Soil Mechanics Lectures

CE-235 SOIL MECHANICS
Soil Mechanics (Introduction)
Mechanics:
Mechanics is the branch of physics that considers the action of forces on bodies or
fluids that are at rest or in motion
Branches of Mechanics:
Mechanics can be divided into two branches.
a) Static
b) Dynamics
Statics:
It is the branch of mechanics that deals with the study of forces acting on a body in
equilibrium. Either the body at rest or in uniform motion, is called statics.
Dynamics:
It is the branch of mechanics that deals with the study of forces on body in motion is
called dynamics. It is further divided into two branches.
a) Kinetics
b) Kinematics
Kinetics:
It is the branch of the dynamics that deals with the study of body in motion with
considering the force.
Kinematics:
It is the branch of the dynamics that deals with the study of body in motion without
considering the force.
ROCK
Rocks are made from various types of minerals. Minerals are substances of crystalline
form made up from a particular chemical combination. The main minerals found in
rocks include quartz, feldspar, calcite and mica. Geologists classify all rocks into
three basic groups: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.
IGNEOUS ROCKS
These rocks have become solid from a melted liquid state. Extrusive igneous rocks
are those that arrived on the surface of the Earth as molten lava and cooled. Intrusive
igneous rocks are formed from magma (molten rock) that forced itself through cracks
into rock beds below the surface and solidified there.
Examples of igneous rocks: granite, basalt, gabbro.
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Prepared By: Muhammad Imran Khan

Lecturer Civil Engg. Deptt. U.E.T. Lahore 1
Weathering reduces the rock mass to fragmented particles, which can be more easily
transported by wind, water and ice. When dropped by the agents of weathering, they
are termed sediments. These sediments are typically deposited in layers or beds
called strata and when compacted and cemented together (lithification) they form
sedimentary rocks.
Examples of sedimentary rocks: shale, sandstone, chalk.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Metamorphism through high temperatures and pressures acting on sedimentary or
igneous rocks, produces metamorphic rocks. The original rock undergoes both
chemical and physical alterations.
Examples of metamorphic rocks: slate, quartzite, marble.
Fig-1: Rock Cycle

DEFINITION OF SOIL
The word 'soil' is derived from the Latin word solium which, means the upper layer of
the earth that may be dug or plowed; specifically, the loose surface material of the
earth in which plants grow. (In Agriculture)
In geology, earth’s crust is assumed to consist of unconsolidated sediments which is
called mantle. The upper layer of mantle which can support plants is called soil.
The term ‘soil’ in Soil Engineering is defined as an unconsolidated material, composed
of solid particles, produced by the disintegration of rocks. The void space between

the particles may contain air, water or both. The solid particles may contain organic
matter.
Fig-2: Nomenclatures
DEFINITION OF SOIL MECHANICS
According to Dr. Karl Teizaghi (Father of Soil Mechanics), “Soil mechanics is the
application of the laws of mechanics and hydraulics to engineering problems dealing
with sediments and other unconsolidated accumulations of solid particles produced
by the mechanical and chemical disintegration of rock, regardless of whether or not
they contain an admixture of organic constituents”.
Soil mechanics is, therefore, a branch of mechanics which deals with the action of
forces on soil and with the flow of water in soil. The soil consists of discrete solid
particles which are neither strongly bonded as in solids nor they are as free as
particles of fluids. Consequently, the behavior of soil is somewhat intermediate
between that of a solid and a fluid. It is not, therefore, surprising that soil mechanics
draws heavily from solid mechanics and fluid mechanics.
DEFINITION OF SOIL ENGINEERING AND GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
Soil engineering is an applied science dealing with the applications of principles of
soil mechanics to practical problems. It has a much wider scope than soil mechanics,
as it deals with all engineering problems related with soils. It includes site
investigations, design and construction of foundations, earth-retaining structures
and earth structures. Geotechnical engineering is a broader term which includes soil
engineering, rock mechanics and geology.
SCOPE OF SOIL ENGINEERING
Soil engineering has vast application in the construction of various civil engineering
works. Some of the important applications are as under:
1. Foundations
2. Retaining Structures

3. Stability of Slopes
4. Underground Structures
5. Pavement Design
6. Earthen Dam and Embankments
7. Miscellaneous Soil Problems
ORIGIN OF SOIL
Soils are formed by weathering of rocks due to mechanical disintegration or chemical
decomposition. When a rock surface gets exposed to atmosphere for an appreciable
time, it disintegrates or decomposes into small particles and thus the soils are
formed.
Soil may be considered as an incidental material obtained from the geologic cycle
which goes on continuously in nature. The geologic cycle consists of erosion,
transportation, deposition and upheaval of soil (as shown in fig). Exposed rocks are

eroded and degraded by various physical and chemical processes. The products of
erosion are picked up by agencies of transportation, such as water and wind, and are
carried to new locations where they are deposited. This shifting of the material
disturbs the equilibrium of forces on the earth and causes large scale earth
movements and upheavals. This process results in further exposure of rocks and the
geologic cycle gets repeated.
If the soil stays at the place of its formation just above the parent rock, it is known
as residual soil or sedentary soil. When the soil has been deposited at a place away
from the place of its origin, it is called a transported soil.
The engineering properties of residual soils vary considerably from the top layer to
the bottom layer. Residual soils have a gradual transition from relatively fine material
near the surface to large fragments of stones at greater depth. The properties of the
bottom layer resemble that of the parent rock in many respects. The thickness of the
residual soil formation is generally limited to a few meters.
The engineering properties of transported soils are entirely different from the
properties of the rock at the place of deposition. Deposits of transported soils are
quite thick and are usually uniform. Most of the soil deposits with which a
geotechnical engineer has to deal are transported soils.
SOIL FORMATION
As mentioned above, soils are formed by either (A) Physical disintegration or
(B) Chemical decomposition of rocks.
(A) Physical Disintegration: Physical disintegration or mechanical weathering of
rocks occurs due to the following physical processes:
1. Temperature changes: Different minerals of a rock have different coefficients of
thermal expansion. Unequal expansion and contraction of these minerals occur
due to temperature changes. When the stresses induced due to such changes are
repeated many times, the particles get detached from the rocks and the soils are
formed.
2. Wedging action of Ice: Water in the pores and minute cracks of rocks gets frozen
in very cold climates. As the volume of ice formed is more than that of water,
expansion occurs. Rocks get broken into pieces when large stresses develop in the
cracks due to wedging action of the ice formed.
3. Spreading of roots of plants: As the roots of trees and shrubs grow in the cracks
and fissures of the rocks, forces act on the rock. The segments of the rock are
forced apart and disintegration of rocks occurs.

4. Abrasion: As water, wind and glaciers move over the surface of rock, abrasion and
scouring takes place. It results in the formation of soil.
In all the processes of physical disintegration, there is no change in the chemical
composition. The soil formed has the properties of the parent rock. Coarse grained
soils, such as gravel and sand, are formed by the process of physical disintegration.
(B) Chemical Decomposition: When chemical decomposition or chemical weathering
of rocks takes place, original rock minerals are transformed into new minerals by
chemical reactions. The soils formed do not have the properties of the parent rock.
The following chemical processes generally occur in nature.
1. Hydration: In hydration, water combines with the rock minerals and results in
the formation of a new chemical compound. The chemical reaction causes a
change in volume and decomposition of rock into small particles.
2. Carbonation It is a type of chemical decomposition in which carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere combines with water to form carbonic acid. The carbonic acid reacts
chemically with rocks and causes their decomposition.
3. Oxidation: Oxidation occurs when oxygen ions combine with minerals in rocks.
Oxidation results in decomposition of rocks. Oxidation of rocks is somewhat
similar to rusting of steel.
4. Solution: Some of the rock minerals form a solution with water when they get
dissolved in water. Chemical reaction takes place in the solution and the soils are
formed.
5. Hydrolysis: It is a chemical process in which water gets dissociated into H+ and
OH- ions. The hydrogen cat-ions replace the metallic ions such as calcium, sodium
and potassium in rock minerals and soils are formed with a new chemical
decomposition.
Chemical decomposition of rocks results in formation of clay minerals. These clay
minerals impart plastic properties to soils. Clayey soils are formed by chemical
decomposition.
TRANSPORTATION OF SOILS:
The soils formed at a place may be transported to other places by agents of
transportation, such as water, wind, ice and gravity.
1. Water transported Soils: Flowing water is one of the most important agents of
transportation of soils. Swift running water carries a large quantity of soil either
in suspension or by rolling along the bed. Water erodes the hills and deposits the
soils in the valleys.

The size of the soil particles carried by water depends upon the velocity. The swift
water can carry the particles of large size such as boulders and gravels. With a
decrease in velocity, the coarse particles get deposited. The finer particles are
carried further downstream and are deposited when the velocity reduces. A delta
is formed when the velocity slows down to almost zero at the confluence with a
receiving body of still water, such as a lake, a sea or an ocean (see fig.).
All type of soils carried and deposited by water are known as alluvial deposits.
Deposits made in lakes are called lacustrine deposits. Such deposits are
laminated or varved in layers. Marine deposits are formed when the flowing water
carries soils to ocean or sea.
2. Wind transported Soils: Soil particles are transported by winds. The particle size
of the soil depends upon the velocity of wind. The finer particles are carried far
away from the place of the formation. A dust storm gives a visual evidence of the
soil particles carried by wind. Soils deposited by wind are known as aeolian
deposits.
Loess is a silt deposit made by wind. These deposits have low density and high
compressibility. The bearing capacity of such soils is very low.
3. Glacier-Deposited Soils: Glaciers are large masses of ice formed by the
compaction of snow. As the glaciers grow and move, they carry with them soils
varying in size from fine grained to huge boulders. Soils get mixed with the ice and
are transported far away from their original position. Drift is a general term used
for the deposits made by glaciers directly or indirectly. Deposits directly made by
melting of glaciers are called till.

During their advancement, glaciers transport soils. At the terminus, a melting

glacier drops the material in the form of ridges, known as terminal moraine (see
fig.). The land which was once covered by glaciers and on which till has been
deposited after melting is called ground moraine. The soil carried by the melting
water from the front of a glacier is termed out-wash.
Glaciofluvial deposits are formed by glaciers. The material is moved by glaciers
and subsequently deposited by streams of melting water. These deposits have
stratification.
Deposits of glacial till are generally well-graded and can be compacted to a high
dry density. These have generally high shearing strength.
4. Gravity-deposited soils: Soils can be transported through short distances under
the action of gravity. Rock fragments and soil masses collected at the foot of the
cliffs or steep slopes had fallen from higher elevation under the action of the
gravitational force. Colluvial soils, such as talus, have been deposited by the
gravity.
5. Soils transported by combined action: Sometimes, two or more agents of
transportation act jointly and transport the soil. For example, a soil particle may
fall under gravity and may be carried by wind to a far off place. It might by picked
up again by flowing water and deposited. A glacier may carry it still further.
SOIL MASS STRUCTURE
The orientation of particles in a mass depends on the size and shape of the grains as
well as upon the minerals of which the grains are formed. The structure of soils that
is formed by natural deposition can be altered by external forces. Fig. (a) is a single
grained structure which is formed by the settlement of coarse grained soils in
suspension in water. Fig. (b) is a flocculent structure formed by the deposition of the
fine soil fraction in water. Fig. (c) is a honeycomb structure which is formed by the
disintegration of a flocculent structure under a superimposed load. The particles

oriented in a flocculent structure will have edge-to-face contact as shown in Fig.(d)

whereas in a honeycomb structure, the particles will have face-to-face contact as
shown in Fig.(e). Natural clay sediments will have more or less flocculated particle
orientations. Marine clays generally have a more open structure than fresh water
clays. Figs.(f) and (g) show the schematic views of salt water and fresh water deposits.
TEXTURE OF SOILS
The term ‘Texture’ refers to the appearance of the surface of a material, such as a
fabric. It is used in a similar sense with regard to soils. Texture of a soil is reflected
largely by the particle size, shape, and gradation.
SOIL-PARTICLE SIZE
The sizes of particles that make up soil vary over a wide range. Soils generally are
called gravel, sand, silt, or clay, depending on the predominant size of particles within
the soil. To describe soils by their particle size, several organizations have developed
particle-size classifications.

