sampling at the same location.
The higher the sample reproducibility the smaller the
nugget effect. It’s important to consider that the nugget
effect incorporates both the natural inherent variability of
the deposit and the variability due to all sampling,
preparation and analysis stages. Heterogeneous
mineralization is sensitive to the method of sampling and
could give variable results from a single location.
Recognition of the nugget effect is vital to resource
estimation. The higher the nugget effect, the higher the
degree of smoothing required in the estimation where the
estimate is a weighted average of samples within the range
of influence of the block being evaluated5.
In a high nugget effect environment, which is the case of
gold deposits and heterogeneous mineralization, the
difficulty of deciding whether a block is ore or waste is
considerable, due to the low reproducibility of the samples.
Therefore, the precisions of sampling for these types of
mineralization are very sensitive to the sampling method,
which should be as accurate as possible. Care must be taken
to ensure that correct values of nugget effect are considered
in reserve and grade control models.
Excessive rejection of outliers
Even knowing the principles of a correct sampling practice
and using correct sampling equipment, errors will always
be there due to the sample extraction and handling stages
and also due to the material heterogeneity. Isaaks and
Srivastava 6 say that one of the most tedious and time
consuming tasks in a geostatistical study is error checking.
Therefore, the authors suggest some steps to eliminate gross
errors before statistical analysis proceeds: (1) sort the data
and examine the extreme values. If they appear excessive,
investigate their origin and try to establish their
authenticity; (2) locate the extreme values on a map. Note
their location with respect to anomalous areas and analyze
if they are located along trends of similar data values or if
they are isolated. Be suspicious of isolated extremes
(outliers); and (3) check coordinate errors by sorting and
examining coordinate extremes.
Figure 1 shows the gold grade distribution for two blocks
in a gold mine, where the values at unobserved locations
were estimated by kriging. The values plotted on the maps
refer to the gold grade (g/t) of the samples collected for
short term planning.
Figure 1. Gold grade distribution for two different blocks
THE CHALLENGE OF SAMPLING GOLD
Figure 1 shows an isolated value (outlier) for Block 1, but
for Block 2 the extreme values only suggest a trend, or a
richer portion of the deposit. In the specific case of precious
metals, the individual analysis of outliers is a must, assuring
that correct data will not be rejected as outliers before the
statistical analysis.
Mining and grade control
Loss of fines during sampling
Even though reverse circulation (RC) drillers are
considered the most appropriate for sampling operations,
because of their higher recovery, a significant amount of
fines can be lost through overflow of the cyclone (Figure
2a). In some cases, these amounts reach up to 20% of the
total weight. The blasthole drillers, in turn, are generally
inadequate for sampling, since a large amount of fines can
be lost by the action of the wind (Figure 2b) or can be
retained in the filters of the drillers. Furthermore, manual
sampling of blasthole piles using a shovel is not an
equiprobabilistic process and should be rejected. A solution
would be the use of a stationary sectorial sampler with
cupola for minimizing the loss of fines, the delimitation
error and the extraction error7.
According to Pitard8, conventional blasthole sampling for
grade control has acquired an extremely bad reputation for
the last 50 years because of the many sources of bias
introduced by this operation and the consequent difficulty
of getting a representative sample. Attempts to automate
blasthole sampling at the drilling site have failed, not
because it cannot be done, but mainly because it interferes
with drilling productivity. It’s clear that too many problems
are unsolvable, but this scenario can be greatly improved if
we take into account the delimitation, extraction and
weighting errors, as well as the segregation phenomenon,
and use a correctly designed sampler, correctly positioned
around the hole. Certainly this solution will reduce
productivity, but can lead to reasonably representative
sampling.
Table II presents, for both gold deposits, errors of
estimate due to the loss of fines during blasthole and short-
term sampling and due to improper sampling and
preparation protocols. Note that the grade reported by the
plant is also an estimate calculated based on samples.
However, the estimates from the plant are considered more
accurate for the reasons explained on item Mine-to-mill and
reconciliation concepts, and that’s why they were
considered the basis for the error calculations.
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Figure 2. Loss of fines during drilling

