PROGRAMME: GENERAL STUDIES COURSE CODE: GNS102 CREDIT HOURS: 2

COURSE: Communication in PRE-REQUISITE: 101 THEORETICAL: HOURS/WEEK

English1 30Hours

COURSE MAIN AIM/GOAL: This course is designed to enable students acquire the
necessary communication skills, know the techniques of correspondence and
comprehend written materials.

GENERAL OBJECTIVES: On completion of this course, the student should:

1.0 Understand the concept of communication.

2.0 Know how to make oral presentations.

3.0 Know the essential elements of correspondence.

1
PROGRAMMESGENERALSTUDIES
COURSE: Communication in English CH/CUHOURS: 2
GOAL:
GENERAL OBJECTIVES: 1.0:Understand the concept of communication
COURSE SPECIFICATION: THEORETICAL CONTENT
THEORETICALCONTENT PRACTICALCONTENT
WEEK SPECIFIC TEACHER’S RESOURCE SPECIFICLE TEACHER’S EVALUATIO
LEARNINGO ACTIVITIES ARNINGOUT ACTIVITIES N
UTCOMES COMES

2
Communication:

1.1 Define Explain Textbooks Projects Define Communication Guide, Class work,
communication. Communication. DVD/CD Players supervise Assignments
White Board &Marker and
Internet and correct Test
Analyse the process of students’
1.2 Analyse the Describe the communication. activities.
process of Process of
communication. communication. Mention the purposes of
communication.
1.3 Enumerate the Enumerates the
purposes of purposes of
communication. communication.
Identify the relationship
between communication
and language.
1.4 Explain the Explain the
relationship between relationship
communication and between
language. communication
and language.

3
 1.5 Explain the Discuss the impact Highlight the Impact of
impact of of interference on Interference on
Interference on communication at communication at
communication at various levels e.g. various levels.
various levels, e.g., Phonological
phonological, syntactic syntactic etc.
etc.
Explain code
mixing, code Discuss with relevant
1.6 Define code- switching and
examples code, mixing,
mixing, code- code switching and
dissonance in
Switching and communication. dissonance in
dissonance in communication
communication.

GENERAL OBJECTIVES: 2.0: Know how to make oral presentations.

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Oral Presentations:
2.1 Label a
diagram of the Draw and label a Charts,pictures,DVD/ Draw and label the Guide, Class work
organs of speech. diagram of the CDplayertextbooks,w organs of speech. supervise Assignments
organs of speech. hiteboardmarker,proje and
ctor,CD/DVD and correct Test.
2.2 Describe the Internet students’
functions of the organs Explain the activities.
in 2.1 above functions of the Explain the functions
In speech organs of speech of the organs of
production. in speech speech.
production.

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6
2.3 Identify the Explain the Pronounce correctly
phonemes of English. phonemes of all the phonemes of
English. English.

2.4 Pronounce Pronounce and make

correctly by making Pronounce and distinctions between the
distinctions between differentiate different consonant and
the different sound between the vowels sounds of
contrasts in the different English.
consonantal and vowel consonant and
systems of English. vowels sounds.

2.5 Explain the

principles of effective
speaking, viz, correct ➢ State the
use of stress, rhythm, principles of
and intonation Enumerate the effective
patterns. principles of speaking.
effective ➢ Read fluently.
speaking by ➢ Make short
exposing speeches.
students to the
correct use of
stress, rhythm
and intonation
patterns.

7
GENERAL OBJECTIVES:3.0: Know the essential elements of correspondence

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Correspondence:

3.1List the various Explain the Textbooks Projects Write letters, memos, Guide, Class work
types of various types of DVD/CD circulars, notices etc. supervise and Assignmen
correspondence correspondence, Players WhiteBoard correct ts and Test
e.g. letter letters, memo, & Marker Internet students’
(informal, circular, notices. Samples of letters, activities.
semi formal & memo, circulars etc.
formal) memo,
circular etc

Write informal semi-

3.2 Differentiatebetw Explain informal, formal and formal
eeninformal,semi semi-formal and letters.
- formal letter.
formal,formal,se
mi-
formalandformall
etters. Write letters paying
Explain the attention to the various
3.3 Explain the various various parts of a parts of the formal letter.
parts of a letter. letter: writer’s
address, date,
recipient’s
address,
salutation,
subject, body,
complimentary
close, signature,
full name of

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 writer, designation
(recently, phone
number, email).

Discuss the style

3.4Explain the style suitable for formal Write formal and
suitable for and informal informal letters paying
formal and letters. attention to style.
informal letters.

GENERAL OBJECTIVES: 4.0:Apply the rules of comprehension and interpretation

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4.1Identify main Explain main ideas Textbooks, CD/DVD ➢ Identify main
ideas in a given from given passages. Players, Projectors, Ideas from given Guide, correct Class work
passage. White board marker passages. and assess Assignmen
Internet. ➢ Differentiate students’ ts and
The main idea from work. Test
the details in a given
passage.
➢ Use main idea
To anticipate specific
details in a given
passage.
➢ Identify
Relationship patterns
of ideas in a given
passage.

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4.2 Draw Explain how students can Draw conclusions from
Conclusions from draw given passages.
available conclusions from
information. available information.

23
INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

Have you ever felt the messages you convey are not communicated properly or have you ever
felt guilty of not conveying the message as it wants to be conveyed? If so it is because of your
weakness towards communication skills. Apart from the basic necessities, you need to be
equipped with habits for good communication skills, as this is what will make you a happy and
successful social being. In order to develop these habits, you need to first acknowledge the fact
that communication skills need an improvement from time to time. The only constant in life is
change, and the more you accept your strengths and work towards dealing with shortcomings,
especially in the area of communication skills, the better will be your interactions and the more
your social popularity.

COMMUNICATION AND ITS PROCESS

We use ‘communication’ usually to mean speaking or writing or sending a message to another

person. Communication is really much more than that. It involves a number of choices and
decisions but being natural and unnoticed in informal situations. In formal situations, our
communication needs to be more effective and carefully chosen, that is, we need to plan our
communication. Here comes the question what is Communication or how communication could
be defined?

Communications is fundamental to the existence and survival of humans as well as to an

organization. It is a process of creating and sharing ideas, information, views, facts, feelings, etc.
among the people to reach a common understanding. Communication is the key to the Directing
function of management.

A manager may be highly qualified and skilled but if he does not possess good communication
skills, all his ability becomes irrelevant. A manager must communicate his directions effectively
to the subordinates to get the work done from them properly.

Communication may be broadly defined as the process of meaningful interaction among human
beings. More specifically, it is the process by which meanings are perceived and understandings
are reached among human beings. – D.E. McFarland.

Looked at more closely, what is essential for communication to occur is the cooperation between
two parties, one active or at the giving end and the other passive or at the receiving end.

The sender selects appropriate symbols to suit the situation and realizes the meaning through
speech or writing depending upon the socially regulated requirements or self-perceived needs. At
the receiving end the symbols are identified and identification obviously implies recognition and
realization of meaning through the interpretive process.

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The process of Communication may be summarized as follows: Communication is thus a
network of interactions and naturally the sender and the receiver keep on changing their roles.

Another aspect of communication is the deployment of a code consisting of arbitrarily evolved

symbols and the determination of the appropriateness of their use in given situations, leading to
the emergence of diverse communication patterns. A number of factors come into play in
shaping these patterns. In fact, communication is often but not always momentary. At times
communication is a cumulative process that starts before the actual communicative event takes
place and continues after it has occurred. Thus communication therefore must acquire a true
perspective of not only the present requirements of the situation but also its relationship with the
past and its impact on the future.

COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication is a process where one sets out to convey a message to another person through
the medium of words, gestures and / or pictures. The process of conveying the message is
fulfilled only when the person receiving it has understood the message entirely.

The cycle gives the process of communication. It would be observed that the entire event takes
place within a common frame of reference, also called as communication environment. The
source refers to the point of origin of a message which is encoded by the sender and transmitted
through the channel to the receiver. The receipt of the message exercises an impact in
communication environment leading to some result. The observance of the result by the sender is
called ‘feedback’.

During feedback the direction of the communication process is reversed. When providing
feedback, the original receiver goes through the same process as did the original sender with the
same factors influencing the receiver. The receiver may use the same channel / a different
channel for feedback.

The message sent is not the same as the message received. It is also to be noted that all the
messages do not produce the intended result. Thus, the success of communication is measured in
terms of not only the effective transmission of the message but also the achievement of the
intended result.

BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

Communication is not always successful. Several things can prevent the message from reaching
the intended recipient or from having the desired effect on the recipient. There may be some fault
in the communication system which may prevent the message from reaching. Some of these
defects are in the mechanical devices used for transmitting – medium, some are in tools we use
for communication – language, and some are in nature of persons who are engaged in

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communication – the sender and recipient / receiver. It can be divided into three broad groups:
Listening, Speaking and Environmental.