Particle-Size Classifications
SOIL-PARTICLE SHAPE
Angular Particles have sharp edges
and relatively plane sides with
unpolished surfaces.
Sub Angular Particles are similar to
angular description, but have
rounded edges.
Sub Rounded Particles have nearly
plane sides, but have well-rounded
corners and edges.
Rounded Particles have smoothly
curved sides and no edges.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS

Block Diagram or Phase Diagram
Basic Constituents
In general, a soil mass consists of solid particles, water and air. The three
constituents are blended together to form a complex material. However, for
convenience, all the solid particles arc segregated and placed in the lower layer of the
three-phase diagram

Although the soil is a three-phase system, it becomes a two-phase system in the

following two cases: (1) When the soil is absolutely dry, the water phase disappears
(2) When the soil is fully saturated, there is no air phase
VOLUMETRIC RELATIONSHIP (VOLUME-VOLUME RELATIONSHIP)

1. VOID RATIO (e) is the ratio of the volume of voids (Vv) to the volume of soil solids
(Vs), and is expressed as a decimal.
Vv
e= ..................... e  1, e  1
Vs
2. POROSITY (n) is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of soil (V),
and is expressed as a percentage.
VV
n= ×100 ..................... n < 100 %
V
Void ratio and porosity are inter-related to each other as follows:
n e
e= and n=
1− n 1+ e
3. DEGREE OF SATURATION (Sr) is the ratio of the volume of water (Vw) to the
volume of voids (Vv), and is expressed as a percentage.
Vw
Sr = 100
Vv
For a dry soil, Sr = 0%, and for a fully saturated soil, Sr = 100%.
4. AIR CONTENT (ac) is the ratio of the volume of air (Va) to the volume of voids
(Vv).
Va
ac =
Vv
5. PERCENTAGE AIR VOIDS (A or na) is the ratio of the volume of air (Va) to the
total volume (V).
Va
A = na =
V
Air content and percentage air voids are inter-related to each other as follows:
na = n  ac
WEIGHT-VOLUME RELATIONSHIP
BULK UNIT WEIGHT the bulk unit weight ( γ b ) is defined as the total weight per
unit total volume.
W
γb =
V
DRY UNIT WEIGHT the dry unit weight ( γ d ) is defined as the weight of solids per
unit total volume.
Ws
γd =
V

SATURATED UNIT WEIGHT the saturated unit weight ( γ sat ) is the bulk unit weight
when the soil is fully saturated.
Wsat
γ sat =
V
SUBMERGED UNIT WEIGHT Wen the soil exists below water, it is in a submerged
condition. A buoyant force acts on the soil solids. According to Archimedes’ principle,
the buoyant force is equal to the weight of water displaced by the solids. The net mass
of the solids is reduced. The reduced mass is known as the submerged mass or the
buoyant mass.
The submerged unit weight ( γ sub ) of the soil is defined as the submerged weight per
unit of total volume.
γ sub =
Wsub
and γsub = γsat - γ w
V
UNIT WEIGHT OF SOIL SOLID weight of solid divided by total volume of solid.
Ws
γs =
Vs
WEIGHT- WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP
WATER (MOISTURE) CONTENT
‘Water content’ or ‘Moisture content’ of a soil mass is defined as the ratio of the
weight of water to the weight of solids (dry weight) of the soil mass. It is denoted by
the letter symbol w and is commonly expressed as a percentage:
Ww W-Ws
w= 100 and w = 100
Ws Ws
SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOLIDS
The ‘specific gravity of soil solids’ is defined as the ratio of the unit weight of solids
(absolute unit weight of soil) to the unit weight of water at the standard temperature
(4°C). This is denoted by the letter symbol Gs and is given by:

Ws
γ V Ws
Gs = s  Gs = s and if Vs =Vw  G s =
γw Ww Ww
Vw
This is also known as ‘Absolute specific gravity’ and, in fact, more popularly as ‘Grain
Specific Gravity’. Since this is relatively constant value for a given soil, it enters into
many computations in the field of soil mechanics.
MASS / BULK SPECIFIC GRAVITY

The ‘Mass specific gravity’ of a soil may be defined as the ratio of mass or bulk unit
weight of soil to the unit weight of water at the standard temperature (4°C). This is
denoted by the letter symbol Gm and is given by:
γb
Gm =
γw
This is also referred to as ‘bulk specific gravity’ or ‘apparent specific gravity’.
RELATIVE DENSITY (Dr) is an index that quantifies the degree of packing between
the loosest and densest possible state of coarse-grained soils as determined by
experiments:
emax − e
Dr =
emax − emin
Where emax is the maximum void ratio (loosest condition), emin is the minimum void
ratio (densest condition), and e is the current void ratio.
The relative density can also be written as
γ dmax  γ d -γ dmin 
Dr =  
γd  γ dmax -γ dmin 
RELATIVE COMPACTION OR DEGREE OF COMPACTION (Rc) is the ratio between
the dry unit weight of soil obtained in the field to the max dry unit weight of soil
obtained in the lab.
 γ 
Rc =  d   100
 γ dmax 
Rc = 100% means γ d obtained in lab and in field are same but it is very difficult to
obtained. Rc = 95% is possible.

Particle Size Analysis

INTRODUCTION
Engineering Properties: The main engineering properties of soils are permeability,
compressibility, and shear strength. Permeability indicates the facility with which
water can flow through soils, it is required for estimation of seepage discharge
through earth masses. Compressibility is related with the deformations produced
in soils when they are subjected to compressive loads. Compression characteristics
are required for computation of the settlements of structures founded on soils. Shear
strength of a soil is its ability to resist shear stresses. The shear strength determines
the stability of slopes, bearing capacity of soils and the earth pressure on retaining
structures.
Index Properties: The tests required for determination of engineering properties are
generally elaborate and time consuming. Sometimes, the geotechnical engineer is
interested to have some rough assessment of the engineering properties without
conducting elaborate tests. This is possible if index properties are determined. The
properties of soils which are not of primary interest to the geotechnical engineer but
which are indicative of the engineering properties are called index properties. Simple
tests which are required to determine the index properties are known as
classification tests. The soils are classified and identified based on the index
properties. The main index properties of coarse grained soils are particle size and

the relative density. For fine-grained soils, the main index properties are Atterberg’s
limits and the consistency.
The index properties give some information about the engineering properties. It is
tacitly assumed that soils with like index properties have identical engineering
properties. However, the correlation between index properties and engineering
properties is not perfect. A liberal factor of safety should be provided if the design is
based only on index properties. Design of large, important structures should be done
only after determination of engineering properties.
MECHANICAL ANALYSIS
The mechanical analysis, also known as particle size analysis, is a method of
separation of soils into different fractions based on the particle size. It expresses
quantitatively the proportions, by mass, of various sizes of particles present in a soil.
Particle Size of Coarse-Grained Soils
Each sieve is identified by either a number that corresponds to the number of square
holes per linear inch of mesh or the size of the opening. Large sieve (mesh) openings
(25.4 mm to 6.35 mm) are designated by the sieve opening size, while smaller sieve
sizes are designated by numbers. The particle diameter in the screening process,
often called sieve analysis, is the maximum dimension of a particle that will pass
through the square hole of a particular mesh.

A known weight of dry soil is placed on the largest sieve (the top sieve) and the nest
of sieves is then placed on a vibrator, called a sieve shaker, and shaken. The nest of
sieves is dismantled, one sieve at a time. The soil retained on each sieve is weighed,
and the percentage of soil retained on each sieve is calculated. The results are plotted
on a graph of percent of particles finer than a given sieve size (not the percent
retained) as the ordinate versus the logarithm of the particle sizes, as shown in
figure. The resulting plot is called a particle size distribution curve or, simply, the
gradation curve. Engineers have found it convenient to use a logarithmic scale for
particle size because the ratio of particle sizes from the largest to the smallest in a
soil can be greater than 104.
The flatter the distribution curve, the larger the range of particle sizes in the soil; the
steeper the curve, the smaller the size range. A coarse soil is described as Well
Graded if there is no excess of particles in any size range and if no intermediate sizes
are lacking. In general, a well-graded soil is represented by a smooth, concave dis-
tribution curve. A coarse soil is described as Poorly Graded (a) if a high proportion
of the particles have sizes within narrow limits (a uniform soil), or (b) if particles of
both large and small sizes are present but with a relatively low proportion of particles
of intermediate size (a gap-graded or step-graded soil). The particle size
corresponding to any specified percentage value can be read from the particle size
distribution curve. The size such that 10% of the particles are smaller than that size
is denoted by D10. Other sizes, such as D30 and D60, can be defined in a similar way.
The size D10 is defined as the effective size, and can be used to estimate the
permeability of the soil. The general slope and shape of the distribution curve can
be described by means of the coefficient of uniformity (Cu) and the coefficient of
curvature (Cc), defined as follows:
D60 ( D30 ) 2
Cu = Cc =
D10 ( D10 )( D60 )
The higher the value of the coefficient of uniformity, the larger the range of particle
sizes in the soil. A well-graded soil has a coefficient of curvature between 1 and 3.
The sizes D15 and D85 are commonly used to select appropriate material for granular
drains used to drain geotechnical works.
Let Wi be the weight of soil retained on the ith sieve from the top of the nest of sieves
and W be the total soil weight. The percent weight retained is
Wi
% retained on ith =  100
W

i
The percent finer than ith sieve = 100- (% retained on ith sieve)
i=1
Table: US Standard Sieves
Designation Opening (mm) Designation Opening (mm)
2 in 50.8 35 0.5
1 1/2 in 38.1 40 0.425
3/4 in 19 50 0.355
3/8 in 9.51 60 0.25
4 4.75 70 0.212
8 2.36 80 0.18
10 2 100 0.15
14 1.4 120 0.125
16 1.18 170 0.09
18 1 200 0.075
30 0.6 270 0.053
Particle Size of Fine-Grained Soils

Hydrometer Method
Hydrometer analysis is the procedure generally adopted for determining the particle-
size distribution in a soil for the fraction that is finer than
No. 200 sieve size (0.075 mm). The lower limit of the
particle size determined by this procedure is about 0.001
mm.
In hydrometer analysis a soil specimen is dispersed in
water. In a dispersed state, in the water, the soil particles
will settle individually. It is assumed that the soil particles
are spheres, and the terminal velocity of the particles can
be given by Stoke’s law,
γ s - γ w 2 ………..(a)
ν= D
18μ
L
Where ν = terminal velocity = (cm/s)
t
γs = specific weight of soil solids (g/cm3)
γw = unit weight of water (g/cm3)
μ = absolute viscosity of water (dyne . s/cm2)

D = diameter of soil particle (cm)

From Eq. (1), after substituting for v, we have
18μ L
D= ………….(b)
γ s -γ w t
If L is in cm, t is in min, ‘ γ w ’in g/cm3, ‘ μ ’in (g-sec)/cm3 and ‘D’ in mm, then Eq. (b)
may be written as
D(mm) 18μ(dyne-sec/cm 2 ) L(cm)

=
10 γ s -γ w (g/cm3 ) t(min)×60
1800μ(dyne-sec/cm 2 ) L(cm)
D=
γ s -γ w (g/cm3 ) t(min)×60
30μ L L 30μ 30μ

or D = =K ……..(c) Where K= or Q γ s = G s γ w and γ w =1g/cm3
γ s -γ w t t γ s -γ w ( G s -1)
It may be noted here that the factor K is a function of temperature T, specific gravity
GS of particles and viscosity of water.
In hydrometer analysis; a 1000 ml suspension of soil and water is prepared. Usually
a hydrometer of type 152H (ASTM designation) is used. This hydrometer is calibrated
to read grams of soil of a value of Gs = 2.65 in 1000 cc of suspension as long as no
more than 60 gm of soil is involved. The reading is, of course, directly related to the
specific gravity of the solution. The hydrometer displays the specific gravity of the
soil-water suspension at the center of the bulb.
Figure-1: Hydrometer dimensions and terms

Any soil grains larger than those still in suspension in the zone shown as L (the
distance between the center of the volume of the bulb and the water surface) have

fallen below the center of volume, and this constantly decreases the specific gravity
of the suspension at the center of the volume of the hydrometer. Also, it is obvious
that since the hydrometer is a constant weight, the less the specific gravity of the
suspension, the deeper the hydrometer will sink into the suspension (i.e. the distance
L increases).
Since L represents the distance particles fall in some time interval t, equation of
Stoke's law is used to compute particle size D as follows.
L(cm)
D(mm) = K
t(min)
The distance L is related to the hydrometer R through calibration of hydrometer as
briefly expressed below:
To find L, measure the distance L2, and several values of the variable distance L,
using a scale. Next, using a graduated sedimentation cylinder of known cross-
sectional area A, submerge the hydrometer bulb, and determine the change in
cylinder reading. This will be the volume of the hydrometer bulb Vb.
Figure-2: Calibration of Hydrometer

Now compute L in cm if L1 and L2 are in cm and Vb, in cc.
1 V V
L = L1 + L 2 + b - b …….......... (1)
2 2A A
1 V
L = L1 + (L 2 - b ) ………………. (2)
2 A
Vb
The term - of equation (1) takes into account that the soil-water suspension rises
A
Vb
by when the hydrometer is immersed in the sedimentation cylinder.
A
1 Vb
Thus the center of volume is displaced upward by ( ) as given in equation (1).
2 A

By plotting a curve of hydrometer reading R versus L, one can obtain a hydrometer

calibration graph as shown in fig.
For 152H hydrometer equation (1) reduces
to (see Fig1):
L = 16.3-0.164R
Where R = hydrometer reading corrected for
meniscus only.
In a turbid suspension, one must read to the
top of the meniscus (see Fig.1). The reason
Figure-2: Hydrometer Calibration Plot
for using only this correction is that the
velocity of fall is of interest and the actual reading is related to the distance L that
the particles have fallen regardless of temperature, specific gravity of solution, or any
other variable.
Now the percentage of soil remaining in suspension also known as percent finer is
directly related to the hydrometer reading of 152H hydrometer since it reads the
grams of soil still in suspension directly if the specific weight of the soil grains is 2.65
gm/cc and the water is 1.00 gm/cc. The dispersing agent will have some effect on the
water and additionally, the temperature of the test will be around 20°C and the Gs of
the soil grains is not likely to be 2.65: thus correction to the actual hydrometer
reading will be required to obtain the correct reading of the grams of soil still in
suspension at any given instant of elapsed time.
The temperature can be kept constant using a constant temperature water bath. The
effect of water impurities and the dispersal agent on hydrometer readings can be
obtained by using a sedimentation cylinder of water from the same source and with
the same quantity of dispersing agent as that used in the soil-water suspension to
obtain a zero correction. This jar of water should be at the same temperature as that
of the soil-water suspension.
CORRECTIONS
TEMPERATURE CORRECTION (Ct)
It can be ±. Hydrometer is calibrated at 20°C. If temperature > 20°C the suspension
shall have less density, less hydrometer reading as it will sink more, so correction is
(+). If temperature <20°C, correction is (-).
ZERO CORRECTION (Cd)

It is also called correction for the dispersing agent. Addition of the dispersing agent
to the soil specimen causes and increase in the specific gravity of the suspension.
Therefore, the dispersing agent correction is always negative. The dispersing agent
correction (Cd) can be determined by noting the hydrometer reading in clear water
and again in the same water after adding the dispersing agent.
MENISCUS CORRECTION (Cm)
It is always (+) as the hydrometer reading is read less than the actual.
Now corrected hydrometer reading Rc is as follows:
Rc = Ractual + Cm - Cd ± Ct
20
(Suppose Rc = 20 which means Gs = + 1 = 1.02 )
100
The percent finer can be computed by simple proportion (if Gs=2.65) as:
Rc
Percent finer = ×100 (%)
Ws
Where
Rc = grams of soil in suspension at some elapsed time ‘t’.
Ws = weight of original soil sample placed in suspension, gm
If Gs is not equal to 2.65, one can get a multiplier ‘a’ from the table available in soil
mechanics lab manual.
G S (1.65)
a=
(G S -1)(2.65)
R c .a
Percent finer = ×100 (%)
Wc
UTILITY OF GRADATION CURVES
Following are the practical uses of gradation curve:
1. Used for soil classification especially for textural classification of coarse-
grained soils (gravels, sands).
2. Used to establish the proportions of gravel sand silt, and clay in a soil mass.
3. Used to estimate the permeability of sand using Hazen relation K=CD2, m/sec.,
where C, a constant = 0.010 to 0.015 for sands.
4. Used for the design of filters.
5. Used to select a suitable method of ground improvement.
6. Used to distinguish between well-graded, poorly-graded, and uniformly-graded
soils.
CONSISTENCY OF SOIL
The term consistency is used to indicate the resistance to deformation or firmness of
fine-grained soils. The consistency of cohesive soils in natural state, in general is
expressed quantitatively in terms of soft, stiff, very stiff and hard.