Table II Mill and flotation plant

Errors of estimate before adjusting the
Improper sampling equipments
reconciliation components
Cross stream samplers are usually correct provided that
Block Gold grade Gold grade MCF Estimate certain limiting conditions of use are met. These conditions,
number at mine (g/t) at plant (g/t) error established by Pierre Gy’s theory of sampling, aim at
1 0.618 0.460 0.744 34.3 % controlling the effects that the complex mechanisms of the
2 0.594 0.437 0.736 35.9 % fragments bouncing on the moving sampler cutting blades
3 0.674 0.429 0.636 57.1 % may have on sample correctness. First, the cutter opening
4 0.872 0.396 0.454 120.2 % must be at least three times the diameter of the largest
5 0.609 0.419 0.688 45.3 % fragment, with a minimum opening of 10 mm when the
6 0.541 0.396 0.732 36.6 %
diameter of the largest fragment is smaller than 3 mm, and
7 0.723 0.437 0.604 65.4 %
second, a maximum speed allowed must be calculated from
8 0.748 0.400 0.535 87.0 %
the retained opening10.
9 0.595 0.467 0.785 27.4 %
A correctly designed cross stream cutter may slowly
10 0.588 0.400 0.680 47.0 %
degenerate into an incorrect cutter for various reasons: (1)
11 0.615 0.410 0.667 50.0 %
the cutter is built with fragile material and, consequently,
12 0.664 0.435 0.655 52.6 %
damaged by the violent impact of large fragments; and (2)
13 0.727 0.429 0.590 69.5 %
the cutter becomes obstructed by sticky materials. This can
14 0.709 0.419 0.591 69.2 %
be observed in flotation plants where samplers are not
15 0.727 0.410 0.564 77.3 %
regularly cleaned. Figure 3 shows two cutters totally or
partially obstructed. Furthermore, the cutter opening of
Figure 3a is smaller than 10 mm, making this selection
incorrect.
A strategy for avoiding sampling errors in industrial
Table II shows that the gold grade estimates based on the plants is the design of processes and sampling equipment
samples taken by the drillers presented on Figure 2 which ensure correct delimitation of sampling increments,
overestimated the real block grade, most probably because by assuring that the entire section of the stream is
of the loss of fines and, consequently, the concentration of intercepted by the cutter, (i.e., when we meet some basic
denser and richer material in the samples sent to the conditions such as geometry, speed of installation and
chemical analysis. sampling). Assuming that all other correctness conditions
are respected, the probability of a fragment being part of the
Dilution increment is uniform all across the stream.
When ore and waste are mined and dispatched to the
stockpiles and dumps, some waste ends up on the ore Poor laboratory sub-sampling
stockpile (dilution) and some ore ends up on the waste Due to the high density of gold and the strong segregation
dumps (loss). Misclassification of waste as ore and of ore as between the particles of a lot, it is possible that a laboratory
waste, both cause a lowering of the production grade and sub sample may present a much higher grade than the
loss of earnings for the operation. However, because the original sample. The segregation, also known as the
grade of the material assigned to waste is never measured distributional heterogeneity of a particulate material,
by the milling process, the metal loss caused by reduces sample reproducibility and multiplies its variance
misclassification of ore as waste does not enter into the by a larger factor. It is, therefore, essential to develop
reconciliation equation. Therefore, it is possible to achieve sampling, preparation and subdivision protocols that can
good reconciliation between the predicted ore grade and minimize the segregation effect. It’s equally essential to
plant production grade and at the same time dispatch optimize the sampling and preparation protocol, in a way
substantial amounts of profitable ore to waste dumps9. that the fundamental error is minimized.

110 FOURTH WORLD CONFERENCE ON SAMPLING & BLENDING

Paper 21:text 10/9/09 11:28 AM Page 111
Figure 3. Cross-stream samplers with cutters totally or partially obstructed
Results
Following Pitard1, a good sampling strategy should provide
the following chronology: (1) study of the heterogeneity of
the material of a given lot; (2) optimization of the sampling
protocols to minimize the fundamental error, the grouping
and segregation error and the heterogeneity fluctuation
errors; and (3) control of sampling correction (i.e., choice of
the sampling equipment) in order to eliminate the
delimitation error, the extraction error and the preparation
error.
The six components presented on the previous chapter
were analysed and optimized for further sampling
campaigns. The following adjustments/changes to sampling
methodologies were applied to the mining operations, in
order to minimize sampling errors:
In situ nugget effect
Reduction of the sampling grid and collection of two
samples per hole (for calculating the variance of the
fundamental error). In a high nugget effect environment,
individual sample results are not representative of the block
grades and can’t define correctly the ore/waste limits.
Excessive rejection of outliers
Individual analysis of each outlier and the data from which
it was generated. Original sample diaries or sampling logs
were useful sources of information. The rejection of an
outlier took place only when the sample that generated it
was proved to be unreliable.
Loss of fines during sampling
Replacement of the manual shovel by a stationary sectorial
Figure 4. Changes to sampling equipments to reduce the loss of fines
THE CHALLENGE OF SAMPLING GOLD
sampler with cupola11 for the PW blasthole driller (Figure
4a) and replacement of the RC driller by the Atlas Copco
driller with only one point of discharge (Figure 4b). For the
RC driller an alternative would be the use of a secondary
cyclone to recover the fines.
Dilution
Reduction of the sampling grid, especially in the direction
of maximum variability, in a way to define more precisely
the limits between high grade ore, low grade ore and waste.
The sampling grid of the first mining operation was reduced
from 15 × 10 m to 5.0 × 3.5 m and the sampling grid of the
second operation was reduced from 5 × 20 m to 5 × 10 m.
Improper sampling equipments
Adjustment of the cutter openings and cleaning of sampling
equipments. Sticky materials accumulate around the cutter
edges, partially closing the cutter opening. Preventive
maintenance and periodic cleaning should be done
frequently.
Poor laboratory sub sampling
Adjustment of sample preparation equipment and execution
of the heterogeneity test to optimize sampling and
preparation protocols. The results of this work
demonstrated the necessity of pulverizing a greater mass of
material as a step in preparing the analytical sub samples.
Table III shows the errors of estimate for some blocks
after adjusting the six reconciliation components and
following Pitard’s chronology and strategy to minimize the
sampling errors for precious metals.
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Table III 2. MORLEY, C. Beyond reconciliation: a proactive