Listening barriers:

• Interrupting the speaker

• Not maintaining eye contact with the speaker

• Rushing the speaker to complete what he/she has to say

• Making the speaker feel as though he/she is wasting the listener's time

• Being distracted by something that is not part of the ongoing communication

• Getting ahead of the speaker and completing his/her thoughts

• Ignoring the speaker's requests

• Topping the speaker's story with one's own set of examples

• Forgetting what is being discussed

• Asking too many questions, for the sake of probing

Barriers while speaking:

• Unclear messages

• Lack of consistency in the communication process

• Incomplete sentences

• Not understanding the receiver

• Not seeking clarifications while communicating

Environmental barriers include:

• An individual's subjective viewpoint towards issues/people, which leads to assumptions

• An emotional block, which can lead to an attitude of indifference, suspicion or hostility towards
the subject

• An emotional block or bias that is based on a third party's view point, or on what you have
read/heard

• Words can have different meanings to different people, thus blocking communication

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• Use of negative words

PATTERNS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication can be one way and two way process. Both the patterns are followed in various
circumstances effectively and efficiently by the people in the society. There is also horizontal
and vertical movement of information from one source to another. The horizontal flow keeps
individuals of the same status and peer groups informed of what others are doing and what is
expected of them. The vertical communication is both downward and upward. It is essential to
have both upward and downward movement since mere downward flow is like talking to a
person continuously without giving him a chance to respond. In such situation the pattern will be
as given in One Way communication and when mutual chance is given to the listener, the pattern
is similar to two way communication.

ONE WAY COMMUNICATION

• A person always instructing another

• Always speaking without giving chance for the other to respond

• Always directing the other to do something

• Conveying some information to other and so on.

TWO WAY COMMUNICATION

• A person named X instructs Y

• Y reports to X

• X speaks to Y

• Y responds to X and so on

This two way communication could be classified into two: One to many and many to one.

(a) One to One Communication: In one to one communication there is only one sender and one
receiver wherein the sender passes on some information to the receiver and the receiver passes
on to the sender in return. Such kind of communication is one to one communication in two way
communication pattern.

(b) One to Many Communication: In one to many communication there is only one sender and
one or more receiver wherein the sender passes on some information to all the receivers and each
of the receiver passes on / replies to the sender in return. Such kind of communication is One to
Many Communication in two way communication pattern.

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(c) Many to One Communication: In Many to One Communication there are several senders
and one receiver wherein all the senders pass on some information to the receiver and the
receiver replies for them. Such kind of communication is Many to One Communication in two
way communication pattern.

It is obvious that conveying all information to everybody would be a meaningless exercise. For
proper functioning of a Communication system the following questions should be asked and the
answers constantly reviewed:

• What information is to be conveyed?

• Who requires it?

• What should be its form?

• What techniques of dissemination should be used?

• What technological aids should be used?

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

Communication takes place by exchanging symbols to describe our ideas and experience.
Language is a common symbol system which is used for sharing our experiences with others. We
can also use other symbols like pictures, colours, signs and sounds to communicate. We do
communicate a number of things by our facial expressions, movements, clothing and so on,
though we do not speak. Thus communications through words are called Verbal Communication;
communications through symbols are called non-verbal communication.

VERBAL COMMUNICATION

We use verbal communication for most purposes. Verbal communication may be oral or written.

a) ORAL COMMUNICATION: Oral Communication is more natural and immediately

available for responding to a comment / statement. In natural and informal situations, we speak
readily without hesitation in order to communicate with others; but in a formal and official
situation, many persons feel nervous and cannot speak easily. It needs training, practice and skill
to speak effectively in a formal situation.

Oral communication requires the presence and simultaneous attention of both the persons. Need
for personal presence makes certain demands on the skills of both; each must be able to respond
to the body language of the other, and must be able to make immediate response to what the
other says.

Oral communication occurs in situations like conversations, telephone talk, interviews,

presentations, group discussions, and meetings.

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FACE-TO-FACE CONVERSATION: Oral communication is best when it is face-to-face. A
face-to-face setting is possible between two individuals or among a small group of persons at an
interview, or in a small meeting, where both the sender and the receiver could see each other and
communicate. Communication can flow both ways in these situations. Here, an immediate
feedback, which gives clarification is possible. Besides, a face-to-face setting offers a rich
communication experience owing to the presence of the living personality whose voice, tone,
expressions and movements add significance to the words.

TELEPHONE TALK: Telephone talk depends entirely on the voice and its quality. It does not
have the advantage of physical presence or facial expressions since there is no option to look at
others physical appearance at live. Clarity of speech and skillful use of voice are important in
this kind of communication. There can be confusion between similar sounding words like “pale”
and “bale”, or between “light” and “like”. Names and addresses communicated on the telephone
are sometimes wrongly received. It is therefore customary in telephonic conversation to clarify
spellings by saying G for God, P for pen etc.

PRESENTATION: It has a face-to-face setting. It is a formal, well-prepared talk on a specific

topic, delivered to knowledgeable and interested audience. It looks odd and slumbers if the
presentation is not welcomed by the audience to which it is presented. At times a touch of
humour always enriches the presentation. The purpose for such kind of communication is to give
pass on the information rather than making them dull and sleepy.

PUBLIC SPEECH: A public speech or lecture also has a face-to-face setting, but here the space
between the speaker and audience do matters. This distance increases as the audience gets larger,
as in an open air public meeting. This way of communication much depends on the speaker’s
skill in using gestures and using the microphone in the correct order.

INTERVIEW: An interview is a meeting at which one person or panel of persons, who are the
interviewers, discuss a matter with another person or ask questions of another person, who is the
interviewee. The purpose is, usually to assess, to judge whether it would be worthwhile to enter
into a relationship with the other. An interview is of structured question and answer type of
communication.

MEETING: Usually a meeting involves many persons; there is a chair person or leader who
leads and guides the communication and maintains perfect order. There is a fixed agenda, that is,
a list of issues to be discussed at the meeting. Meetings are of many types, from the small
committee meeting consisting of three or four persons to the large conference or the share
holders’ meeting. This type of oral communication is backed up by note-taking and writing up of
minutes.

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b) WRITTEN COMMUNICATION: Written communication is used for many purposes.
Many types of documents are required for official work. Letters, circulars, memos, notices,
reports and minutes are constantly prepared and exchanged in and between organizations. All has
a format and layout which is fixed by custom.

Letter: Letters are the most widely used form of written communication. They are used mostly
for external communication. A letter has a complex lay-out which has to be carefully followed.

Memo: Memo, short form of memorandum, is an informal message between members of an

organization and generally relates to daily work. Information or instructions can be conveyed by
a memo. A memo may or may not be signed.

Notice: A notice is used in order to communicate the same message within an organization. It is
the most common method of mass communication, within an organization. It should be short, its
language should be simple and the type should be large and well spaced for easy reading.

Circular: A circular is a detailed document giving information, instructions or orders on a

specific matter. A circular has a number and date for reference, and is signed by the authorized
signatory of the issuing office. They are generally issued by government department and other
official bodies like government departments, councils, universities and Head Offices of
organizations.

Report: A report is a document prepared by an individual or a committee entrusted with the task
of collecting information on a given subject. It requires careful research, collection of data and
presentation of the findings, conclusions and recommendations. Reports are of varying length
and may be anything from two pages to a full book dived into chapters.

Minutes: Minutes are the written record of decisions taken at a meeting. Different bodies have
their own convention of recordings the discussion and the decisions. Minutes may be written by
hand or typed and pasted in minute books, or typed and filled in a minute file. Minutes are a
legal document.

NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Non-verbal methods of communication can be consciously created and used with both written
and oral communication. Graphics of all kinds can enrich the message presented in a document
or in a speech. Pictures, maps, charts, diagrams, sketches, cutouts, models, etc., communicate
more effectively quality vice and clarity vice than verbal communication. Apart from these
symbols we consciously may convey the meaning by facial expressions, gestures, eye contact,
clothing, posture, etc. These are called body language. They do communicate more than verbal
communication.

Non-verbal communication occurs even when there is no verbal communication. Going by the
road side, on seeing the no parking board, we are not parking our vehicles near it. Rather a NSS

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volunteer person when suggesting not to leave our vehicle in that place, often we ignore him.
Thus we say that non-verbal communication, by way of a picture here, communicates something
more than what is communicated through verbal communication. Henceforth, a good
understanding of non-verbal communication will entitle a person or persons to communicate
more effectively than what is conveyed through verbal communication.

Communications Process

Communications is a continuous process which mainly involves three elements viz. sender,
message, and receiver. The elements involved in the communication process are explained below
in detail:

1. Sender: The sender or the communicator generates the message and conveys it to the receiver.
He is the source and the one who starts the communication

2. Message: It is the idea, information, view, fact, feeling, etc. that is generated by the sender
and is then intended to be communicated further.

3. Encoding: The message generated by the sender is encoded symbolically such as in the form
of words, pictures, gestures, etc. before it is being conveyed.

4. Media: It is the manner in which the encoded message is transmitted. The message may be
transmitted orally or in writing. The medium of communication includes telephone, internet,
post, fax, e-mail, etc. The choice of medium is decided by the sender.