Atterberg, a Swedish Soil Scientist, in 1911, formally distinguished the following

stages of consistency–liquid, plastic, semi-solid, and solid. The water contents at
which the soil passes from one of these states to the next have been arbitrary
designated as ‘consistency limits’–Liquid limit, Plastic limit and Shrinkage limit, in
that order. These are called ‘Atterberg limits’ in honour of the originator of the
concept.
Variation of volume of soil mass with variation of water content

Liquid Limit (LL)
It is the minimum moisture content at which the soil will flow under its own weight
under the influence of a small disturbing force According to Casagrande, LL is defined
as the moisture content at which a standard groove cut in the remoulded soil sample
by a grooving tool will close over a distance of 12.5 mm (0.5") at 25 blows of the LL
cup falling 10 mm on a hard rubber base. All plastic soils possesses a minimum
constant value of shearing strength at LL.
Plastic Limit (PL)
The PL is defined as the minimum moisture content at which the soil can be rolled
into a thread of 3 mm (1/8") in diameter without crumbling.

Shrinkage Limit (SL)

The SL is defined as the maximum moisture content at which further loss of moisture
does not cause a decrease in the volume of the soil mass.
Plastic Index (PI)
It is the range of moisture content over which a soil remains in plastic state. Thus:
PI = LL - PL
The PI is useful in engineering classification of cohesive soils and many engineering
properties have been found to empirically correlate with PI.
PI Plasticity
0 Non-plastic (NP)
<7 Low plastic
7-17 Medium plastic
> 17 Highly plastic

Liquidity Index (LI)
The index that is used to indicate the consistency of undisturbed soil is called as LI
or water plasticity ratio. This is expressed as:
Wn -PL
LL =
PI
Wn = NMC
LI<0 : Soil is in semi-plastic solid or solid state (if SL >Wn = solid, SL <Wn = semi solid)
0<LI<1 : Soil is in plastic state
LI> I : Soil is in liquid state (quick clays or ultra-sensitive clays)
Toughness Index (TI)
It is defined as the ratio of PI and FI and is given by:
PI
TI =
FI
Where FI = Flow index, the slope of the flow curve (i.e. log N vs. w plot used for LL
determination)
The value of TI falls between 0 and 3 for most clays. When TI is less than one, the
soil is friable at the PL. TI is very useful to distinguish soils of different physical
properties.
Activity (A)
Skempton (1953) defined the activity A of a clay as:
PI
A=
%age by weight of clay sized particles (< 0.002 mm)

Activity of Soils
Soil type Activity
Kaoline clay 0.4 - 0.5
Glacial clay and loess 0.5-0.75
Organic estuarine clay > 1.25
Clays with A < 0.75 are called inactive clays

Clays with 0.75 <A < 1.25 are called normal clays
Clays with A > 1.25 are called active clays
DETERMINATION OF CONSISTENCY LIMITS
Liquid Limit Test—ASTM D 4318
For liquid limit test, the Casagrande's liquid limit device is used (see fig.). About 200
to 300 gram of oven dried or air-dried (depends on soil type) soil is mixed with distilled
water to form a paste of stiff consistency.
A portion of the paste is placed in Casagrande
cup and leveled to about. 12.5 mm depth. A
groove is cut in the middle of the paste using
a standard grooving tool. The cup is lifted and
dropped through 10 mm by rotating handle at
about 2 revolutions/sec. and the number of
blows required to close the groove along the
bottom for about 12.5 mm (1/2") are counted.
The water content of the soil taken from the
groove is then determined. The test is
repeated by altering the moisture content of
the paste by at least four times or more.
During test, the moisture content is adjusted in such a way that the number of blows
(N) required to close the groove varies between 10 and 40. Moisture content versus
log N is then plotted on a semi log paper as shown in fig. This plot is called as the
flow curve and its slope is known as flow index (FI).
The moisture content corresponding to 25 blows is determined. This moisture content
is called as LL.

Liquid Limit Apparatus

Plastic Limit Test—ASTM D 4318

For PL about 20 grams of soil is mixed thoroughly with distilled water to from a paste
of very stiff consistency. The soil paste is
rolled on a glass plate with the palm of the
hand, until it is about 3 mm (1/8") in
diameter. The procedure of rolling is repeated
till the soil shows signs of crumbling when the
diameter is about 3 mm. The water content of
the crumbled threads is determined. This
moisture content is called as PL.
Shrinkage Limit Test—ASTM D 427

Soil shrinks as moisture is gradually lost from it. With continuing loss of moisture, a
stage of equilibrium is reached at which more loss of moisture will result in no further
volume change. The moisture content, in percent, at which the volume of the soil
mass ceases to change is defined as the shrinkage limit.
Shrinkage limit tests (ASTM Test Designation D-427) are performed in the laboratory
with a porcelain dish about 44 mm (1.75 in.) in diameter and about 12.7 mm (0.5 in.)
high. The inside of the dish is coated with petroleum jelly and is then filled completely
with wet soil. Excess soil standing above the edge of the dish is struck off with a
straightedge. The mass of the wet soil inside the dish is recorded. The soil pat in the
dish is then oven-dried. The volume of the oven-dried soil pat is determined by the
displacement of mercury. Because handling mercury may be hazardous, ASTM D-
4943 describes a method of dipping the oven-dried soil pat in a melted pot of wax.
The wax-coated soil pat is then cooled. Its volume is determined by submerging it in
water. By reference to Figure 4.9, the shrinkage limit can be determined as


SOIL CLASSIFICATION SCHEMES

A classification scheme provides a method of identifying soils in a particular group
that would likely exhibit similar characteristics. Soil classification is used to specify
a certain soil type that is best suited for a given application. Also, it can be used to
establish a soil profile along a desired cross section of a soil mass. There are several
classification schemes available. Each was devised for a specific use. For example,
the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
developed one scheme that classifies soils according to their usefulness in roads and
highways, while the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) was originally
developed for use in airfield construction but was later modified for general use.
Unified Soil Classification System
The USCS is neither too elaborate nor too simplistic. The USCS uses symbols for the
particle size groups. These symbols and their representations are G—gravel, S—sand,
M—silt, and C—clay. These are combined with other symbols expressing gradation
characteristics—W for well graded and P for poorly graded—and plasticity
characteristics—H for high and L for low, and a symbol, O, indicating the presence
of organic material. A typical classification of CL means a clay soil with low plasticity,

while SP means a poorly graded sand. The flowcharts shown in Figures 4.9a and 4.9b
provide systematic means of classifying a soil according to the USCS.


7
4

SOIL COMPACTION
In the construction of highway embankments, earth dams, and many other

engineering structures, loose soils must be compacted to increase their unit weights.
Compaction increases the strength characteristics of soils, which increase the
bearing capacity of foundations constructed over them. Compaction also decreases
the amount of undesirable settlement of structures and increases the stability of
slopes of embankments.
Soil compaction is the densification—reduction in void ratio—of a soil through the
expulsion of air. This is normally achieved by using mechanical compactors, rollers,
and rammers with the addition of water.
The degree of compaction of a soil is characterized by its dry density. The degree of
compaction depends upon the moisture content, the amount of compactive effort or
energy expended and the nature of the soil. A change in moisture content or
compactive effort brings about a change in density. Thus, for compaction of soil, a
certain amount of water and a certain predetermined amount of rolling are necessary.
The following are the important effects of compaction:
a) Compaction increases the dry density of the soil, thus increasing its shear
strength and bearing capacity through an increase in frictional characteristics ;
b) Compaction decreases the tendency for settlement of soil ; and,
c) Compaction brings about a low permeability of the soil.
COMPACTION TEST
To determine the soil moisture-density relationship and to evaluate a soil as to its
suitability for making fills for a specific purpose, the soil is subjected to a compaction
test.
Proctor (1933) showed that there exists a definite relationship between the soil
moisture content and the dry density on compaction and that, for a specific amount
of compaction energy used, there is a particular moisture content at which a
particular soil attains its maximum dry density. Such a relationship provides a
satisfactory practical approach for quality control of fill construction in the field.
▪ Moisture Content—Dry Density Relationship
The relation between moisture content and dry density of a soil at a particular
compaction energy or effort is shown in Fig. 12.1

The addition of water to a dry soil helps in bringing the solid particles together by
coating them with thin films of water. At low water content, the soil is stiff and it is
difficult to pack it together. As the water content is increased, water starts acting as
a lubricant, the particles start coming closer due to increased workability and under
a given amount of compactive effort, the soil-water-air mixture starts occupying less
volume, thus effecting gradual increase in dry density. As more and more water is
added, a stage is reached when the air content of the soil attains a minimum volume,
thus making the dry density a maximum. The water content corresponding to this
maximum dry density is called the ‘optimum moisture content’. Addition of water
beyond the optimum reduces the dry density because the extra water starts
occupying the space which the soil could have occupied.
The curve with the peak shown in Fig. 12.1 is known as the ‘moisture-content dry
density curve’ or the ‘compaction curve’. The state at the peak is said to be that of
100% compaction at the particular compactive effort; the curve is usually of a
hyperbolic form, when the points obtained from tests are smoothly joined.
The wet density and the moisture content are required in order to calculate the dry
density as follows:
▪ Effect of Compactive Effort

Increase in compactive effort or the energy expended will result in an increase in the
maximum dry density and a corresponding decrease in the optimum moisture
content, as illustrated in Fig. 12.2.
SATURATION (ZERO-AIR-VOIDS) LINE

A line showing the relation between water content and dry density at a constant
degree of saturation S may be established from the equation:
Substituting S = 95%, 90%, and so on, one can arrive at γd values for different values
of water content in %. The lines thus obtained on a plot of γd versus water content
“w” are called 95% saturation line, 90% saturation line and so on.
If one substitutes S = 100% and plots the corresponding line, one obtains the
theoretical saturation line, relating dry density with water content for a soil
containing no air voids. It is said to be ‘theoretical’ because it can never be reached
in practice as it is impossible to expel the pore air completely by compaction.
We then use
The saturation lines when superimposed on compaction curves give an indication of

the air voids present at different points on these curves; this is shown in Fig. 12.3.

LABORATORY COMPACTION TESTS

Standard Proctor Test (ASTM D698)
In the Proctor test, the soil is compacted in a mold that has a volume of 944 cm3. The
diameter of the mold is 101.6 mm (4 in.). During the laboratory test, the mold is
attached to a baseplate at the bottom and to an extension at the top (Figure6.2a). The
soil is mixed with varying amounts of water and then compacted in three equal layers
by a hammer/ rammer (Figure 6.2b) that delivers 25 blows to each layer. The hammer
has a mass of 2.5 kg (6.5 lb) and has a drop of 30.5 mm (12 in.). Figure 6.2c is a
photograph of the laboratory equipment required for conducting a standard Proctor
test. For each test, the moist unit weight of compaction, g, can be calculated as


For each test, the moisture content of the compacted soil is determined in the
laboratory.
With the known moisture content, the dry unit weight can be calculated as
………6.2
where w (%) _ percentage of moisture content.
The values of  d determined from Eq. (6.2) can be plotted against the corresponding
moisture contents to obtain the maximum dry unit weight and the optimum moisture
content for the soil.
Modified Proctor Test

With the development of heavy rollers and their use in field compaction, the standard
Proctor test was modified to better represent field conditions. This revised version
sometimes is referred to as the modified Proctor test (ASTM D1557). For conducting
the modified Proctor test, the same mold is used with a volume of 944 cm3 (1/30 ft3),
as in the case of the standard Proctor test. However, the soil is compacted in five
layers by a hammer that has a mass of 4.54 kg (10 lb). The drop of the hammer is
457 mm (18 in.). The number of hammer blows for each layer is kept at 25 as in the
case of the standard Proctor test.
The compaction energy for this type of compaction test can be calculated as 2700
kN-m/m3 (56,000 ft-lb/lb3). (590 kN-m3 in Standard test)
Because it increases the compactive effort, the modified Proctor test results in an
increase in the maximum dry unit weight of the soil. The increase in the maximum
dry unit weight is accompanied by a decrease in the optimum moisture content.