Errors of estimate after adjusting the approach to using mining data. Proceedings of the 5th
reconciliation components Large Open Pit Mining Conference. Kalgoorlie, The
Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,
Block Gold grade Gold grade MCF Estimate 2003. pp. 185–192.
number at mine (g/t) at plant (g/t) error
3. CRAWFORD, G.D. Reconciliation of reserves: part
1 0.649 0.673 1.037 3.57 %
2. Pincock Perspectives. Colorado, Pincock, Allen &
2 0.548 0.524 0.956 4.58 %
Holt, 2004. no. 50, jan/04, pp.1–4. Available on:
3 0.583 0.503 0.863 15.9 %
<http://www.pincock.com/perspectives/Issue50-
4 0.386 0.363 0.940 6.34 %
Reconciliation-2.pdf>.
5 0.685 0.680 0.993 0.74 %
6 0.540 0.470 0.870 14.9 % 4. PITARD, F.F. A strategy to minimize ore grade
7 0.470 0.539 1.147 12.8 % reconciliation problems between the mine and the
8 0.720 0.760 1.056 5.26 % mill. Mineral Resource and Ore Reserve Estimation:
the AusIMM Guide to Good Practice. Melbourne, The
Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,
2001. pp. 557–566.
Conclusion 5. ELLIOTT, S.M. et al. Reconciliation of the
McKinnons gold deposit, Cobar, New South Wales.
Pitard4 suggested that mining company benefits can be Mineral Resource and Ore Reserve Estimation: The
compared to a three legged table: one leg is Sampling, one AusIMM Guide to Good Practice. Melbourne, The
is statistical process control (SPC) and another is total
Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,
quality management (TQM). These three critically
2001. pp. 257–268.
important fields must be carefully integrated, and if one leg
is broken, usually there is no benefit left. If the company is 6. ISAAKS, E.H. and SRIVASTAVA, R.M. The sample
running with only one leg, it can not optimize the recovery data set. An Introduction to Applied Geostatistics.
of the natural resources of the mine. An example of this New York, Oxford University Press, 1989. Cap. 6, pp.
kind of management is the use of reactive reconciliation 107–139.
practices, i.e., applying factors to resource/reserve estimates 7. CHIEREGATI, A.C. Reconciliação pró-ativa em
and grade control predictions. empreendimentos mineiros. Doctoral thesis. São
The results of this work showed the advantages of a Paulo, Departamento de Engenharia de Minas e de
proactive reconciliation practice, dividing the reconciliation Petróleo da Escola Politécnica da USP, 2007. 201 pp.
problem in its basic components and resolving one at a 8. PITARD, F.F. Blasthole sampling for grade control:
time. Changes to sampling equipments and protocols the many problems and solutions. Pierre Gy’s Theory
reduced estimate errors to as little as one tenth. of Sampling and C.O. Ingamell’s Poisson Process
It’s evident that eliminating sampling errors when dealing Approach. Doctoral thesis. Esbjerg, Aalborg
with precious metals is impossible, but the first step is to University, 2009. 309 pp.
control them. Sampling and analytical biases can be
eliminated by taking preventive actions. But sampling 9. SCHOFIELD, N.A. The myth of mine reconciliation.
imprecision can never be completely eliminated. Therefore, Mineral Resource and Ore Reserve Estimation: the
reconciliation problems will always exist in a mining AusIMM Guide to Good Practice. Melbourne, The
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that small improvements in sampling practices result in 10. FRANCOIS-BONGARCON, D. and GY, P. Critical
significant improvements in reconciliation and process aspects in mill and plants: A guide to understanding
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1. PITARD, F.F. Pierre Gy’s Sampling Theory and JUNIOR, H. and Peroni, R.L. Proactive reconciliation
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Ana Carolina Chieregati

Professor, University of Sao Paulo
Mining Engineer from the University of Sao Paulo (1998), master's degree in Mineral Engineering
(2001) and Ph.D. in Mineral Engineering (2007) from the University of Sao Paulo, Brazil.
Currently is a lecturer in the Mining and Petroleum Department of the Polytechnic School of the
University of Sao Paulo and responsible for the disciplines of Mineral Exploration and Geophysics.
Has professional experience in the following areas: mineral processing design, mineral exploration,
sampling and reconciliation in the mining industry. Teaches the Theory of Sampling and
Reconciliation Practices for several mining companies - especially gold companies - and technical
training institutions.

112 FOURTH WORLD CONFERENCE ON SAMPLING & BLENDING