5. Decoding: It is the process of converting the symbols encoded by the sender. After decoding
the message is received by the receiver.

6. Receiver: He is the person who is last in the chain and for whom the message was sent by the
sender. Once the receiver receives the message and understands it in proper perspective and acts
according to the message, only then the purpose of communication is successful.

7. Feedback: Once the receiver confirms to the sender that he has received the message and
understood it, the process of communication is complete.

8. Noise: It refers to any obstruction that is caused by the sender, message or receiver during the
process of communication. For example, bad telephone connection, faulty encoding, faulty
decoding, inattentive receiver, poor understanding of message due to prejudice or inappropriate
gestures, etc.

Importance of Communication

1. The Basis of Co-ordination: The manager explains to the employees the organizational
goals, modes of their achievement and also the interpersonal relationships amongst them. This

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provides coordination between various employees and also departments. Thus, communications
act as a basis for coordination in the organization.

2. Fluent Working: A manager coordinates the human and physical elements of an organization
to run it smoothly and efficiently. This coordination is not possible without proper
communication.

3. The Basis of Decision Making: Proper communication provides information to the manager
that is useful for decision making. No decisions could be taken in the absence of information.
Thus, communication is the basis for taking the right decisions.

4. Increases Managerial Efficiency: The manager conveys the targets and issues instructions
and allocates jobs to the subordinates. All of these aspects involve communication. Thus,
communication is essential for the quick and effective performance of the managers and the
entire organization.

5. Increases Cooperation and Organizational Peace: The two-way communication process

promotes co-operation and mutual understanding amongst the workers and also between them
and the management. This leads to less friction and thus leads to industrial peace in the factory
and efficient operations.

6. Boosts Morale of the Employees: Good communication helps the workers to adjust to the
physical and social aspect of work. It also improves good human relations in the industry. An
efficient system of communication enables the management to motivate, influence and satisfy
the subordinates which in turn boosts their morale and keeps them motivated.

Difference between Language and Communication

Communication refers to the interchange of message or information from one person to another,
either verbally or non-verbally while language is a human communication method or the system
through which two people interact. It is used in a particular region or community, for imparting a
message, to each other, with the use of words.

In the process of communication, language plays an important part. Indeed, all the living beings
in this world communicate in their own language. These two terms are so closely intertwined that
people cannot easily recognise their difference and end up using them synonymously. But, in
reality, there exist a fine line of difference between language and communication.

Comparison Chart

Basis for Comparison Language and Communication

Meaning Language implies the system of communication which relies on the verbal or non-
verbal codes, used in transferring information. Communication refers to the way of exchanging
message or information between two or more people.
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Definition of Language

Language is described as a tool which helps in the transmission of feelings and thoughts, from
one person to another. It is the means of expression of what a person feels or thinks, through
arbitrarily produced symbols or sounds, such as words (spoken or written), signs, sounds,
gesture, posture, etc., that convey a certain meaning.

Language is sole medium of communication between two persons, through which they can share
their views, ideas, opinions and emotions with one another. It is aimed at making sense of
complex and abstract thought and that also without any confusion. As a system of
communication, different languages are used by people residing in different areas or belonging to
a different community.

Definition of Communication

Communication is described as an act of interchanging ideas, information or message from one

person or place to another, via words or signs which are understood to both the parties.
Communication is vital for the organisation because it is a principle means by which
organisational members work with each other. It flows in various directions, such as upward,
downward, horizontal or diagonal.

Communication is a pervasive process, i.e. it is needed in all the levels and types of the
organisation. It is a two way activity, which consists of seven major elements, i.e. sender,
encoding, message, channel, receiver, decoding and feedback. Getting feedback, in the process
of communication is as much important as sending the message, because only then the process
will be completed. There are two channels of communication, which are:

1. Formal Communication

2. Informal Communication

Further, communication can be classified as:

 Verbal Communication
 Oral Communication
 Written Communication
 Non-verbal communication

Key Differences between Language and Communication are:

1. The system of communication which relies on the verbal or non-verbal codes, used in
transferring information, is called Language. The way of interchanging message or information
between two or more people is called communication.

33
2. A language is a tool of communication, while communication is the process of transferring
message to one another.

3. Language focuses on the signs, symbols and words. Communication lays emphasis on the
message.

4. Before the invention of written words, language was confined to the auditory channels.
However, it can occur in visual, tactile and other sensory channels too. On the other hand,
communication occurs in all the sensory channels.

5. The basics of communication do not change at all. Conversely, daily new words are added to
the dictionary of the language, so it changes every day.

Noise and Interference in Various Types of Communication

In communication studies and information theory, noise refers to anything that interferes with the
communication process between a speaker and an audience. It's also called interference. Noise
can be external (a physical sound) or internal (a mental disturbance), and it can disrupt the
communication process at any point. Another way to think of noise, notes Alan Jay Zaremba,
author of "Crisis Communication: Theory and Practice" is as a "factor that reduces the chances
of successful communication but does not guarantee failure."

Examples and Observations

Craig E. Carroll, author of "The Handbook of Communication and Corporate Reputation" likens
noise to second-hand smoke "having negative impacts on people without anyone's consent."

"External noises are sights, sounds and other stimuli that draw people's attention away from the
message. For instance, a pop-up advertisement may draw your attention away from a web page
or blog. Likewise, static or service interruptions can play havoc in cell phone conversations, the
sound of a fire engine may distract you from a professor's lecture or the smell of donuts may
interfere with your train of thought during a conversation with a friend."

Kinds of Noise

"There are four kinds of noise. Physiological noise is a distraction caused by hunger, fatigue,
headaches, medication and other factors that affect how we feel and think. Physical noise is
interference in our environments, such as noises made by others, overly dim or bright lights,
spam and pop-up ads, extreme temperatures, and crowded conditions. Psychological noise refers
to qualities in us that affect how we communicate and interpret others. For instance, if you are
preoccupied with a problem, you may be inattentive at a team meeting. Likewise, prejudice and
defensive feelings can interfere with communication. Finally, semantic noise exists when words

34
themselves are not mutually understood. Authors sometimes create semantic noise by using
jargon or unnecessarily technical language."

Noise in Rhetorical Communication

"Noise...refers to any element that interferes with the generation of the intended meaning in the
mind of the receiver...Noise may arise in the source, in the channel; or in the receiver. This factor
of noise is not an essential part of the rhetorical communication process. The communication
process is always hampered to some degree if noise is present. Unfortunately, noise is almost
always present.

"As a cause of failure in rhetorical communication, noise in the receiver is second only to noise
in the source. Receivers of rhetorical communication are people, and no two people are exactly
alike. Consequently, it is impossible for the source to determine the exact effect that a message
will have upon a given receiver...The noise within the receiver—the psychology of the
receiver—will determine to a great extent what the receiver will perceive."

Noise in Intercultural Communication

"For effective communication in an intercultural interaction, participants must rely on a common

language, which usually means that one or more individuals will not be using their native tongue.
Native fluency in a second language is difficult, especially when nonverbal behaviors are
considered. People who use another language will often have an accent or might misuse a word
or phrase, which can adversely affect the receiver's understanding of the message. This type of
distraction referred to as semantic noise, also encompasses jargon, slang and even specialized
professional terminology."

Interference

In research on second language acquisition and language contact, the term interference refers to
the influence of one language (or variety) on another in the speech of bilinguals who use both
languages.

"Those instances of deviation from the norms of either language which occur in the speech of
bilinguals as a result of their familiarity with more than one language, i.e. as a result of language
contact, will be referred to as INTERFERENCE phenomena." (Weinreich 1953:1)

Interference can take place at all levels of the linguistic system, i.e. in phonology, morphology,
syntax, semantics, pragmatics, and the lexicon.

Comments

The influence of one language on another in the speech of bilinguals is relevant both to the field
of second language acquisition (where the interference from the learner's native language is

35
studied) and to the field of historical linguistics (where the effects of interference on language
change are studied).

In the context of second language acquisition, interference may lead to either negative transfer or
positive transfer. Interference is mostly (and sometimes exclusively) used for instances of
negative transfer, and the two terms are often regarded as synonyms. Recently, many researchers
investigating second language acquisition have observed that interference carries a negative
connotation and have therefore increasingly tended to avoid it, preferring the term transfer
instead.

Historical linguists have generally focused on languages rather than speakers, and have used the
term interference in a different, historical sense. However, since the term contact-induced change
has now widely established itself, interference is no longer common in historical linguistics.

There is a verb that is derivationally related to the noun interference, i.e. (to) interfere (e.g. "The
phonology of the speaker's native language interferes with the use of the second language").

Phonological interference

Phonological interference is a common type of interference, its most prominent manifestation

being a “foreign accent”.