Factors Affecting Compaction

▪ Effect of Soil Type

The soil type—that is, grain-size distribution, shape of the soil grains, specific gravity
of soil solids, and amount and type of clay minerals present—has a great influence
on the maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture content. Figure 6.4 shows
typical compaction curves obtained from four soils. The laboratory tests were
conducted in accordance with ASTM Test Designation D-698.
Note also that the bell-shaped compaction curve shown in Figure 12.1 is typical of
most clayey soils. Figure 6.4 shows that for sands, the dry unit weight has a general
tendency first to decrease as moisture content increases and then to increase to a
maximum value with further increase of moisture. The initial decrease of dry unit
weight with increase of moisture content can be attributed to the capillary tension
effect. At lower moisture contents, the capillary tension in the pore water inhibits the
tendency of the soil particles to move around and be compacted densely.
Lee and Suedkamp (1972) studied compaction curves for 35 soil samples. They
observed that four types of compaction curves can be found. These curves are shown

in Figure 6.5. The following table is a summary of the type of compaction curves
encountered in various soils with reference to Figure 6.5.
▪ Effect of Compaction Effort

The compaction energy per unit volume used for the standard Proctor test can be
given as
If the compaction effort per unit volume of soil is changed, the moisture–unit weight
curve also changes. This fact can be demonstrated with the aid of Figure 6.6, which
shows four compaction curves for a sandy clay. The standard Proctor mold and
hammer were used to obtain these compaction curves. The number of layers of soil
used for compaction was three


Compaction Equipment
Most of the compaction in the field is done with rollers. The four most common types
of rollers are
1. Smooth-wheel rollers (or smooth-drum rollers)
2. Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers
3. Sheep foot rollers
4. Vibratory rollers

Smooth-wheel rollers are suitable for proof rolling

subgrades and for finishing operation of fills with
sandy and clayey soils. These rollers provide 100%
coverage under the wheels, with ground contact
pressures as high as 310 to 380 kN/m2 (45 to 55
lb/in2). They are not suitable for producing high
unit weights of compaction when used on thicker
layers.
Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers are better in many respects than the smooth-wheel
rollers. The former are heavily loaded with several
rows of tires. These tires are closely spaced—four to
six in a row. The contact pressure under the tires
can range from 600 to 700 kN/m2 (85 to 100 lb/in2),
and they produce about 70 to 80% coverage.
Pneumatic rollers can be used for sandy and clayey
soil compaction. Compaction is achieved by a
combination of pressure and kneading action.
Sheep foot rollers are drums with a large number of projections. The area of each
projection may range from 25 to 85 cm2 ( 4 to 13 in2).
These rollers are most effective
in compacting clayey soils. The contact pressure
under the projections can range from 1400 to 7000
kN/m2 (200 to 1000 lb/in2). During compaction in
the field, the initial passes compact the lower portion
of a lift. Compaction at the top and middle of a lift is
done at a later stage.
Vibratory rollers are extremely efficient in compacting granular soils. Vibrators can
be attached to smooth-wheel, pneumatic
rubber-tired, or sheep foot rollers to provide
vibratory effects to the soil. The vibration is
produced by rotating off-center weights.
Handheld vibrating plates can be used for
effective compaction of granular soils over a
limited area.
IN SITU UNIT WEIGHT DETERMINATION

Unit weight is necessary to compute overburden pressure at any depth within a soil.
The methods commonly used for the determination of in situ unit weight of a natural
soil deposit or a compacted earth fill are:
(a) Core-cutter method
(b) Sand replacement method
(c) Water displacement method
a) Core-cutter Method
The core-cutter method consists of driving a core-cutter of
known volume (1000 cc) into the soil after placing it on a
cleaned soil surface. The core-cutter is usually provided
with a 25 mm high dolly. The driving of the core-cutter is
usually done by hitting the dolly mounted on top of the core-
cutter with a suitable hammer. The cutter filled with soil is
removed and the excess soil trimmed off. The cutter with
the soil is weighed. The volume of the cutter is calculated
from the dimensions of the cutter and the in situ unit weight
is determined by dividing the weight of the soil in the cutter
by the volume of the cutter. If the water content of the soil
the cutter is determined in the laboratory, the dry unit
weight of the soil can also be computed.
b) Sand Replacement Method
The core-cutter method cannot be used in the case of hard or gravelly soils. Under
such situations, the sand replacement method is
better suited. The sand replacement method
consists of making a hole into the ground. The
excavated soil is weighed. The volume of the hole
is determined by replacement with sand.
Knowing the weight of excavated soil and the
volume of the hole, the in situ unit weight can be
easily determined.
The site is cleaned and a square tray with a
central hole in it is placed on the cleaned surface.
A hole of diameter equal to the diameter of the
hole in the tray and depth about 10-15 cm, is
made in the ground. The excavated soil is collected in the tray and weighed. Next, a
sand bottle (see fig) about two-thirds full of clean, dry sand is weighed and placed

upside down centrally over the hole. The tap is opened and the sand allowed to run
to fill the excavated hole and the conical end. When no further flow of sand takes
place, the tap is closed and the bottle with remaining sand is weighed. The bottle is
then placed over a level surface and the weight of sand filling the cone of the sand
bottle is noted. Thus, the weight of sand filling the excavated hole is computed. The
unit weight of sand in the bottle is determined by pouring sand in a calibrating can
of known dimensions and weighing the sand in the calibration can. Having computed
the unit weight of sand in the bottle, and the weight of sand required to fill the
excavated hole, the volume of the hole is determined. By dividing the weight of the
excavated soil by its volume, the insitu unit weight of the soil is determined.
The water content of the excavated soil is also determined and the dry unit weight
f
is worked out, using the relation  d =
1+ w
c) Water Displacement Method
This method is suitable for cohesive soil only, where it is possible to have a lump
sample. A small sample is trimmed to a regular shape from a larger sample brought
from the field. The sample is weighed. Let the weigh be W1. The sample is then coated
with a thin layer of paraffin wax. The sample coated with paraffin wax is weighed
again (W2). A metal container with an overflow arrangement is taken. It is filled with
water up to the brim and excess water is allowed to flow out through the overflow
arrangement. The coated sample is then gradually lowered into the metal container
and the overflow water is collected in a measuring jar. The measured volume of
water, Vw is the volume of the displaced water. The volume of the uncoated soil
specimen, V is calculated.
Specifications for Field Compaction

RELATIVE DENSITY (Dr) is an index that quantifies the degree of packing between
the loosest and densest possible state of coarse-grained soils as determined by
experiments:
emax − e
Dr =
emax − emin
Where emax is the maximum void ratio (loosest condition), emin is the minimum void
ratio (densest condition), and e is the current void ratio.
The relative density can also be written as
γ dmax  γ d -γ dmin 
Dr =  
γd  γ dmax -γ dmin 
RELATIVE COMPACTION OR DEGREE OF COMPACTION (Rc) is the ratio between
the dry unit weight of soil obtained in the field to the max dry unit weight of soil
obtained in the lab.
 γ 
Rc =  d   100
 γ dmax 
Rc = 100% means γ d obtained in lab and in field are same but it is very difficult to
obtained. Rc = 95% is possible.





PERMEABILITY
Definitions
Soil is a particulate materials consisting of solid grains and pores (or voids) in
between i.e. it is a porous media. The voids in a soil mass are interconnected, under
saturated conditions are filled with water and allow water to pass through (seep)
when subjected to differential head. Permeability is a measure of the ease with
which water flows through soils and/or rocks. No soil is absolutely impermeable but
some of them are relatively impervious while others are pervious.
A soil is said to be pervious when it offers the minimum possible resistance to the
flow of water. For examples, all clean, coarse-grained soils (gravels, sands and gravel-
sand mixtures) are pervious materials. These soils possess very good drainage
conditions and have permeability in the range of > 10-2 to 10-5 m/sec. On the other
hand, soils which offers the maximum resistance to the flow of water are called
impervious (e.g. silts, clays and their mixtures). The impervious soils have
permeability < 10-8 m/sec.
Scope of Permeability Study
The knowledge of permeability is essential for most geotechnical engineering
problems dealing with flowing water and/or coming in contact with water. More
specifically it is needed for:
a) Analysis of stability of foundations and foundation excavations coming in contact
with flowing water and/or ground water.
b) Analysis of seepage through dams or embankments
c) Design of drainage systems
d) Water lowering
e) Estimation of wells yield and design of tube wells
f) Design of relief wells, pervious blanket etc.
Hydraulic Gradient
When water flows through a saturated soil mass there is certain resistance for the
flow because of the presence of solid matter. However, the laws of fluid mechanics
which are applicable for the flow of fluids through pipes are also applicable to flow of
water through soils. As per Bernoulli's equation, the total head at any point in water
under steady flow condition may be expressed as
Total head = pressure head + velocity head + elevation head
This principle can be understood with regards to the flow of water through a sample
of soil of length L and cross-sectional area A as shown in Fig. 4.1 (a). The heads of

water at points A and B as the water flows from A to B are given as follows (with
respect to a datum)
As the water flows from A to B, there is an energy loss which is represented by the
difference in the total heads HA and HB
Where, pA and pB = pressure heads, VA and VB = velocity, g = acceleration due to

gravity, γw = unit weight of water, h = loss of head.
For all practical purposes the velocity head is a small quantity and may be neglected.
The loss of head of h units is effected as the water flows from A to B. The loss of head
per unit length of flow may be expressed as
Where i is called the hydraulic gradient.

Darcy’s law:
A French Engineer Darcy (1856) presented famous Darcy's Law of flow through
saturated soils according to which the velocity of flow (v) is directly proportional to
the hydraulic gradient (i). Mathematically:

h
v i v=k i v=k
L
We know that Q = AV
h
q=k A q = k i A ……(1)
L
Where, q = discharge or rate of flow, A= cross-sectional area, k = the constant of
proportionality or co-efficient of permeability.
h = head loss or difference in pressure head over a flow path of length L.
For unit hydraulic gradient (i = 1) from equation (1)
q
k=
A
Thus the co-efficient of permeability (k) may be defined as the rate of flow per unit
area (A) of soil under unit hydraulic gradient. As “i” is unit less, k has the velocity
units.
Factors Affecting Permeability
The coefficient of permeability (k) is affected by several factors given below:
a) Particle size. Coefficient of permeability of a soil is proportional to the square of
the particle size (D). The permeability of coarse-grained soils is very large as
compared to that of fine- grained soils. The permeability of coarse sand may be
more than one million times as much that of clay.
b) Structure of soil mass. The size of the flow passage depends upon the structural
arrangement. For the same void ratio, the permeability is more in the case of
flocculated structure as compared to that in the dispersed structure.
Stratified soil deposits have greater permeability parallel to the plane of
stratification than that perpendicular to this plane.
Generally horizontal permeability is greater than vertical permeability
kH ≥ kV (kH = 10kV)
c) Shape of Particles. The permeability of a soil depends upon the shape of
particles. In a natural deposit, the void ratio for a soil with angular particles may
be greater than that for rounded particles, and the soil with angular particles may
be actually more permeable.
d) Void Ratio. For a given soil, the greater the void ratio, the higher is the value of
the coefficient of permeability.
e) Properties of water. Coefficient of permeability increases with an increase in
temperature due to reduction the viscosity.
f) Degree of Saturation. If the soil is not fully saturated, it contains air pockets,
the permeability is reduced due to presence of air which causes blockage of
passage. Consequently, the permeability of a partially saturated soil is
considerably smaller than that of a fully saturated soil.
g) Adsorbed water. The fine-grained soils have a layer of adsorbed water strongly
attached to their surface. This adsorbed water layer is not free to move under
gravity. It causes an obstruction to flow of water in the pores and hence reduces
the permeability of soils.
h) Impurities in water. Any foreign matter in water has a tendency to plug the flow
passage and reduce the effective voids and hence the permeability of soils.
Methods of Determining k
Methods of determining permeability can be divided into two major groups:-
(1) Indirect methods
(2) Direct methods
Indirect Methods
In these methods “k” is not determined by direct test, instead its value is calculated
from other test data. Some of the methods are:
(a) Allen Hazen's Method.
Allen Hazen (1911) gave an empirical relation for permeability of filter sands as:
k = CD102 cm/sec
Where,
k = co-efficient of permeability in cm/sec
C = empirical co-efficient which varies from 90 to 120 often assumed as 100.
D10 = effective size in cm
The above equation was obtained from the test results of Hazen where the effective
size of soils varied from 0.1 to 3 mm and the uniformity coefficient for all soils was
less than 5.
(b) Permeability from Consolidation Test
Co-efficient of permeability k can be estimated using:
k = Cv mv γw
This method is applicable to clays with k< 10-7 cm/sec.
Direct Methods
Laboratory methods

Field methods
(1) Laboratory methods
Co-efficient of permeability (k) of soils is determined in the laboratory using
permeameters. Following two types of permeameters are commonly used:
a) Constant head permeameter for coarse-grained soils (sands, gravel, and their
mixture).
b) Variable head permeameter for fine-grained soils (silts, clays and their mixture)
Permeability in the laboratory can also be determined by special modifications to a
consolidation cell during consolidation test.
Constant Head Permeameter (ASTM D2434)
Fig. 5.3 represents a diagrammatic sketch of a constant head permeameter used for
determination of k of coarse-grained soils in the laboratory. In this test water under
a constant head h is allowed to percolate through a soil sample of length L and cross
sectioned area A until a steady state flow condition is reached. The quantity of water
Q seeping through the sample in time, t is then collected in a graduated cylinder and
the co-efficient of permeability is calculated using:
QL
k=
Aht
Variable Head Permeameter

Fig. 5.4 represents a typical schematic sketch of a falling head permeameter test
setup. This test is used for fine-grained soil of relatively low permeability.