Dutch: Vinger (/ˈv̥ɪŋəʀ/ )

Incorrect learner English: Finger (*/ˈfɪŋə/ )

Correct R.P.: Finger (/ˈfɪŋgə/ )

Words including the combination “ng” may be pronounced incorrectly in English, since they are
realized as [ŋ] in Dutch. In that case, the [ŋ] pronounced by a native speaker of Dutch would be
transfer red to the learner language English, where [ŋɡ] would be the correct pronunciation.
Therefore, the realization of “ng” as [ŋ] in the native language would interfere with the
pronunciation of the learner language, e.g. the “ng”-combination in Finger: Dutch: [ŋ] vs.
Received Pronunciation: [ŋɡ] .

Syntactic interference

Transfer from German to English (Received Pronunciation)

German: Gestern habe ich Ball gespielt.

Incorrect Learner English: *I have played ball yesterday.

Correct Received Pronunciation: I played ball yesterday.

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Since the German Perfekt (habe gespielt) is not used in the same way as the English Present
Perfect, it may come to interference at the syntactic level (cf. the learner English-example).
Speakers of German apply the Perfekt in similar contexts (here: a narrative use) as the German
Imperfekt (~the German equivalent of the Past Tense), whereas this is different with the English
Present Perfect and the English Past Tense. Here, reference to definite moments in the past
requires the Past Tense.

Lexical interference

Transfer from English to German: cf. Template:Cite web

English: He wrote the letter on the blackboard.

Incorrect Learner German: Er schrieb den *Brief an die Tafel.

Correct German: Er schrieb den Buchstaben an die Tafel.

In English, letter carries various meanings. This example illustrates especially the following
ones: i) the letter that one can mail by post and ii) the letter as an element of the alphabet. Since
each of the two meanings has its particular counterpart in German, interference at a lexical level
could arise. Therefore, a strict word-by-word translation (i.e. with the help of a dictionary) could
result in the incorrect choice of Brief although the context of the English letter implied the
German Buchstabe.

Theories of Language and Communication

Now that we have covered the main aspects and terms of the study of language differences in
intercultural communication in general, it is time to turn our attention to some specifics of
language. For today’s “lecture,” we will look at a theory of language and behavior and two
practical examples of language issues in communication. For the next webpage, we will finish up
with a reading of your choice in the MN&F reader.

Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT)

o Admittedly, all of us, if we are competent communicators, adjust our language (usually toward,
but as we will see, we sometimes adjust away) in relation to other communicators. We
communicate differently (I hope!) with a small child than we do with our professor. This theory
really explains all types of language adjustment, but for our purposes, and in any class essay
example, you should discuss language movement that is based on group identity, not just
interpersonal adjustment.

o Research shows, for example, that waitstaff and others approach people in wheelchairs
differently than those not in wheelchairs; people sometimes talk differently to those who are

37
blind than those who are not. We speak differently to the elderly, to foreigners, or to people of
other ethnic groups from our own.

o Sometimes, these changes are intentional, but sometimes they are not (see objective,
psychological, and subjective adjustment, below). We may think that we “communicate the same
with everyone,” but that does not mean we really do!

o Accommodation is adjustment, though we often mistakenly use it to mean convergence (see

below).

o Sometimes convergence is helpful, and sometimes it is not.

o This theory is not talking about the adjustment of a person over time when moving to a new
culture (such as adopting an accent) or the change in language of a group over time in a new
culture, but about the adjustments that occur within specific interactions!

o There are many specific channels that you could use to write an essay. These include things at
*all* levels of language studied above (and beyond to “nonverbal” and “paraverbal” language.
For example:

Morphemics: change in accent, change in enunciation clarity of words (either more clear or
more blurred/slurred)

Semantics: change in word choice (such as simplifying language to speak to a child, or using
fewer swear words when speaking to a priest or your parents), using specific jargon either to
draw towards or exclude someone.

Syntactics: change in grammatical structure, such as making your sentences more or less
simple in structure, length.

Pragmatics: changing the level of directness of your speech, the types of questions you ask,
or the way you give or receive feedback based on the culture of the other person.

Paralinguistic: (aspects that deal with the voice, but are not, themselves, symbolic), such as
changes in rate, volume, tone (such as elevated tone at end of words when speaking with older
people), etc.

Nonverbal: such as adjusting your NV behavior to match (or distance yourself from) the
other, using “warm” (“affiliative”) NV behavior in the classroom to show inclusion, or
“distancing” NV behavior to shut people out.

• Code-switching: Any form of switching codes or registers, from elaborated to restricted (or
vice versa), or from one register (e.g., African American Vernacular English or Spanish) to
another register (e.g., Mainstream American Vernacular English

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Code

In communications and information processing, code is a system of rules to convert

information—such as a letter, word, sound, image, or gesture—into another form or
representation, sometimes shortened or secret, for communication through a communication
channel or storage in a storage medium. An early example is the invention of language, which
enabled a person, through speech, to communicate what they saw, heard, felt, or thought to
others. But speech limits the range of communication to the distance a voice can carry, and limits
the audience to those present when the speech is uttered. The invention of writing, which
converted spoken language into visual symbols, extended the range of communication across
space and time.

The process of encoding converts information from a source into symbols for communication or
storage. Decoding is the reverse process, converting code symbols back into a form that the
recipient understands, such as English or Spanish.

One reason for coding is to enable communication in places where ordinary plain language,
spoken or written, is difficult or impossible. For example, semaphore, where the configuration of
flags held by a signaler or the arms of a semaphore tower encodes parts of the message, typically
individual letters and numbers. Another person standing a great distance away can interpret the
flags and reproduce the words sent.

Communicative Codes

In this chapter, we conclude our discussion of foundational concepts by examining

communicative codes. We first discuss what makes a communicative code, and how they
develop. We then examine the various dimensions along which communicative codes can vary,
which can be used to assess the utility of different communicative codes for different
communicative tasks.

Like “media”, “code” is a word we use in everyday conversation to refer to a number of related,
but somewhat different, things. As children, for example, we use codes to write secret messages
to our friends. Software programmers write code for a living, and we know that every computer
program we use, and every webpage we access, is written in some kind of code. (In most web
browsers, clicking “view page source” lets you see the code behind the website you are viewing).
The term “code” also plays an important of traditional models of communication, which describe
communicators as encoding and decoding messages. Clearly, code is a useful and versatile term
for us, and relevant to the study of communication. In what follows, we will look at what makes
a code, how they develop, and the role communicative codes play in message processing.

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Defining Codes

Broadly defined, a code is a system in which one thing (e.g., a word, number, symbol) stands for
something else (e.g., another word, symbol, or number; an idea or meme). Although we will talk
about codes in more general terms, in this text, we are most interested in the role codes play in
message processing. To distinguish between codes in the general sense and codes that have a
first-order role in the creation of understanding between people, we will call the latter as
communicative codes.

For the purposes of studying message processing, we define communicative codes as systems
that pair structurally related stimuli and meme states, such that structurally related stimuli
consistently and systematically evoke similar meme states across various media.

This definition specifically calls attention to what we consider the essentials of codification—in
other words, the properties that make something operate as a code. The first is that structurally
related stimuli consistently and systematically evoke similar meme states in different situations.
Put another way, codes have syntax—that is, there is a degree of structure evident, and
employed, in a code. When something is highly codified, the same stimuli always evoke the
same meme state, in a structured, organized, and predictable way.

The second essential of codification is the structural commonality of stimuli (which evoke the
meme state), regardless of media system being employed. When something is highly codified,
stimuli can take different physical forms (i.e., be instantiated in different ways) across different
media systems, as long as they retain their key structural properties. As long as these key
properties are retained, different versions of stimuli should be recognized as the “same”, and will
reliably activate the same meme states, for a given code.

As an example, let’s consider the “smiley face” (which one could consider part of a kinesic
code). A smiley face can evoke the same meme state whether it appears as pixels on a screen,
graphite or ink on paper, pieces of fruit, an arrangement of paperclips, or exhaust plumes
arranged against a blue sky.

All of those depictions differ in terms of the media systems employed; they also differ in terms
of size and scale, from less than an inch to perhaps 100 feet. However, they retain a structural
continuity: all consist of a closed circle containing two horizontally-aligned dots in the upper half
of the circle, and a broad, U-shaped curve in the bottom half of the circle. Additionally, this
arrangement is structurally comparable to a smiling, human face. There are a many different
ways to depict the smiley face using different media systems. However, across all of these, the
basic structure of the stimuli remains the same. That people recognize this enough for different
stimuli to evoke the same meme state (“happy face”, positive affect) indicates a high degree of
codification is present.

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Examples of Communicative Codes

Traditionally, communication scholars have divided the codes used for human communication
into two categories: verbal codes and nonverbal codes. This distinction has become reified and
calcified to the point that we treat this classification system as if it is “real”—that is, as if it is a
reflection of our communicative reality. We believe that thinking about communicative codes as
either verbal and nonverbal, we risk limiting how we see and think about communication. First,
the verbal/nonverbal distinction implicitly promotes a conceptualization of communication as
based on “language and other, lesser ways of communicating.” In particular, we risk overlooking
communicative codes that do not fit into this neat, two category system. But as we have argued
above, modern musical notation system certainly qualifies as a communicative code, as do
mathematical notation systems.

Our message processing approach requires only that we look at behaviors and ask if there is a
system that activates the same meme states, through the use of structurally related stimuli, in a
consistent manner. If there is, we call that a communicative code.

Some of the communicative codes that humans employ include:

• Language – Language could be further reduced to written (visual) versions and spoken
(auditory) versions as both display enough systematic differences that it would be productive to
examine and understand why those differences exist.

• Modern Musical Notation System – This refers to how music is written, including
information about the order and length of notes, time signature, key, and more.

• Mathematical Notion Systems – This refers to how math is written, including numbers,
symbols for mathematical operations, and notation used in proofs (e.g., “QED”).

• Aesthetic Codes – Various arts – e.g., painting, sculpting, acting, dancing, film production,
music composition, music performance – can be considered communicative codes in that they
employ behavior and artifacts in rule-governed ways that systematically evoke particular meme
states in others.

• Kinesic Code – This refers to how we use our physical bodies to activate meme states in
others. This code does not necessarily require an actual physical body as a medium. When we
look at a comic strip the media system employed is paper and ink. The kinesic code, however, is
visible in the faces the comic strip characters make and the way their bodies are position.

• Proxemic Code – This refers to how we used physical space to activate memes in other. As
with the kinesic code, the proxemic code can be evident in a variety of different media systems –
animations, movies, photographs – and is not limited to use only between actual human beings.

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• Vocalic Code – This refers to all the qualities of our voices that accompany the content, or the
words, spoken. This can include pitch, rate, variation in pitch, accent, volume, articulation, etc.
It, too, can be evident in a variety of different media systems. In fact, we would argue that what
is referred to as “punctuation” in print can be understood as graphic indicators of vocalic code.
Commas, semi-colons, periods, ellipses, question marks, exclamation marks are all indicators of
vocalic behavior. For example, person who posts something online in ALL CAPS is often told to
“stop shouting.”

• Haptic Code – This code includes all the ways we activate meme states via touching another
person.

• Chronemic Code – This refers to how we can activate meme states via the use of time.
Arriving late, arriving early, imposing on something unannounced, multi-tasking while someone
is talking with you – these are all examples of how we use time to activate meme states.

• Physical Appearance – We present our physical selves a variety of ways to others. Some of
these meme states get activated by qualities of our appearance less directly under our control
(e.g., height, skin color, hair color), some more directly under our control (e.g., weight, size,
shape).

• Artifacts and Environment – This code includes what George Carlin refers to as “our stuff,”
and how it activates particular meme states for those interacting with us. How we dress, what
glasses we wear, our purses, backpacks, jewelry, and all the ways we manipulate and decorate
our immediate environment (e.g., bedroom, office) can all be part of this code.

• Olfactory Code – This code, which addresses how smell systematically activates memes, has
only recently become recognized and studied by researchers, despite a “personal odor
manipulation” industry (e.g., perfumes, colognes, after shaves, deodorants, breath fresheners,
mouth washes, scented shampoos, “odor eaters” for shoes) that generates tens of billions of
dollars annually.

Does Communication Require a Code?

In the previous chapter, we argued that communication cannot be accomplished without the use
of a media system. We cannot directly access other people’s brains, so we have to access their
brains indirectly, via their senses. To do this, we present fellow communicators with stimuli,
which we create by systematically altering a media system. For communication to “work”—that
is, for the stimuli we present to activate or create the meme state we intend—does that stimuli
have to be codified? In other words, do we need codes to communicate?

Much of human communication takes places through a shared language. Shared language
qualifies as a communicative code: languages are systems that pair structurally related stimuli
(e.g., words) with meme states (e.g., definitions of those words), and do so in structured and

42
organized ways. It is also the case that much of our communication employs nonverbal behavior
as well. Any number of textbooks that address nonverbal communication identify and describe
various nonverbal codes—that is, the “meaning” or meme states, that people systematically
associate with different forms of nonverbal behavior. Many traditional definitions of
communication make reference to some sort of “shared code” or “shared signal system”. Given
this focus on language and nonverbal codes in scholars’ discussions of communication, it
intuitively seems that communication would be dependent on some sort of shared
communicative code(s).

We contend that a shared code is not an essential component of a communicative event—in other
words, it is possible to communicate without a code. However, codes do facilitate
communication, and can be an emergent phenomenon following repeated communicative events.
Put another way, we do not have to have a code to communicate, but codes make communication
easier—so much so that even if we start communicating without a code, we likely will develop
one along the way, if we communicate for long enough.

As a way to illustrate this point, consider the game Charades. For the few readers unfamiliar with
this game, this is the general procedure: Two teams compete against each other. One person on
one team is given a prompt that is not shared with her teammates. This prompt could be many
different things: a song title, a movie, a popular phrase, or any number of general concepts
(“dance party”, “bookworm”). The player given the prompt must communicate this prompt to
her teammates without the use of any words, language, or sound. The player can only use
gestures. Her teammates shout out their inferences about what she is trying to convey until they
either get it right or a set amount of time is up.

If we were to find a handful of people who have never played the game before and entice them to
play, it is highly likely they will be naïve to any gestures or behaviors that other more
experienced players may use when playing. They must literally “make it up as they go along.”
Yet, despite this inexperience, they will probably be successful in several of their attempts to
infer the right prompts.

By most definitions of communication, and certainly the definition we have employed in this
book, Charades clearly involves communication. And yet our hypothetical team of Charades
novices are managing to successfully communicate in the absence of any specific, previously
established, shared codes. We concede by the end of several rounds of play, our novices will
likely have developed a very basic, embryonic Charades code (where, for example, the same
gestures are systematically used to activate “sounds like”, or “book”, or “movie”). However,
their initial successes show us that it is possible to communicate without a shared code.

Development of Communicative Codes

The example game of Charades shows us one possible way that a communicative code can arise,
that is, that codification can occur. Once communicators successfully create understanding using

43
a particular set of stimuli (i.e., message), they often return to the same stimuli when they want to
activate the same meme state again. In a game of Charades, putting my hand behind my ear
could be used to activate the meme state, “sounds like”. If this gesture effectively activates this
meme state for my teammates, I will use it again the next time it is useful to me; my teammates
are also likely to use it when it is useful to them. A behavior will be reproduced if it is effective
at activating a desired meme state, and reproduced widely if it is widely effective.

Through this process, this gesture (putting my hand behind my ear) becomes a cultural artifact. A
cultural artifact is a product created within a human culture to serve a purpose, and that is
replicated as a function of its effectiveness. We can look at the range of communicative
behaviors we employ, and argue that all these behaviors are cultural artifacts that work
effectively as communicative behaviors through a process of cultural consensus and habituation.
If we and others find and agree that a given behavior is effective at activating a desired meme
state (cultural consensus), we and others will continue to use that behavior in that way, for that
purpose (habituation).

However, codification does not always arise in the same manner. The game of Charades shows
how a set of conventions can emerge from human interaction, and ultimately lead to the
development of (basic) code. As a different example, however, let’s return to the smiley face. A
smiley face essentially reduces a smiling human face to the most fundamental structural elements
that will still activate the concept of a human’s smiling face, and the positive affect associated
with it. This is a bit different than a “sounds like” gesture: the smiley face is designed to emulate
that smiling human face, which would also activate similar memes (“happy face”, positive
affect). Do we want to argue that the actual human smiling face is just a cultural artifact as well?

The smiling face is, indeed, a bit different. The association between a smiling face and the meme
state of positive affect is a global phenomenon– people around the world, from different cultures,
smile in a highly similar fashion when experiencing positive affect. When a common behavior is
associated with a common response around the planet (and in some cases across species as well),
it is generally safe to assume that such a behavior/response relationship has a more fundamental
origin than culture. In these cases, we generally presume that such behavior/response
combinations are part of our genetic heritage, encoded in our DNA. Smiling when happy,
growling and gritting/baring our teeth when hostile, expanding ourselves when taking on a
challenge and literally shrinking ourselves when backing away from a challenge – these are all
behaviors that a variety of mammals exhibit in similar ways.

Functions of Codes

We can examine codes in terms of the functions they serve in the process of human
communication, just as we did with media systems. The two primary functions of codes we will
discuss align with the two primary functions of media systems: codes help us distribute
messages, and codes help us interface with messages. Let’s examine distribution first.

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Distribution

Generally, message sources and targets are separated by some kind of gap in space and/or time.
To communicate, one communicator – for example, a person speaking, a book author, a radio or
television station – must send or cast a message across that gap to other communicators. In most
face-to-face settings, a message can effectively be cast into the proximal environment of the
target using the media systems (e.g., air, light) at hand. In this case, the form in which one
communicator encodes a message can be accessed by other communicators’ senses.