When the stopcock is opened, the water will pass through the soil sample and the
water level in the standpipe will fall with time.
A sand filter is incorporated below and above the soil sample to avoid possible soil
wash out with flowing water.
Once steady state flow conditions are attained, two readings of water level in the
standpipe h1 and h2 are taken at a time intervals of t1 and t2 respectively.
Now if dh is the variation of head in the standpipe in a time interval of dt, .the quantity
of water seeping through the sample in time t is given by:
Q = − a dh and from Darcy ' s law
( −ve sign indicate that the water head decreases with time )
h
−a dh = k A dt or
L
aL dh
dt = − . or
Ak h
integrating between limits 0 to t and h1 and h2
aL h
−t = − ln 1
Ak h2
a L h
k = 2.3 . log 1 ............(a − 1)
A t h2

width
hL


 Average coefficient 
  = k av = k H .k V
 of permeability 
(2) Field methods

The following are the methods used in the field to determine permeability.
1. Pumping out of wells
2. Pumping into wells
1-PUMPING-OUT TESTS
In the field, the average hydraulic conductivity of a soil deposit in the direction of flow
can be determined by performing pumping tests from wells. Figure 7.21 shows a case
where the top permeable layer, whose hydraulic conductivity has to be determined,
is unconfined and underlain by an impermeable layer. During the test, water is
pumped out at a constant rate from a test well that has a perforated casing. Several
observation wells at various radial distances are made around the test well.
Continuous observations of the water level in the test well and in the observation
wells are made after the start of pumping, until a steady state is reached. The steady
state is established when the water level in the test and observation wells becomes
constant. The expression for the rate of flow of groundwater into the well, which is
equal to the rate of discharge from pumping, can be written as
The average hydraulic conductivity for a confined aquifer can also be determined by
conducting a pumping test from a well with a perforated casing that penetrates the
full depth of the aquifer and by observing the piezometric level in a number of

observation wells at various radial distances (Figure 7.22). Pumping is continued at

a uniform rate q until a steady state is reached.
Because water can enter the test well only from the aquifer of thickness H, the steady
state of discharge is
2-PUMPING-IN TESTS

Pumping-in tests are conducted to determine the coefficient of permeability of an

individual stratum through which a hole is drilled. These tests are more economical
than the pumping-out test. However, the pumping-out tests give more reliable values
than that given by pumping-in tests. The pumping-in tests give the value of the
coefficient of permeability of stratum just close to the hole, whereas the pumping-out
tests give the value for a large-area around the hole.
There are basically two types of pumping-in tests: (1) Open-end tests, (2) Packer tests.
In an open-end tests, the water flows out of the test hole through its bottom end,
whereas in packer tests, the water flows out through the sides of the section of a hole
enclosed between packers. The value of the coefficient of permeability is obtained
from the quantity of water accepted by the hole. The water pumped-in should be
clean, as the impurities, such as silt, clay or any other foreign matter, may cause
plugging of the flow passages. If the water available is turbid, it should be clarified in
a settling tank or by using a filter. The temperature of the water pumped in should
be slightly higher than the temperature of the ground water to preclude the formation
of air bubbles in stratum.




Consolidation: Mechanics of consolidation, theory of one dimensional consolidation,

assumptions and validity, compression index, coefficient of compressibility, time factor,
coefficient of volume change and degree of consolidation, primary and secondary
consolidation, Normal and pre-consolidated soils.
CONSOLIDATION

When a soil mass is subjected to a compressive force, like all other materials, its
volume decreases. The property of the soil due to which a decrease in volume occurs
under compressive forces is known as the compressibility of soil. The compression
of soils can occur due to one or more of the following causes.
(1) Compression of solid particles and water in the voids.
(2) Compression and expulsion of air in the voids.
(3) Expulsion of water in the voids.
Compression of solid particles is negligibly small. Compression of water in the voids
is also extremely small, as the water is almost incompressible in the range of stresses
involved in soil engineering. Therefore, the compression due to the first cause is not
much significant.
Air exists only in partially saturated soils and dry soils. The compression of the air is
rapid as it is highly compressible. Further, air is expelled quickly as soon as the load
is applied. However, the compression due to the second cause is not relevant for
saturated soils.
When the soil is fully saturated, compression of soil occurs mainly due to the third
cause, namely, expulsion of water.
The compression of a saturated soil under a steady static pressure is known as
consolidation. It is entirely due to expulsion of water from the voids. It is similar to
the action of squeezing of water from a saturated sponge under pressure. The soil
behaves as a saturated sponge. As the consolidation of soils occurs, the water
escapes. The solid particles shift from one position to the other by rolling and sliding
and thus attain a closer packing. It is worth noting that the decrease in volume of
soil occurs not due to compression of solids or water but due to the shifting of
positions of the particles as the water escapes. Small volume changes may occur due
to bending, distortion and fracture of the solid particles, but such changes are
insignificant in the ordinary range of stresses involved in soil engineering problems.
Settlement of a structure is its vertical, downward movement due to a volume
decrease of the soil on which it is built. In other words, the settlement is the gradual
sinking of a structure due to compression of the soil below. A study of consolidation
characteristics is extremely useful for forecasting the magnitude and time of the
settlement of the structure.
INITIAL, PRIMARY AND SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION

The consolidation of a soil deposit can be divided into 3 stages:

1) Initial Consolidation. When a load is applied to a partially saturated soil, a

decrease in volume occurs due to expulsion and compression of air in the voids.
A small decrease in volume also occurs due to compression of solid particles. The
reduction in volume of the soil just after the application of the load is known as
initial consolidation or initial compression. For saturated soils, the initial
consolidation is mainly due to compression of solid particles.
2) Primary Consolidation. After initial consolidation, further reduction in volume
occurs due to expulsion of water from voids. When a saturated soil is subjected to
a pressure, initially all the applied pressure is taken up by water as an excess pore
water pressure, as water is almost incompressible as compared with solid
particles. A hydraulic gradient develops and the water starts flowing out and a
decrease in volume occurs. The decrease depends upon the permeability of the
soil and is, therefore, time dependent. This reduction in volume is called primary
consolidation.
In fine-grained soils, the primary consolidation occurs over a long time. On the
other hand, in coarse-grained soils, the primary consolidation occurs rather
quickly due to high permeability. As water escapes from the soil, the applied
pressure is gradually transferred from the water in the voids to the solid particles.
Thus, the effective stress is increased.
3) Secondary Consolidation. The reduction in volume continues at a very slow rate
even after the excess hydrostatic pressure developed by the applied pressure is
fully dissipated and the primary consolidation is complete. This additional
reduction in the volume is called secondary consolidation. The causes for
secondary consolidation are not fully established. It is attributed to the plastic
readjustment of the solid particles and the adsorbed water to the new stress
system. In most inorganic soils, it is generally small.
In the discussions that follow the word consolidation means primary
consolidations unless otherwise stated. The primary consolidation is the most
important component of the total.
CONSOLIDATION MODEL (HYDROMECHANICAL ANALOG)

To understand the mechanism of consolidation, consider Fig; 7.1

Fig 7.1(a) represents a saturated cylinder of soil mass. The porous piston in this figure
permits load to be applied to the soil allowing escape of water through the pores of
the piston. From hydro mechanical analog in which the spring represents the soil
mineral skeleton and water in the cylinder represents the pore fluid in the soil mass.
The soil permeability is represented by the valve attached to the piston.
Figure 7.1 Hydro mechanical analogy for load-sharing and consolidation (a) Physical
example, (b) Hydro mechanical analog; initial condition, (c) Load applied with valve
closed, (d) Piston moves as water escapes, (e) Equilibrium with no further flow, (f)
Gradual transfer of load.
In Fig. 7.1 (c) an external stress is applied on the piston with the valve closed.
Essentially all the applied stress is resisted by an increase in the pore pressure known

as hydrostatic excess pore water pressure (neutral pressure). At this stage, following
relationship exists:
 v = u (That is the total stress is equal to the pore pressure.)

Next open the valve. The fluid pressure within the cylinder will cause the water to
flow through this valve. As the water escapes the spring starts shortening due to the
transfer of load from the fluid to the spring (i.e. at this instant, load sharing between
the water and the spring starts). At any instant of time the following relation, holds
good:
 v =  v + u ……………. 7.1
Where,
 v = total stress (i.e. applied external pressure)

 v = the stress carried by the spring that is by soil skeleton or particles, in general,
called as effective stress or inter-granular pressure.
u = pore water pressure also known as neutral pressure.
If for a given applied external stress the valve is kept, open for a time large enough,
eventually a condition is reached when the entire applied stress is carried by the
spring and the pore pressure is dissipated to original hydrostatic condition. At | this
stage there will be no further flow of water through the valve.
From this hydro mechanical analog following conditions are evident:
1) The magnitude of deformation (settlement) in a consolidation is dependent only
on the compressibility of the soil (i.e. the stiffness of the spring). The
compressibility is expressed in term of a coefficient known as compression index
(Cc).
2) The rate of consolidation is a function of both permeability and compressibility of
the soil. The combined effect of permeability and the compressibility is represented
by a co-efficient termed as the co-efficient of consolidation (Cv).
3) The time required for the consolidation process is related to the following two
factors:
a) The time should be directly proportional to the volume of water which must be
squeezed out of the soil mass. This volume of water in turn be related to the
product of stress change, the compressibility of the soil mineral skeleton, and
volume of the soil.
b) The time should be inversely proportional to how fast the water can flow
through the soil mass. On the other hand, velocity of flow = ki (i.e. the product

of permeability and hydraulic gradient) and the hydraulic gradient “i” is the
head lost per unit length through which the fluid must flow.
Mathematically these two considerations can be expressed by the relation:
t
(  )( mv )( H ) ………….7.2
  
 
 w 
(k )
H
Where,
t = the time required to complete some percentage of consolidation process.
 = the change in the applied stress causing consolidation.
mv = co-efficient of volume change per drainage face.
H = the thickness of the soil mass per drainage face (i.e. drainage path)
k = co-efficient of permeability of the soil mass.
i = hydraulic gradient = head lost per unit length
  
 
 w 
H
mv H 2 Tm  H 2
Equation 7.2 is reduced to t =  w or t = v w
k k
k
Let = Cv = Co-efficient of consolidation
mv w
Then
TH 2
t= or
Cv
t Cv
T=
H 2 ……………..7.3
Where T = dimensionless constant known as time factor.

Table 7.1 presents the values of T for a linear distribution of excess pore water
pressure.
These relations tell us that the consolidation time:
1) Increases with increasing co-efficient of consolidation (Cv) of the soil mass or
coefficient of volume change (mv).
2) Decreases with increasing permeability co-efficient (k)
3) Increases rapidly with increasing thickness of soil mass (H)
4) Is independent of the magnitude of the stress changes (  ).

Table 7.1 Time factor values at different degrees of consolidation

Uavg T
0.1 0.008
0.2 0.031
0.3 0.071
0.4 0.126
0.5 0.197
0.6 0.287
0.7 0.403
0.8 0.567
0.9 0.848
0.95 1.163
1.0 
Uavg = average degree of consolidation.
Approximately:
 U 
2
For U < 60%, T=  

4  100 
For U> 60%, T= 1.781-0.933 log (100-U %)
OEDOMETER (CONSOLOOMETER) TEST
When a soil mass under the foundation of a structure is loaded vertically, the
compression of the soil can be assumed to be one dimensional. To simulate the one
dimensional compression in the laboratory, the soil sample is compressed in a special
device called an oedometer or consolido-meter. Schematic sketches of two commonly
used oedometer are shown in Fig. 7.2.
The details of this test can be found m any soil testing-manual and a brief description
is presented below:
In this test a soil sample is carefully trimmed and placed into a consolidation ring.
The ring is relatively rigid and does not allow any lateral deformation. On both ends
of the sample porous stones are placed to facilitate drainage from either ends during
consolidation process. Usually the ratio of the diameter to the height of the sample is
between 2.5 and 5, depending upon the diameter of the sampler.

Figure 7.2 Schematic sketch of an oedometer or consolidation test apparatus:

(a) floating-ring oedometer; (b) fixed-ring oedometer (after U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
1970)
To study the relationship between load and deformation, compression load on the
test sample is applied in several increments and each increment is allowed to remain
on the sample until the further consolidation is negligible (usually for 24 hours). For
each increment of load deformation versus time are recorded and time consolidation
curve is drawn. Usually the load is applied in increments of 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.8, 1.6,
3.2, 6.4, 12.8, and 25.6 Kg/cm2 and for each load increment deformation is recorded
at time intervals of 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 2, 4, 8, 15, 30, 60, 120, 240, 480 and 1440 minutes.
After completion of loading sequence, unloading is done in decrements to provide
data for expansion during load release.
COMPRESSIBILITY CHARACTERISTICS
Pressure-Void Ratio Curves
Figure 7.3 represents the results of a typical laboratory one-dimensional pressure-
void ratio curve. In Fig. 7.3a, the pressure is taken on an arithmetic scale, whereas
in Fig. 7.3b, it is taken on a
logarithmic scale.
A flat and somewhat
straight curve up to a
certain pressure (AB, Fig.
7.3b) is followed by a steep
and fairly straight line (CD)
with a smooth transition
from the first limb. If the
pressure is released, the soil
rebounds and does not Figure7.3

reach back to the previous void ratio, depicting permanent deformation. The
recompression curve is somewhat parallel to the first and gradually blends into the
straight line (CDE) (Fig. 7.3b). The point of transition, B, in the first loading curve
corresponds to a state of pressure known as pre-consolidation pressure.
Compression Index
The compression index (Cc) is the slope of the linear portion of the pressure-void ratio
curve on a semi-log plot, with pressure on the
log scale. This is a dimensionless parameter.
For any two points on the linear portion of the
plot,
eo − e1 e
Cc = = ……… (7.4)
log( p1 / po ) log( p1 / po )
where p0 and p1, are pressures corresponding
to eo and e1.
The slope of the expansion or decompression
part of the e-log p plot (approximated to a straight line) is referred to as the expansion
index, Ce.
Coefficient of Compressibility
The coefficient of compressibility, av (m2/N),
is the secant slope, for a given pressure
increment, of the effective pressure-void
ratio curve; that is,
e
av =
p …… (7.5)
Coefficient of Volume Compressibility

The coefficient of volume compressibility, mv (m2/N), is the compression of a soil layer
per unit of original thickness due to a given unit increase in pressure. If for an
increase in effective pressure from p0 to p1 the void ratio decreases from eo to e1, then
1  eo − e1  1  e 
mv =  =  
1 + eo  p1 − po  1 + eo  p  …….. (7.6)
1  H − H 1  1  H 
mv =  =  
H  p1 − po  H  p  …………. (7.7)

The coefficient of volume compressibility is numerically related to the coefficient of

compressibility as
av
mv =
1 + eo ……………… (7.8)
Degree of Consolidation
The degree of consolidation (or per cent consolidation), U, is the ratio, expressed as
a percentage of the amount of consolidation at a given time, within a soil mass to
the total amount of consolidation obtainable under a given stress condition. This is
expressed as
eo − et
U= ……… (7.9)
eo − e f
where ef is the void ratio at the end of consolidation and et, the void ratio during
consolidation at time t.
For an assumed linear e-p curve, the stress in question is as shown in Fig. 8.7; then,
U, can be expressed in terms of p as
p − po
U= ……… (8.14)
p1 − po
DETERMINATION OF THE COEFFICIENT OF CONSOLIDATION

The coefficient of consolidation Cv can be evaluated by means of laboratory tests by
fitting the experimental curve with the theoretical.
There are two laboratory methods that are in common use for the determination of
Cv. They are
1. Casagrande Logarithm of Time Fitting Method.
2. Taylor Square Root of Time Fitting Method.
Logarithm of Time Fitting Method
This method was proposed by Casagrande and Fadum (1940).