However, in many situations, communicators do not have direct access to other communicators’
senses. This is the case, for instance, when a book author wants to reach a reader a thousand
miles away, or when a radio station broadcasts music to an audience distributed across hundreds
of square miles, or an internet content producer wants to send his blog to his twenty-seven
dedicated followers around the world. In such cases, communicators need additional conduit or
carrier media systems (e.g., electricity in copper wires, plastic disks, paper) to move the message
greater distances across space and time. Under these circumstances, a message often has to be
converted, or translated, to a form of stimuli that can move efficiently through (or being carried
by) these additional media systems. Codes are often used to make this conversion or translation
between stimuli. Thus, an important function of codes is facilitating and enabling message
distribution.

For example, early telephones captured energy created by our voice and converted it into
structurally comparable variance in electrical frequencies that traveled across copper wires.
Those electrical frequencies would create variance in a diaphragm at the other end of the call,
creating variance in air pressure that reasonably reflected the original speaker-caused variance in
air pressure. This is how a receiver would “hear” the speaker’s voice. We call this an analog
code because the variance in the electrical frequencies traveling through the wires is a direct
analog of the voice that produced the code.

Similarly, early vinyl disks – phonographs (literally “written sound”) – were used to record
sounds produced by singers or musical instruments. Just as the telephone converted voices into
electrical frequencies that corresponded with the voices, singers’ voices were used to cut grooves
into the vinyl records. The variance in the grooves reflected the variance in the voices that
created them, thus the grooves could be “read back” to provide a reasonable facsimile of the
voices that made them. These phonographs could then be reproduced in large numbers and
shipped all over to allow the recorded messages to be transmitted to thousands of targets. This is
also an example of analog code use, as the grooves in the vinyl reflect an analog encoding of the
original sound.

Printed language, as a code, can also be used to help efficiently distribute messages. In this case,
communicators’ meme states can be depicted and recorded via visually accessible codes, with
stimuli consisting of letters, glyphs, or similar marks. Encoding messages into printed language

45
allows messages to be recorded on a variety of carrier and conduit media and distributed to
thousands of targets, or audience members.

Morse code provides a somewhat different example of a code used to distribute messages. It is
different because it does not count on creating analog versions of the message being transmitted;
instead, it converts the message into a symbols, in the form of dashes and dots. Samuel Morse,
one of the inventors of the telegraph, developed his code for the transmission of text (such as
English language) across electrified copper wires. Morse simply cycled the electric power on or
off in short or longer pulses (“dots” and “dashes”) associated with each letter of the alphabet.
The receiver at the other end would see and hear those pulses as they caused two contacts to
magnetically open and close. The receiver would translate the pulses back into letters. Morse
code proved to be an extremely versatile transmission code in that it can be used across a variety
of media systems, virtually any system that allows for differentiating between shorter and longer
pulses of any stimuli.

Digital codes are a final example of codes used for message distribution. A large percentage of
message distribution today is accomplished through the use of digital coding. Analog waves have
largely been replaced with digital pulses – binary digits or bits (Shannon & Weaver, 1947)– that
serve as the basis of an entirely different, more versatile and efficient coding system.
Combinations of bits are used to activate particular pixels on a screen in a specific way. They can
activate a particular sonic frequency. They can correspond with a particular letter. At this point,
virtually all messages can be converted to a stream of bits and moved across a variety of conduit
and carrier media to intended targets. Material books, magazines, newspapers still employ
printed language and images, but their digital counterparts use bits.

Interface

Now that we have discussed how codes can help move messages, we will turn our attention to
how codes can help people interface with messages. As mentioned above, in every
communicative situation, a message must traverse the gap between two or more communicators.
Once that gap has been successfully traversed, the message must be in a form that can be
accessed and processed by a person for it to be part of a communicative process.

A message that arrives in a form that a communicator cannot access (or detect) is useless from a
communicative standpoint. This is the reason we cannot watch television shows by peering into
the copper cable coming out from our wall at home. It is not because the message – the latest
episode of our favorite show – is not present in the copper cable; it is there. The problem is the
message is in a form not accessible to our senses and not meaningful to our understanding of the
world—the stimuli that are present in the copper cable are not empirically available to us.

To watch our favorite show, we need to plug the cable into the back of our screens. When we do
this, our TVs (or monitors) the decode the digital signal, and encode the message it carries into
the activation of specific pixels on the screen and sonic output produced by the speakers. The

46
light from these pixels and the sounds from the speakers will be presented at frequencies from
which our senses can sample. The pixels will collectively illuminate to form a pattern that
activates meme states (e.g., “dragon”) in our minds, and that response will be reinforced by a
sonic wave coming from our speakers (that activates e.g., a dragon’s roar). The message was
present in the cable all the time; however it was coded for distribution purposes, not for interface.
For us to be able to access that message, it needs to be encoded in way that is designed to
interface with (i.e., be accessible to) our primary senses.

Properties of Codes

Just as we looked at how media systems vary in their affordances, we can also examine how
communicative codes vary in terms of key properties. This allows us to compare and contrast the
utility of different communicative codes for the communicative task at hand. While these
properties can relate to either function of codes discussed above, communication scientists
generally care more about how people interface with messages than how we move them around.
(Determining how to use code to move messages from Point A to Point B has historically been
the province of engineers and computer scientists.) Thus, in our discussion of properties of
codes, we will focus primarily on qualities that have consequences for interface.

Syntactic Rigidity

Communicative codes can vary considerably in how fixed, or rigid, their syntax is. (Recall from
earlier that syntax refers to the degree and nature of structure present in a code). The modern
music notation system is widely used around the world and clearly qualifies as a communicative
code, according to our definition. In this system, a set of symbols (e.g., clefs, types of notes)
systematically and consistently evoke the same meme states (e.g., play a particular note, for a
particular amount of time, in a particular order) across users. The syntax that governs modern
music notation is fairly rigid: the same visual symbols (e.g., whole note) always correspond to
the same, specific meme states and corresponding behaviors (e.g., play a note for a full beat in
the time signature). As a result, the “messages” encoded using modern music notation – a book
of piano music, for instance – are interpreted in a highly similar fashion across multiple
communicators (i.e., anyone reading the music and playing the piano).

Similarly, and for the same reasons, modern mathematical notation systems are very rigid as
well. A mathematical equation has no room for ambiguity; it cannot be unclear or vague.
Multiple communicators must be able to interpret that equation exactly the same way. Not
surprisingly, two functions that early computers were programmed to do were various
mathematical activities and – when the necessary accessory hardware was created – play music.
Why could computers do math and music so early? Because math and music also have simple
syntaxes that are rigid in nature.

47
On the other hand, many of the communicative codes we use every day have less rigid syntax.
The less rigid syntax is, the more we can think of it as probabilistic: that is, the likelihood that
somebody will behave in accordance with the syntax is more variable. People’s use of kinesic
behaviors, for instance – facial expressions or gestures – only sometimes evoke (and are intended
to evoke) specific meme states in consistent and systematic ways. Our current commercial AI
systems – Apple’s Siri™, Amazon’s Echo™, Microsoft’s Cortana™ – all have some difficulties
in linguistic interactions with users but are showing promise. However, it will be a long time
before our AI systems can show average adult human skills at responding appropriately to
kinesic, vocalic, or proxemics communicative behavior. These codes are simply characterized by
much less rigidity, than musical or mathematical notation systems, or even spoken and written
language. Generally, it is more difficult to reliably interpret messages when the codes they use
have less rigid syntax.

Syntactic Complexity

Communicative codes also vary in the complexity of their syntax. Some codes have a relatively
straightforward structure, defined by straightforward rules. Morse code, for example (see below),
consists of a series of combinations of dots and dashes, with a different combination representing
each letter of the English alphabet. Syntactically, this code is fairly simple, and you could learn
its syntax fairly quickly. The same cannot be said of the syntax that governs mathematical
communication. The syntax of mathematical communication is certainly rigid, but for the
average person it is also quite complex. Many an adult when faced with solving a mathematical
equation suddenly remembers “Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally” or PEMDAS, that helps
them remember orders of operations. Grammar—the syntax of language—is also quite complex.
We might be fairly adept at speaking English but most of us cannot articulate any more than the
most basic rules of English grammar. Closely related, reading and comprehending sentences with
multiple embedded clauses (“the man whose cat ran off in a fright last week is still upset”; “she’s
a friend of my sister’s neighbor’s son, who lives in Utah”)—which is one form that complex
grammatical syntax takes—can be difficult even for advanced readers.

Commonality of Use

We can also compare and contrast codes based on how widespread their use is. For example, we
can assume that some aspects of kinesic and vocalic codes might be common the world over.
This is because portions of these codes are part of our mammalian heritage. We can smile,
frown, grit our teeth and growl and people across the planet will interpret these behaviors in a
highly similar fashion. Similarly, two mathematicians from different countries who speak
different languages might not be able to converse about the weather very easily, but they can
communicate about anything that can be expressed in mathematical formula and equations. This
is because the ways we communicate via mathematical “code” are extremely widespread, global
even. Mathematical code is not part of our genetic inheritance; it is an invented (i.e.,
conventional) code. Like the modern musical notation system, mathematical code has become

48
standardized across much of the world, allowing people of different cultures and backgrounds,
speaking different languages, to communicate about those content areas amenable to those codes.