U=0%
R1
R2
R1 + R2
R50 R50
2
U=100%
t50
Above Figure is a plot showing the relationship between compression dial reading
and the logarithm of time of a consolidation test. The theoretical consolidation curve
using the log scale for the time factor is also shown. There is a similarity of shape
between the two curves. On the laboratory curve, the intersection formed by the final
straight line produced backward and the tangent to the curve at the point of inflection
is accepted as the 100 per cent primary consolidation point and the dial reading is
designated as R100. The time-compression relationship in the early stages is also
parabolic just as the theoretical curve.
The dial reading at zero primary consolidation R0 can be obtained by selecting any
two points on the parabolic portion of the curve where times are in the ratio of 1: 4.
The difference in dial readings between these two points is then equal to the difference
between the first point and the dial reading corresponding to zero primary
consolidation. For example, two points A and B whose times are 10 and 2.5 minutes
respectively, are marked on the curve. Let Z1 be the ordinate difference between the
two points. A point C is marked vertically over B such that BC = Z1. Then the point
C corresponds to zero primary consolidation. An average horizontal line is drawn
through these points to represent the theoretical zero percent consolidation line. On
the laboratory curve, the intersection formed by the final straight line produced
backward and the tangent to the curve at the point of inflection is accepted as the
100 per cent primary consolidation point and the dial reading is designated as R100.
The interval between 0 and 100% consolidation is divided into equal intervals of

percent consolidation. The value of Cv is computed by taking the time t and time
factor T at 50 percent consolidation. The equation to be used is:
C t TH 2
T = v 250 or Cv =
H t50
T = time factor for t50 = 0.197
Taylor's square root of time fitting method (1948)
A curve of deformation dial reading plotted against square root of time, t . Taylor
observed that the abscissa of the curve at 90% consolidation (U90%) was about 1.15
times the abscissa of the extension of the straight line and, therefore this property of
the plot helps in locating the position of U90 and t90. To determine Uo or R0, he
recommended to proceed as follows:
1. Project the straight line portion of the initial part of curve backward to zero time
to define R0 or U0.

2. Draw a second line from R0 with all abscissas 1.15 times as large as the
corresponding values on the first line. The intersection of the second line with the
laboratory curve defines R90 or U90.
3. Compute Cv using
Cv t90
T=
H2
Where t90 0.848.
Utility of Consolidation Test
To summarize the findings of the preceding sections, the consolidation test data is
used for the following:
1. Load-deformation curve (i.e. void ratio versus log(p) plot) is utilized to compute
compression index, Cc, which is used for the computation of total settlement in
settlement analysis.
2. Time-deformation curves (i.e. degree of consolidation, U, versus time plots) are
used to compute coefficient of consolidation, Cv which is utilized in rate of
settlement analysis.
3. Consolidation test data can be used to calculate the co-efficient of permeability, k
from the following relation:
k
Cv =
mv w
Where,
mv = coefficient of volume change
 w = unit weight of water
TYPES OF CLAY DEPOSITS

In the natural process of deposition, fine-grained soils, like silt and clay, undergo the
process of consolidation under their own weight of overburden pressure. A state of
equilibrium is reached after a lapse of several years, and the compression ceases.
This process continues, season after season, and sometimes erosion or removal of
overburden takes place, and sometimes the process of consolidation may be
continuously taking place due to frequent deposition. So it is evident that clay soil
deposits exist in the field under different conditions, and their stress history should
be known.
Normally consolidated:
If the present effective overburden pressure in the deposit is the maximum pressure
to which the deposit has ever been consolidated at any time in the past, such a

deposit is called a normally consolidated clay deposit. There is no reliable procedure

available to predict the in situ effective stress-void ratio relationship.
Over consolidated:
A clay soil deposit that has been fully consolidated under a pressure pc in the past,
larger than the present overburden pressure po, is called an over-consolidated (pre-
consolidated or pre-compressed) clay deposit. The ratio (pc-po)/po called the over-
consolidation ratio (OCR). Over-consolidation of clay may be caused by any or a
combination of the following loads (Leonards, 1962):
1. Pressures due to overburden which have been removed (e.g., due to erosion or due
to removal of an old structure)
2. Glacial ice sheets which have since disappeared
3. Sustained seepage forces
4. Tectonic forces caused due to movements in the earth's crust
5. Fluctuation of the water table
Under-consolidated:
Rapid natural deposition or deposits under recent fillings may not be fully
consolidated under the present overburden pressure; such clay deposits are called
under-consolidated clays. In such cases, pc < po and structures constructed on this
deposit will cause additional compression.
ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION
Consider a fine-grained soil layer (say clay) of thickness H, sandwiched between two
permeable sand layers and below the water table (see fig.a). If a pressure intensity,
 , is applied on the ground surface, the immediate increase of the pore water
pressure will be uw which will be equal to the applied total pressure  . Thus,
immediately after application of pressure ( t  0 ),
( uw )0 =  ……….. (8.1)

  = 0 ……….. (8.2)

Once the consolidation process starts by gradual squeezing of water from the soil
pores, the excess pore water pressure decreases, and the effective stress also
increases (   ) t1  by the same amount such that the total stress always remains
equal to  at t = t1 That is,

 = ( uw )t + (   )t ….. (8.3)
1 1
where
( uw )t
1
=  − (   )t …….. (8.4)
1
This fact is represented in fig. (b). At t =  , the excess pore water pressure at all depths
of the clay layer will be dissipated completely such that
 = (   )t =  
1
Where
( uw )t = uw = 0 …….. (8.5)

This is the stage at which consolidation is said to be completed. In fact, only the
primary consolidation is over, and secondary consolidation may be on.
The one-dimensional consolidation is based on the following considerations: (i) all
displacements are vertical so that there are no lateral strains, (ii) all the flow of water
from the soil layer is in a vertical direction only, and (iii) the change in void ratio is a
direct function of the vertical component of effective stress.
As the consolidation is one-dimensional, the change in volume, V , per unit of
original volume, V, may be taken equal to the change in height, H , per unit of
original height, H (see fig below), i.e.,
H V
= ………. (8.6)
H V
It is convenient to represent V and V in terms of void ratio as
H e
=
H 1 + eo
where e is the change in void ratio and eo is the original void ratio. Rearranging,
e
H = H
1 + eo
This relationship is very general in nature and independent of the degree of saturation
of soil and the mechanism causing volume change.

Preconsolidation Pressure Pc
Casagrande’s Method (1936)
Casagrande proposed to utilize e vs. log p graph for the determination of pc.
Figure: The Casagrande (1936), cconstruction for determining the- pre- consolidation
stress. Also knownare the minimum possible, the most probable, and the maximum
possible prerconsolidation stresses.
1) Choose by eye the point of minimum raduis (or maximum curvature) on e-logp
plot (point A)
2) Draw a horizontal line from point A.
3) Draw a targent to the curve at point A.
4) Bisect the angle made between the horizontal line through A and the tagent at A.
5) Extend the straight line portion of the virgin compression curve up to where it
meets the bisector line. The point of intersection of these two lines is the
preconsolidation streess (point B).
An even simpler method for estimating the pc is used by some engineers. The two
straight lines portions of the e-logp curve are extended; this intersection defines

another most probable preconsolidation pressure (point C). If you think about it, the
maximum possible pc is at point D, the minimum possible pc is at point E, the
intersection of the compression curve with a horizontal line drawn from eo.
Consolidation Settlement Sc,




CHAPTER-13
SHEAR STRENGTH
INTRODUCTION
Soil is a particulate material composed of discrete particles which are relatively free
to move with respect to one another. The mineral skeleton of soil usually is quite
deformable, due to inter-particle sliding and rearrangement, even though the
individual particles are very rigid.
Thus when a compression load is gradually applied to a soil mass, it will eventually
fail due to the movement of the individual soil particles relative to one another which
occur along surfaces known as shear surfaces. The maximum resisting stress offered
by the soil particles to the deformation due to relative sliding of the particles
immediately prior to failure of the soil mass is called as shearing strength of the soil
mass.
Thus the structural strength of soil is primarily a function of its shear strength and
as such the ability of a soil mass to support structural load is dependent on its
shearing strength. Specially the knowledge of shear strength is essential for:
i. Evaluation of bearing capacity used for the design of foundations.
ii. Analysis of stability of slopes used for the design of embankments for dams,
roads, temporary /permanent excavations etc.
iii. Estimation of lateral earth pressure required in the design of earth retaining
structures.
The shear strength of a soil mass is essentially made up of:
i. The structural resistance to movement of soil particles due to interlocking of the
grains (ie. density of the soil).
ii. The frictional resistance to sliding between the individual soil grains at their
contact points (i.e. angle of internal friction,  of the soil).
iii. Cohesion (adhesion) between surfaces of the soil grains. The cohesion (c) is the
resistance due to the forces tending to hold the grains together in a soil mass.

Generally speaking, coarse-grained soils (sands, gravels and their mixtures) derive
their shear strength almost entirely from internal friction, (  ). On the other hand,
fine-grained soils (clays, silts and their mixtures) have cohesion (c) as their major
component of shear strength. Usually most of the natural soils are mixture of fine-
grained and coarse-grained soils and as such their shear strength is dependent on
both c and (  )parameters.It is therefore convenient to consider the following three
conventional soil types for study of shear strength:
i. Coarse-grained, frictional soil or cohesion-less soils (C = 0 soils).
ii. Fine-grained or cohesive soils (  = 0 soils).
iii. Cohesive-Frictional soils (c-  soils)
COULOMB S LAW OF SHEAR STRENGTH (1773)
Shear strength of a soil is made up of two major components—friction (  ) and
cohesion (c).
The inter-granular friction (  ) is directly proportional to the normal stress acting on
shear surface. The cohesion (c) is dependent on the type, size and packing of the soil
grains and on the suction properties of the soil.
Coulomb (1773) proposed that the shearing strength of a soil,  is governed by the
straight line equation:
 = c +  tan  ……….(1)
Where,  is the maximum shear stress the soil can take without failure, under
normal stress of .
c = apparent cohesion
 = the normal stress
 = the angle of internal friction or shearing resistance of the soil.

In 1773 when coulomb put forward equation (1) the concept of effective stress was
not introduced. The introduction of this principle by Terzaghi, the equation (1) is now
expressed in terms of effective stresses, thus:
 = c +  tan 
Where,
 is the maximum shear stress the soil can take without failure, under normal
effective stress of  .
c = apparent cohesion w.r.t. effective stress;
 =  − u , the effective normal stress (  being the total stress and u the pore water
pressure)
 = effective angle of internal friction.
The modified Coulomb's equation is diagrammatically shown in Fig.1.
It is evident that the pore water pressure (u) has a major influence on the shearing
strength of soils. For coarse-grained, soils where the drainage is very good, the total
stress (  ) is usually equal to the effective stress (  ). With the fine-grained soils,
however, the drainage is very poor and usually considerable time is required before
the effective increase is equal to the total stress increase. Hence the rate and length
of time of testing is important in the determination of the shear strength of the fine-
grained soils.
MOHR CIRCLE OF STRESS
In 1887 O Mohr presented the concept of Mohr circle of stress according to which the
stress at any point within a material at equilibrium can be represented by a circle
provided the shear stress and
the normal stress are plotted
using same scale. Mohr circle
of stress represents the
complete two-dimensional
state of stress at equilibrium
in an element or at a point.
The concept of Mohr circle is very useful in geotechnical engineering; and briefly
explained under this section.
More specifically in geotechnical engineering, we shall be interested in the state of
stress in the plane that contains the major and minor principal stresses,  1 and  3
Given the magnitude and direction of  1 and  3 , it is possible to compute normal and

shear stress in any other direction. Concept of Mohr circle of stress is explained
below.
Figure -2 Vertical cross-section through a cylindrical soil sample subjected to

confined compression (triaxial) showing shear plane aa' , normal stress  n , and
shear stress,  .
The stress conditions of Fig. 2 can be analyzed by Mohr's circle of stress as shown in
Fig. 3.
Fig-3 Mohr Circle of Stress

In Fig. 3. The line FE often called the Coulomb's line or rupture line, represents the
conditions of shear failure in accordance with Coulomb's law. Mohr circle shown in
Fig.4 touching this line at point E represents a condition of incipient failure. Any
circle falling below line FE would denote stable soil conditions.
The normal stress,  n and the shear stress,  , on an inclined shear plane (aa', Fig.2)
can be geometrically demonstrated on Mohr's graph as follows:

 n = OB = OC − CB
1 +  3
But OC =
2
CB = (CE) cos 2
1 −  3
And CE = CA = CD =
2
Therefor
1 +  3 1 −  3
 n = OB = + cos 2
2 2
Similarly
1 −  3
 = BE = (CE) sin 2 = sin 2
2
Thus each point on the circle gives the pair of stresses acting on a rupture plane of
specific inclination,  .
A tangent t-t drawn to the circle at point E. has the equation.
 = c +  tan  Coulomb's equation for shear strength of soil
The slope of this line tan  , physically means the co-efficient of internal friction of the
soil:  is the angle of internal friction, and C is the cohesion.
C and  are actually test co-efficients obtained by special apparatus and by special
methods of testing.
Fig. 4 represents the Mohr's circle of stress for non-cohesive and cohesive soils.