Limits to Topicality

This property, which refers to the range of possible ideas or meme states that can be addressed
by a code, is particularly important to consider when assessing how a code can be used. As
discussed earlier, the primary function of communication is the activation of meme states in
another communicator. Not all codes do this equally well for all possible meme states.
Mathematical codes are excellent for clearly communicating mathematical ideas, but poor for
discussing the weather, politics, or how your day at school went. Of all the codes humans
commonly use, language has the greatest capacity for topicality. Certainly, there are ideas we
have “trouble putting into words.” But in the end, words – language – is still our most versatile
and effective communicative code when faced with the need to efficiently activate the greatest
range of meme states with the best possibility of success.

Summary and Conclusion

In this chapter, we offered a message processing-focused definition of communicative codes, and

provided some examples of communicative codes that are frequently used to activate meme
states and help communicators effectively create understanding. We made the argument that
unlike media systems, we do not have to have a code to successfully communicate. However,
communicative codes do facilitate communication; as a result, they often emerge across repeated
communicative interactions if we do not start with a shared code. We then articulated a set of key
properties—syntactic rigidity, syntactic complexity, commonality of use, and limits to
topicality—that can be used to assess codes as well as compare and contrast them with each
other. Identifying a set of properties common to all communicative codes helps us recognize the
functional commonalities across various codes, and dispel the conceptual limitations that
accompany a traditional “verbal/nonverbal” dichotomy in thinking about communicative codes.

Speech production

Examples of speech errors. The target is what the speaker intended to say. The error is what the
speaker actually said. These mistakes have been studied to learn about the structure of speech
production.

1. Speech is planned in advance.

2. The lexicon is organized both semantically and phonologically. That is by meaning, and by the
sound of the words.

3. Morphologically complex words are assembled.[15] Words that we produce that contain
morphemes are put together during the speech production process. Morphemes are the smallest
units of language that contain meaning. For example, "ed" on a past tense word.

49
4. Affixes and functors behave differently from context words in slips of the tongue.[15] This
means the rules about the ways in which a word can be used are likely stored with them, which
means generally when speech errors are made, the mistake words maintain their functions and
make grammatical sense.

5. Speech errors reflect rule knowledge. Even in our mistakes, speech is not nonsensical. The
words and sentences that are produced in speech errors are typically grammatical, and do not
violate the rules of the language being spoken.

Articulation

• Fluency: Is the ability to communicate an intended message, or to affect the listener in the way
that is intended by the speaker. While accurate use of language is a component in this ability,
over-attention to accuracy may actually inhibit the development of fluency. Fluency involves
constructing coherent utterances and stretches of speech, to respond and to speak without undue
hesitation (limited use of fillers such as uh, er, eh, like, you know). It also involves the ability to
use strategies such as simplification and gestures to aid communication. Fluency involves use of
relevant information, appropriate vocabulary and syntax.

• Complexity: Speech where the message is communicated precisely. Ability to adjust the
message or negotiate the control of conversation according to the responses of the listener, and
use subordination and clausal forms appropriate per the roles and relationship between the
speakers. It includes the use of sociolinguistic knowledge – the skills required to communicate
effectively across cultures; the norms, the knowledge of what is appropriate to say in what
situations and to whom.

• Accuracy: This refers to the use of proper and advanced grammar; subject-verb agreement;
word order; and word form (excited/exciting), as well as appropriate word choice in spoken
language. It is also the ability to self-correct during discourse, to clarify or modify spoken
language for grammatical accuracy.

• Comprehensibility: This is the ability to be understood by others, it is related with the sound
of the language. There are three components that influence one’s comprehensibility and they are:
Pronunciation – saying the sounds of words correctly; Intonation – applying proper stress on
words and syllables, using rising and falling pitch to indicate questions or statements, using voice
to indicate emotion or emphasis, speaking with an appropriate rhythm; and Enunciation –
speaking clearly at an appropriate pace, with effective articulation of words and phrases and
appropriate volume.

The production of speech sounds

• Articulators above the larynx

50
• All the sounds we make when we speak are the result of muscles contracting. The muscles in
the chest that we use for breathing produce the flow of air that is needed for almost all speech
sounds; muscles in the larynx produce many different modifications in the flow of air from the
chest to the mouth. After passing through the larynx, the air goes through what we call the vocal
tract, which ends at the mouth and nostrils. Here the air from the lungs escapes into the
atmosphere. We have a large and complex set of muscles that can produce changes in the shape
of the vocal tract, and in order to learn how the sounds of speech are produced it is necessary to
become familiar with the different parts of the vocal tract. These different parts are called
articulators, and the study of them is called articulatory phonetics.

i) The pharynx is a tube which begins just above the larynx. It is about 7 cm long in women and
about 8 cm in men, and at its top end it is divided into two, one part being the back of the mouth
and the other being the beginning of the way through the nasal cavity. If you look in your mirror
with your mouth open, you can see the back of the pharynx.

ii) The velum or soft palate is seen in the diagram in a position that allows air to pass through
the nose and through the mouth. Yours is probably in that position now, but often in speech it is
raised so that air cannot escape through the nose. The other important thing about the velum is
that it is one of the articulators that can be touched by the tongue. When we make the sounds k
and g the tongue is in contact with the lower side of the velum, and we call these velar
consonants.

iii) The hard palate is often called the "roof of the mouth". You can feel its smooth curved
surface with your tongue.

iv) The alveolar ridge is between the top front teeth and the hard palate. You can feel its shape
with your tongue. Its surface is really much rougher than it feels, and is covered with little ridges.
You can only see these if you have a mirror small enough to go inside your mouth (such as those
used by dentists). Sounds made with the tongue touching here (such as t and d ) are called
alveolar.

v) The tongue is, of course, a very important articulator and it can be moved into many different
places and different shapes. It is usual to divide the tongue into different parts, though there are
no clear dividing lines within the tongue. Fig. 2 shows the tongue on a larger scale with these
parts shown: tip, blade, front, back and root. (This use of the word "front" often seems rather
strange at first.)

vi) The teeth (upper and lower) are usually shown in diagrams like Fig. 1 only at the front of the
mouth, immediately behind the lips. This is for the sake of a simple diagram, and you should
remember that most speakers have teeth to the sides of their mouths, back almost to the soft
palate. The tongue is in contact with the upper side teeth for many speech sounds. Sounds made
with the tongue touching the front teeth are called dental.

51
vii) The lips are important in speech. They can be pressed together (when we produce the sounds
p , b ), brought into contact with the teeth (as in f , v), or rounded to produce the lip-shape for
vowels like uù. Sounds in which the lips are in contact with each other are called bilabial, while
those with lip-to-teeth contact are called labiodental.

• The seven articulators described above are the main ones used in speech, but there are three
other things to remember. Firstly, the larynx could also be described as an articulator - a very
complex and independent one. Secondly, the jaws are sometimes called articulators; certainly we
move the lower jaw a lot in speaking. But the jaws are not articulators in the same way as the
others, because they cannot themselves make contact with other articulators. Finally, although
there is practically nothing that we can do with the nose and the nasal cavity, they are a very
important part of our equipment for making sounds (what is sometimes called our vocal
apparatus), particularly nasal consonants such as m , n . Again, we cannot really describe the
nose and the nasal cavity as articulators in the same sense as (i) to (vii) above.

Rhythm Stress And Intonation English Language Essay

Stress

Two syllable – Second Syllable Stressed

Three syllable – First Syllable Stressed

Three syllable- Second Syllable Stressed

Three syllable- Third Syllable Stressed

Four syllable-Second Syllable Stressed

Four syllable- Third Syllable Stressed

Emphatic Stress

Contrastive Stress

Tonic Stress

Classification or Types of Correspondence

Memorandums and Letters

Memos

Memo Purpose

Memo Format

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Five Tips for Effective Business Memos

Audience Orientation

Professional, Formal Tone

Subject Emphasis

Direct Format

Letters

Content Guidelines

1. Return Address This is your address where someone could send a reply. If your letter
includes a letterhead with this information, either in the header (across the top of the page) or the
footer (along the bottom of the page), you do not need to include it before the date.

2. Date: The date should be placed at the top, right or left justified, five lines from the top of the
page or letterhead logo.

3. Reference: Like a subject line in an e-mail, this is where you indicate what the letter is in
reference to, the subject or purpose of the document.

4. Delivery (Optional) : Sometimes you want to indicate on the letter itself how it was delivered.
This can make it clear to a third party that the letter was delivered via a specific method, such as
certified mail (a legal requirement for some types of documents).

5. Recipient Note (Optional) This is where you can indicate if the letter is personal or
confidential.

6. Salutation A common salutation may be “Dear Mr. (full name).” But if you are unsure about
titles (i.e., Mrs., Ms., Dr.), you may simply write the recipient’s name (e.g., “Dear Cameron
Rai”) followed by a colon. A comma after the salutation is correct for personal letters, but a
colon should be used in business. The salutation “To whom it may concern” is appropriate for
letters of recommendation or other letters that are intended to be read by any and all individuals.
If this is not the case with your letter, but you are unsure of how to address your recipient, make
every effort to find out to whom the letter should be specifically addressed. For many, there is no
sweeter sound than that of their name, and to spell it incorrectly runs the risk of alienating the
reader before your letter has even been read. Avoid the use of impersonal salutations like “Dear
Prospective Customer,” as the lack of personalization can alienate a future client.