In this method, the normal stresses ( 1 ,  3 ,  n ) acting on the cylindrical soil sample
(triaxial test) are plotted as abscissa and shear stress (  ) as ordinates using same
scale along the axes. The difference in the principal stresses, (  1 −  3 ) is called as
1 −  3
deviator stress. A circle of diameter ( ), is drawn. Since the shear stresses are
2
zero on planes where principal stresses are acting, the ends of the stress diameter or
Mohr's circle of stress have the co-ordinates (  1 , 0 ) and (  3 , 0 ).
In coarse-grained soils (Dry sand and gravels) cohesion is insignificant, negligible and
the Mohr's circle of stress takes the shape of Fig. 4 (i). In this case the ratio of the
principal stresses,  1 /  3 is the same for all the circles tangent to the line OE.
CE difference of principal stresses  1 −  3

sin  = = =
OC sum of principal stresses 1 +  3
From this it is deduced that:
 1 1 + sin 
=
 3 1 − sin 

METHODS OF DETERMINING SHEAR STRENGTH Shear strength of soils can be

determined using:
Laboratory tests; and Field tests.
Laboratory tests
a) Direct shear test (ASTM D3080)
b) Unconfined compression test (ASTM D2166)
c) Triaxial compression test (ASTM D2850)
Unconfined compression test can be used for determining shear strength only of
cohesive soils and the vane shear is suitable only for soft clays particularly sensitive
clays. Direct shear and Triaxial test, however, can be used to investigate cohesive and
cohesionless soils both.
DIRECT SHEAR TEST
This is relatively a simple shear test in which the shearing force is applied at a
constant rate of strain until shearing failure occurs. In this test, soil samples are
placed in a metal shear box of square or round shape spliced at mid height, as shown
in fig below.

Thus in this test, the sample is made to fail on a pre-determined horizontal shear
plane. The shearing force is measured by means of a horizontal proving ring from
which the peak shearing stress is determined. Horizontal and vertical deformations
can be recorded using displacement dial gauges installed for this purpose. The
normal force to the plane of shear failure can be varied and drainage of the sample
can be controlled using solid or porous plates placed at the bottom and top of the
sample.
Typical curve of shearing stress,  , against horizontal deformation  h , for a given
normal stress,  , on a compacted dense sand is shown in Fig 5 (i). From this it is
evident that the shearing stress reaches a peak value of  max, and then decreases
while shearing still continues. In Fig 5 (ii),  max is plotted against  for a series of
tests performed under different normal stresses,  n „ and c &  parameters are
determined as shown in Fig. (ii) below:
TRIAXIAL COMPRESSION TEST.

This is the most complex but accurate shear test. In this test a cylindrical soil sample
of height to diameter ratio 2 to 3 is loaded in all three dimensions, although the
analysis is reduced to two dimensions as a result of the lateral stresses (cell pressure,
 3 ) being equal in all directions. Fig represents a typical test cell layout.
The soil sample enclosed in a rubber membrane and generally has porous platens on
each end, is placed in the water tight perspex cell. Water is pumped into the cell and
its pressure raised to  3 (cell pressure) which acts in all directions. A vertical load is
then applied and recorded using proving ring, until shear failure occurs. Since the
cell pressure  3 was acting all around the sample, and additional vertical stress of
(  1 −  3 ) will cause the failure of the sample and as such this additional stress is

known as deviator stress. The major and minor principal stresses would be  1 and
 3 respectively. Vertical displacement of the sample can be recorded using strain

gauges or dial gauge. If desired, the pore water pressure and volume changes can
also be monitored during the test.
Tests are carried out under different cell pressures and results plotted as Mohr's
circles. The tangent drawn to the circles gives the values of c &  as shown in Fig.

There are three basic types of triaxial compression test procedures as determined by
the sample drainage condition: the unconsolidated un-drained (UU) test, the
consolidated un-drained (CU) and the consolidated drained (CD) test. These can be
defined as follows.
The un-consolidated un-drained (UU) test is carried out by placing the sample in
the chamber and introducing the confined pressure without allowing the sample to
consolidate (drain) under the confining pressure. The axial load is then applied
without allowing drainage of the sample. The UU test can be run rather quickly
because the sample is not required to consolidate under the confining pressure or to
drain during application of the axial load. Because of the short time required to run
this test, it is often referred to as the quick, or Q test.

Consolidated un-drained (CU) test is performed by placing the sample in the

chamber and introducing the confined pressure. The sample is then allowed to
consolidate under the all-around confining pressure by leaving the drain lines open.
The drain lines are then closed and the axial stress is increased without allowing
further drainage.
The Consolidated drained (CD) test is similar to CU test except that sample is
allowed to drain as the axial load is applied so that high excess pore pressure do not
develop. The consolidated drained test is often referred to as the slow, or S, Test.
In general, the results from the three types of tests performed on the same soil are
related in this manner.
0= φu < φcu < φd Cu > Ccu > Cd = 0
UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST (UCT)

This test actually is a special form of a triaxial test where the confining cell pressure,
is kept zero during the test. Thus the cylindrical soil sample is crushed to failure
without applying any lateral pressure like a concrete cylinder crushing test. Although
the test can be done in the laboratory using triaxial apparatus, it is more usual to
use a much simple portable piece of equipment known as unconfined compression
test apparatus. In this test a cylindrical soil sample of height to diameter ratio 2 to 3
is compressed at a constant rate of strain (about 1.25 mm/min.) in a loading frame
until cracks have definitely developed or stress strain curve is well past its peak or
20% deformation is achieved.
The test is usually rapid and without drainage taking place and since there are no
lateral stresses (cell pressure,  3 ).



SOIL EXPLORATION
Soil is used as:
▪ Construction material, for example, in the construction of dams, pavements,
buildings etc.,
▪ Supporting material (Foundation) for carrying the loads of the super-structure
through their foundations.
The function of a properly designed foundation is to support loads resting on it
without causing excessive stresses within the soil mass at any depth beneath
foundation. Stresses are considered excessive if a complete rupture within the soil
mass occurs (Shear failure), or if detrimental settlements result (failure due to
excessive settlement). Therefore it is apparent that one of the most important steps
in the solution of a foundation problem is determining underground conditions that
will affect the design.
Field and laboratory investigations required in obtaining necessary information about
geology, hydrology, and soil conditions; geotechnical properties of soil at the
prospective building site, and the performance of various soil types encountered when
acted upon by structural loads, water and temperature are called sub-surface
investigations or soil exploration program.
Purpose of Soil Investigation
A soils investigation program is necessary to provide information for design and
construction and environmental assessment. The purposes of a soils investigation
are:
1. To evaluate the general suitability of the site for the proposed project.
2. To enable an adequate and economical design to be made.
3. To disclose and make provision for difficulties that may arise during construction
due to ground and other local conditions.
Factors Affecting Exploration Program
Soil exploration program are influenced by a number of factors some of these are:
▪ Size and type of the project;
▪ General characteristics of the soils in the work area;
▪ Time available for exploration; and
▪ Degree of risk or safety involved.
Tall buildings or heavy industrial structures founded over a deposit of fairly
homogeneous clay require an extensive soil exploration program.
Classes of Soil Investigation
Sub-surface investigations may be subdivided into three classes:
1) Foundation investigations to investigate sites for new structures.
2) Stability or failure investigations to investigate causes of distress or failure of
existing structures.
3) Earthwork investigations to evaluate suitability of natural materials for
construction purposes.
Procedure of Explorations:

The procedure of exploration can be divided into the following steps:

1) Reconnaissance:
a) Collection of data about the project.
b) Geologic study of the site.
c) Site inspection.
2) Preliminary Exploration:
Preliminary exploration can be of two types:
a) Shallow exploration usually used for light structures, highways, railways,
airfield etc.
b) Deep exploration used for dams, bridges, tall buildings, heavy industrial
structures etc.
a) Depth, extent, and composition of critical soil strata,
b) Ground-water level and its fluctuations,
c) Depth of bed rock, when necessary,
d) Estimate of engineering properties of soil,
e) Initial selection of foundation possibilities.
3) Detailed Exploration:
a) Additional test borings.
b) Undisturbed sampling if compressible soils are encountered at critical depth.
c) Laboratory/Field tests if data on soil strength and deformation characteristics
are needed.
4) Analysis of Results of Exploration:
a) Evaluation of settlement characteristics of various soil layers.
b) Evaluation of bearing capacity of various soil layers.
c) Foundation design.
5) Economy Studies.
Tentative cost estimates of various possible foundations.
SOIL EXPLORATION METHODS
The subsoil exploration should enable the engineer to draw the soil profile indicating
the sequence of the strata and the properties of the soils involved.
In general, the methods available for soil exploration may be classified as follows:
1. Direct methods ... Test pits, trial pits or trenches
2. Semi-direct methods ... Borings
3. Indirect methods ... Soundings or penetration tests and geophysical methods
In an exploratory programme, one or more of these methods may be used to yield the
desired information.
Test Pits
Test pits permit a direct inspection of the soil strata in place,
and taking of adequate disturbed and undisturbed soil
samples. Test pits are the most satisfactory method of
disclosing the soil strata conditions. Also it is possible to
take even undisturbed samples of sands by this method. The
cost of test pit increases rapidly with depth; they are
uneconomical beyond a depth of 12 ft. They are practically
impractical when groundwater is to be handled.
Boring

Making or drilling bore holes into the ground with a view to obtaining soil or rock
samples from specified or known depths is called ‘boring’.
The common methods of advancing bore holes are:
1. Auger boring
2. Wash boring
4. Percussion drilling
5. Rotary drilling
Auger Borings:
‘Soil auger’ is a device that is useful for advancing a bore hole
into the ground. Augers may be hand-operated or power-
driven; the former are used for relatively small depths (less
than 3 to 5 m), while the latter are used for greater depths.
The soil auger is advanced by rotating it while pressing it into
the soil at the same time. It is used primarily in soils in which
the bore hole can be kept dry and unsupported. As soon as
the auger gets filled with soil, it is taken out and the soil
sample collected. Two common types of augers, the post hole
auger and the helical auger, are shown in fig.
Deep Borings:
Deep borings are required for heavy structures, dams, industrial buildings, bridges
etc. For deep borings usually power drilling rigs are used.
There are two principal types of equipment for making borings;
a) Cable tool drilling rigs (wash borings); and
b) Rotary drilling rigs.
Wash Boring:
Wash boring is commonly used for exploration below ground water table for which
the auger method is unsuitable. This method
may be used in all kinds of soils except those
mixed with gravel and boulders. The set-up for
wash boring is shown in fig.
Initially, the hole is advanced for a short
depth by using an auger. A casing pipe is
pushed in and driven with a drop weight. The
driving may be with the aid of power. A
hollow drill bit is screwed to a hollow drill rod
connected to a rope passing over a pulley and
supported by a tripod. Water jet under
pressure is forced through the rod and the
bit into the hole. This loosens the soil at the
lower end and forces the soil-water
suspension upwards along the annular
surface between the rod and the side of the
hole. This suspension is led to a settling tank
where the soil particles settle while the water
overflows into a sump. The water collected in
the sump is used for circulation again. The
soil particles collected represent a very disturbed sample and is not very useful for

the evaluation of the engineering properties. Wash borings are primarily used for
advancing bore holes; whenever a soil sample is required, the chopping bit is to be
replaced by a sampler. The change of the rate of progress and change of colour of
wash water indicate changes in soil strata.
Percussion Drilling
A heavy drill bit called ‘churn bit’ is suspended from a drill rod or a cable and is
driven by repeated blows. Water is added to facilitate the breaking of stiff soil or rock.
The slurry of the pulverised material is bailed out at intervals. The method cannot be
used in loose sand and is slow in plastic clay. The formation gets badly disturbed by
impact.
Rotary Drilling
This method is fast in rock formations. A drill bit, fixed to the lower end of a drill rod,
is rotated by power while being kept in firm contact with the hole. Drilling fluid or
bentonite slurry is forced under pressure through the drill rod and it comes up
bringing the cuttings to the surface. Even rock cores may be obtained by using
suitable diamond drill bits. This method is not used in porous deposits as the
consumption of drilling fluid would be prohibitively high.
Geophysical Exploration Methods:
1) Seismic Method: and
2) Electrical Resistivity Method.
These methods have been used considerably in recent years for preliminary
exploration of dam’s sites and for highways.
The seismic method is based on the principle that sound travels more rapidly through
dense materials than through loose materials. Velocities as high as 18,000 to 20,000

fps have been recorded in dense, solid rock and velocities as low as 600 fps have been
observed in loose sand.
The electric method consists of measuring charges in electric resistance of the soil.
Dense rock has a very high electrical resistivity and soft, saturated clay has a low
resistance.
Spacing of Borings
The spacing of borings, or the number of borings for a project, is related to the type,
size, and weight of the proposed structure, to the extent of variation in soil conditions
that permit safe interpolation between borings, to the funds available, and possibly
to the stipulations of a local building code.
It is impossible to determine the spacing of borings before an investigation begins,
since it depends on the uniformity of the soil deposit. Ordinarily a preliminary
estimate of the spacing is made. Spacing is decreased if additional data are necessary
and is increased if the thickness and depth of the different strata appear about the
same in all the borings.

The following spacings are recommended in planning an exploration programme:
Depth of Borings:
The borings should pass the critical zone of the strata. The depth of borings is
governed by the topographical and geological conditions and purpose of the structure.
Usually the depth of the borings is approximately estimated dependent upon the
width and load of foundation.
For strip footing and single footing a thumb role is that the boring depth should be
at least 2 to 3 times the width of the foundation below the contact area or base of the
footing. For mat foundation 1.5 times to 2 times, the width. Table below gives the
commonly used depth and spacing of borings:

Type of Structure or Boring Depth of Borings in Ft.

Project Spacing in ft.
Single Story Buildings 75-100 20 ft. to 30 ft. below
foundation level, with at least
one deep boring to search for
hidden weak deposits.
Multistory Buildings 40 – 50 For a heavily loaded structure

deep boring should go to a
depth 2 times width of str. or
rock, whichever comes first.
Highways (Sub-grade) 500
3 to 5 ft. minimum below
sub-grade.
Earth Dams. 100 40 to 50 ft. minimum or 10 ft.

into sound rock, which ever
comes first.
Borrow Pits. 100 10 to 20 ft.
Soil Sampling
a. Disturbed Samples:
A disturbed soil sample is one whose natural conditions such as structure, texture,
density, natural m.c. and stress conditions, are disturbed. They can be obtained
easily by shovel, auger boring and deep borings. These are used for classification
tests, compaction test etc.
b. Undisturbed Samples:
Soil samples obtained by minimum disturbance of natural conditions such as
structure, texture, density, natural moisture content and stress conditions are
known as undisturbed samples.
Different Types of Samples:
▪ This walled Shelby tubes,
▪ Split Spoon Samplers,
▪ Piston sampler etc.
AREA RATIO (Ar)
Experience has shown that the degree of sample disturbance bears a direct
relationship to the ratio of sample area to sampler area.
−
2 2
Ar =D D o
2
i
100
D i
Where Ar = Degree of disturbance in per cent it should vary from 10-15% Another
thumb rule is that the wall thickness should not exceed 3 to 4 per cent of the tube
dia. Do and Di = The external and internal dia. of sampler.
Foundations & Bearing Capacity of Soils:

The subject of bearing capacity is perhaps the most important of all the aspects of
geotechnical engineering. Loads from buildings are transmitted to the foundation by
columns, by loadbearing walls or by such other load-bearing components of the
structures. Sometimes the material on which the foundation rests is ledge, very hard
soil or bed-rock, which is known to be much stronger than is necessary to transmit
the loads from the structure. Such a ledge, or rock, or other stiff material may not be
available at reasonable depth and it becomes invariably necessary to allow the
structure to bear directly on soil, which will furnish a satisfactory foundation, if the
bearing members are properly designed. It is here that the subject of bearing capacity
assumes significance. A scientific treatment of the subject of bearing capacity is
necessary to enable one to understand the factors upon which it depends.
A number of definitions are relevant in this context:
Foundation: The lowest part of a structure which is in contact with soil and
transmits loads to it.
Foundation soil or bed: The soil or bed to which loads are transmitted from the base
of the structure.
Footing: The portion of the foundation of the structure, which transmits loads
directly to the foundation soil.
Bearing capacity: The load-carrying capacity of foundation soil or rock which
enables it to bear and transmit loads from a structure.
Ultimate Bearing Capacity ( qu ). The ultimate bearing capacity is the gross pressure
at the base of the foundation at which the soil fails in shear.
Net Ultimate Bearing Capacity ( qnu ). It is the net increase in pressure at the base
of foundation that causes shear failure of the soil. It is equal to the gross pressure
minus overburden pressure.
Thus qnu = qu −  D f
where qu = ultimate bearing capacity (gross),

 = unit weight of foundation soil, and Df = depth of foundation.
It may be noted that the overburden pressure equal to  D f existed even before the
construction of foundation.
Net Safe Bearing Capacity ( qns ). It is the net soil pressure which can be safely applied
to the soil considering only shear failure. It is obtained by dividing the net ultimate
bearing capacity by a suitable factor of safety. Thus

qnu
qns =
F
where F = factor of safety, which is usually taken as 3.0.
Gross Safe Bearing Capacity ( qs ). It is the maximum gross pressure which the soil
can carry safely without shear failure. It is equal to the net safe bearing capacity plus
the original overburden pressure. Thus
qs = qns +  D f
qnu
qs = +  Df
or F ………………(a)
Some authors define the gross safe bearing capacity ( qs ) as the ultimate bearing
capacity divided by a factor of safety (F) that is,
qu qnu +  D f qnu  D f
qs = = = +
F F F F
As the added strength due to  D f is available in full, it does not seem logical to apply
a factor of safety to this term. It is, therefore, more rational to define the gross safe
bearing capacity as indicated by Eq. (a). This practice will be followed in this text.
Net Safe Settlement Pressure ( qnp ). It is the net pressure which the soil can carry
without exceeding the allowable settlement. The maximum allowable settlement

generally varies between 25 mm and 40 mm for individual footings.
The net safe settlement pressure is also known as unit soil pressure or safe bearing
pressure.
Net Allowable Bearing Pressure ( qna ). The net allowable bearing pressure is the net
bearing pressure which can be used for the design of foundations.

As the requirements for the design of foundation are that there should be no shearing
failure and moreover the settlements should also be within the limits, the allowable
bearing pressure is the smaller of the net safe bearing capacity ( qns ) and the net safe
settlement pressure ( qnp ). Thus
qna = qns if qnp  qns

or qna = qnp if qns  qnp
The net allowable bearing pressure is also known as the allowable soil pressure or
allowable bearing pressure or allowable bearing capacity.
BEARING CAPACITY
The conventional design of a foundation is based on the concept of bearing capacity
or allowable bearing pressure.

Criteria for the Determination of Bearing Capacity

The criteria for the determination of bearing capacity of a foundation are based on the
requirements for the stability of the foundation. These are stated as follows:
a) Shear failure of the foundation or bearing capacity failure, as it is sometimes called, shall
not occur. (This is associated with plastic flow of the soil material underneath the
foundation, and lateral expulsion of the soil from underneath the footing of the
foundation); and,
b) The probable settlements, differential as well as total, of the foundation must be limited to
safe, tolerable or acceptable magnitudes. In other words, the anticipated settlement under
the applied pressure on the foundation should not be detrimental to the stability of the
structure.
These two criteria are known as the shear strength criterion, and settlement criterion,
respectively. These are independent criteria and hence require independent investigation.
The design value of the safe bearing capacity, obviously, would be the smaller of the two
values, obtained from these two criteria. This has already been defined as the allowable
bearing pressure.
Factors Affecting Bearing Capacity
Bearing capacity is governed by a number of factors. The following are some of the more
important ones which affect bearing capacity:
i. Nature of soil and its physical and engineering properites.
ii. Nature of the foundation and other details such as the size, shape, depth below the ground
surface and rigidity of the structure.
iii. Total and differential settlements that the structure can withstand without functional
failure.
iv. Location of the ground water table relative to the level of the foundation; and
v. Initial stresses, if any.
TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS

Foundations may be broadly classified under two heads: shallow foundations and deep
foundations. According to Terzaghi, a foundation is shallow if its depth is equal to or less than
its width. In the case of deep foundations,
the depth is equal to or greater than the
width. Common forms of deep foundations
are: pier foundation, pile foundation and
well foundation. The shallow foundations
are of the following types: spread footing (or simply, footing), strap footing, combined footing,
and mat or raft footing.
Common types shallow foundations

Spread footings
Spread footing foundation is basically a pad used to “spread out” loads from walls or columns
over a sufficiently large area of foundation soil. These are constructed as close to the ground
surface as possible consistent with the design requirements, and with factors such as frost
penetration depth and possibility of soil erosion. Footings for permanent structures are rarely
located directly on the ground surface. Spread footing required to support a wall is known as
a continuous, wall, or strip footing, while that required to support a column is known as an
individual or an isolated footing.
An isolated footing may be square, circular, or rectangular in shape in plan, depending upon
factors such as the plan shape of the column and constraints of space.
If the footing supports more than one column or wall, it will be a strap footing, combined
footing or a raft foundation.

Some typical spread footings.

Strap footings
A “strap footing” comprises two or more footings connected by a beam
called “strap”. This may be required when the footing of an exterior
column cannot extend into an adjoining private property.
Combined footings
A combined footing supports two or more columns in a row when the areas required for
individual footings are such that they
come very near each other. They are
also preferred in situations of limited
space on one side owing to the
existence of the boundary line of
private property.
The plan shape of the footing may be
rectangular or trapezoidal; the footing
will then be called ‘rectangular combined footing” or ‘trapezoidal combined footing.
Raft foundations (Mats)
A raft or mat foundation is a large footing, usually supporting walls as well as several columns
in two or more rows. This is adopted when individual column footings would tend to be too
close or tend to overlap; further, this is considered suitable when differential settlements aris-
ing out of footings on weak soils are to be minimized. A typical mat or raft is shown in Fig.

Pile foundations
Pile foundations are intended to transmit structural loads
through zones of poor soil to a depth where the soil has the
desired capacity to transmit the loads. They are somewhat
similar to columns in that loads developed at one level are
transmitted to a lower level; but piles obtain lateral support
from the soil in which they are embedded so that there is no
concern with regard to buckling and, it is in this respect that
they differ from columns. Piles are slender foundation units which are usually driven into
place. They may also be cast-in-place (see fig).
A pile foundation usually consists of a number of piles, which
together support a structure. The piles may be driven or placed
vertically or with a batter.
Pier foundations
Pier foundations are somewhat similar to pile foundations
but are typically larger in area than piles. An opening is

drilled to the desired depth and concrete is poured to make a pier foundation (see
fig). Much distinction is now being lost between the pile foundation and pier
foundation, adjectives such as ‘driven’, ‘bored’, or ‘drilled’, and ‘precast’ and ‘cast-in-
situ’, being used to indicate the method of installation and construction. Usually, pier
foundations are used for bridges.
Caissons (Wells)
A caisson is a structural box or chamber that is sunk into place or built in place by
systematic excavation below the bottom. Caissons are classified as ‘open’ caissons,
‘pneumatic’ caissons, and ‘box’ or ‘floating’ caissons. Open caissons may be box-type
of pile-type.
The top and bottom are open during installation for open caissons. The bottom may
be finally sealed with concrete or may be anchored into rock. Pneumatic caisson is
one in which compressed air is used to keep water from entering the working
chamber, the top of the caisson is closed. Excavation and concreting is facilitated to
be carried out in the dry. The caisson is sunk deeper as the excavation proceeds and
on reaching the final position, the working chamber is filled with concrete.
Floating foundation
The floating foundation is a special type of foundation construction useful in locations
where deep deposits of compressible cohesive soils exist and the use of piles is
impractical. This foundation is installed at such a depth that the total weight of the
soil excavated for the rigid box equals the total weight of the planned structure.
Theoretically speaking, therefore, the soil below the structure is not subjected to any
increase in stress; consequently, no settlement is to be expected. However, some
settlement does occur usually because the soil at the bottom of the excavation
expands after excavation and gets recompressed during and after construction.


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CE-235 SOIL MECHANICS

Soil Mechanics (Introduction)

Prepared By: Muhammad Imran Khan

Fig-1: Rock Cycle

Prepared By: Muhammad Imran Khan

Prepared By: Muhammad Imran Khan

Prepared By: Muhammad Imran Khan

Prepared By: Muhammad Imran Khan

Prepared By: Muhammad Imran Khan

Prepared By: Muhammad Imran Khan

During their advancement, glaciers transport soils. At the terminus, a melting

Prepared By: Muhammad Imran Khan

oriented in a flocculent structure will have edge-to-face contact as shown in Fig.(d)

Prepared By: Muhammad Imran Khan

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOILS

Prepared By: Muhammad Imran Khan

Although the soil is a three-phase system, it becomes a two-phase system in the

VOLUMETRIC RELATIONSHIP (VOLUME-VOLUME RELATIONSHIP)

Prepared By: Muhammad Imran Khan

Prepared By: Muhammad Imran Khan

(4°C). This is denoted by the letter symbol Gs and is given by:

MASS / BULK SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Prepared By: Muhammad Imran Khan

Particle Size Analysis

Prepared By: Muhammad Imran Khan

Prepared By: Muhammad Imran Khan

Prepared By: Muhammad Imran Khan

Table: US Standard Sieves

Designation Opening (mm) Designation Opening (mm)

Particle Size of Fine-Grained Soils

γs = specific weight of soil solids (g/cm3)

γw = unit weight of water (g/cm3)

μ = absolute viscosity of water (dyne . s/cm2)

D = diameter of soil particle (cm)

D(mm) 18μ(dyne-sec/cm 2 ) L(cm)

30μ L L 30μ 30μ

Figure-1: Hydrometer dimensions and terms

Prepared By: Muhammad Imran Khan

Figure-2: Calibration of Hydrometer

Prepared By: Muhammad Imran Khan

By plotting a curve of hydrometer reading R versus L, one can obtain a hydrometer

ZERO CORRECTION (Cd)

Prepared By: Muhammad Imran Khan

Atterberg, a Swedish Soil Scientist, in 1911, formally distinguished the following

Variation of volume of soil mass with variation of water content

Prepared By: Muhammad Imran Khan

Shrinkage Limit (SL)

> 17 Highly plastic

Prepared By: Muhammad Imran Khan

Soil type Activity

Kaoline clay 0.4 - 0.5

Glacial clay and loess 0.5-0.75

Organic estuarine clay > 1.25

Clays with A < 0.75 are called inactive clays

Prepared By: Muhammad Imran Khan

Liquid Limit Apparatus

Prepared By: Muhammad Imran Khan

Plastic Limit Test—ASTM D 4318

Shrinkage Limit Test—ASTM D 427