7. Introduction: This is your opening paragraph, and may include an attention statement, a
reference to the purpose of the document, or an introduction of the person or topic depending on

53
the type of letter. An emphatic opening involves using the most significant or important element
of the letter in the introduction. Readers tend to pay attention to openings, and it makes sense to
outline the expectations for the reader up front. Just as you would preview your topic in a speech,
the clear opening in your introductions establishes context and facilitates comprehension.

8. Body: If you have a list of points, a series of facts, or a number of questions, they belong in
the body of your letter. You may choose organizational devices to draw attention, such as a
bullet list, or simply number them. Readers may skip over information in the body of your letter,
so make sure you emphasize the key points clearly. This is your core content, where you can
outline and support several key points. Brevity is important, but so is clear support for main
point(s). Specific, meaningful information needs to be clear, concise, and accurate.

9. Conclusion: An emphatic closing mirrors your introduction with the added element of tying
the main points together, clearly demonstrating their relationship. The conclusion can serve to
remind the reader, but should not introduce new information. A clear summary sentence will
strengthen your writing and enhance your effectiveness. If your letter requests or implies action,
the conclusion needs to make clear what you expect to happen. It is usually courteous to
conclude by thanking the recipient for his or her attention, and to invite them to contact you if
you can be of help or if they have questions. This paragraph reiterates the main points and their
relationship to each other, reinforcing the main point or purpose.

10. Close: “Sincerely” or “Cordially” are standard business closing statements. (“Love,” “Yours
Truly,” and “BFF” are closing statements suitable for personal correspondence, but not for
business.) Closing statements are normally placed one or two lines under the conclusion and
include a hanging comma, as in Sincerely,

11. Signature: Five lines after the close, you should type your name (required) and, on the line
below it, your title (optional).

12. Preparation Line: If the letter was prepared, or word-processed, by someone other than the
signatory (you), then inclusion of initials is common, as in MJD or abc.

13. Enclosures/Attachments: Just like an e-mail with an attachment, the letter sometimes has
additional documents that are delivered with it. This line indicates what the reader can look for in
terms of documents included with the letter, such as brochures, reports, or related business
documents.

14. Courtesy Copies or “CC”: The abbreviation “CC” once stood for carbon copies but now
refers to courtesy copies. Just like a “CC” option in an e-mail, it indicates the relevant parties
that will also receive a copy of the document.

15. Logo/Contact Information: A formal business letter normally includes a logo or contact
information for the organization in the header (top of page) or footer (bottom of page).

54
Strategies for Effective Letters

1. The heading, which establishes the sender, often including address and date

2. The introduction, which establishes the purpose

3. The body, which articulates the message

4. The conclusion, which restates the main point and may include a call to action

5. The signature line, which sometimes includes the contact information

• be clear, concise, specific, and respectful;

• each word should contribute to your purpose;

• each paragraph should focus on one idea;

• the parts of the letter should form a complete message;

• the letter should be free of errors.

Key Takeaways

• Memos are brief business documents usually used internally to inform or persuade employees
concerning business decisions on policy, procedure, or actions.

• Letters are brief, print messages often used externally to inform or persuade customers,
vendors, or the public.

• A letter has fifteen parts, each fulfilling a specific function.

1. Find a memo from your work or business, or borrow one from someone you know. Share it
with your classmates, observing confidentiality by blocking out identifying details such as the
name of the sender, recipient, and company. Compare and contrast.

2. Create a draft letter introducing a product or service to a new client. Post and share with
classmates.

3. Write a memo informing your class that an upcoming holiday will be observed. Post and share
with classmates.

4. Find a business letter (for example, an offer you received from a credit card company or a
solicitation for a donation) and share it with your classmates. Look for common elements and
points of difference.

55
5. Now that you have reviewed a sample letter, and learned about the five areas and fifteen basic
parts of any business letter, write a business letter that informs a prospective client or customer
of a new product or service.

Difference Between Formal and Informal Letter

Comparison Chart

Basis for Comparison Formal Letter Informal Letter

Meaning: A formal letter is a letter, written in formal language, in the stipulated format, for
official purpose. A letter written in an friendly manner, to someone you are familiar with, is
called informal letter.

Objective: Professional Communication Personal Communication

Format : Written in prescribed format only. No prescribed format.

Written in First person - Business letters, third person - others. First, second or third person.

Written to Business, college/institute, employer, organizations, etc. Friends, family,

acquaintances etc.

Voice Passive Active

Sentences Long and complex Short and simple

Size Concise Large or concise

Contractions and Abbreviations Avoided Used

Definition of Formal Letters

• It should be in specified format.

• It should avoid the use of unnecessary words.

• It should be straight to the point.

• It should be relevant and objective.

• It should be complex and thorough.

• It should be polite, even if it is a complaint letter.

• It should be free from any mistakes, i.e. grammatical or spelling.

56
Definition of Informal Letters

Key Differences Between Formal and Informal Letter

1. A formal letter is one, written in formal language, in the stipulated format, for official purpose.
A letter is said to be informal when it is written in a friendly manner, to someone you are
familiar with.

2. Formal letters are written for official or professional communication. On the other hand,
informal letters are used for casual or personal communication.

3. There is a manner prescribed for writing formal letters. As opposed to informal

communication, which does not follow any format.

4. Formal letters are usually written in the third person, however, for business letters, first person
is used. On the contrary, informal letters are written in first, second and third person.

5. Formal letters are used for writing letters to business, i.e. partners, suppliers, customers,
clients, etc. , college or institute, employer, professionals, etc. As against this, we use informal
letters for writing letters to friends, relatives, acquaintance, etc.

6. While writing formal letters, we use passive voice. Conversely, an active and imperative voice
is used.

7. The sentences we use at the time of writing a formal letter are, long and complex. Unlike an
informal letter, where we use short and simple sentences which are easy to interpret.

8. The size of a formal letter should be concise; that does not include irrelevant matter. In
contrast, the informal letter can be concise or large.

9. Formal letters do not include contraction like (didn’t, can’t) and abbreviations rather it uses
full forms. As compared to informal letters, which makes use of contraction, abbreviation,
idioms, phrasal verbs and even slang and colloquial terms.

Writing an IELTS Semi-Formal Letter

• Explain why you want to take time off

• Give details of the amount of time you need

• Suggest how your work could be covered while you are away.

• Paragraphs and structure

• Vocabulary (Lexical resource)

• Punctuation

57
You are working for a company. You need to take some time off and want to ask your manager
about his

• Explain why you want to take time off

• Give details of the amount of time you need

• Suggest how your work could be covered while you are away.

• Less colloquial language – e.g. Thank you very much for your letter (instead of: Thanks for
your letter.)

• Less frequent use of short forms, phrasal verbs and idioms – e.g. I am writing to request
information about…….(instead of: I thought I’d drop you a line to ask about…)

• A polite, respectful tone – e.g. I was wondering if you could ...(instead of: Can you ……)

Informal Neutral/ Semi-formal Formal

What do you need? Please let us know your requirements Please inform us of your
requirements

Many thanks for ..

Thank you for your letter Thank you for your letter dated 12th May

Sorry, I can’t make it to the ….. I am sorry but I will not be able to come to …. Please
accept my apologies for …… I am afraid I will be unable to attend the …./ please accept my
sincere apologies for …

(I’m) So sorry to tell you that … I am sorry to say that I/we …….. We/I regret to inform
you that ….

I promise to +verb.

I/ we can assure you that ….. Please be assured that …..

Could / would you ……? I was wondering if you could / would……..? We would greatly
appreciate your help/ assistance in this matter.

Don’t forget ….. We/ I would like to remind you that ….. We/ I would like to remind
you that …..

But …. Also…. So…. However, In addition, Therefore, However, In addition, Therefore,

Can you …… please…..? Could you please ……? I would be grateful if you could…..

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I’m sorry for putting you out. I am sorry for inconveniencing you Please accept our/ my
apologies for…. (any inconvenience)

Do you know the difference between formal, semi-formal, and informal English?

Finding the main idea

Where are the main ideas found?

• Main ideas are often found at the beginning of paragraphs. The first sentence often explains the
subject being discussed in the passage.

• Main ideas are also found in the concluding sentences of a paragraph. The main idea can be
expressed as a summation of the information in the paragraph as well as a link to the information
in the next paragraph.

• Several sentences in a paragraph can imply the main idea by introducing facts about the topic
before actually stating the topic.

• Implied ideas can be drawn from facts, reasons, or examples that give hints or suggestions
concerning the main idea. These hints will be clues leading you to discover the main idea in the
selected text.

• Try the passage below to see if you can pick out the main idea.

"To many parents, the infant's crying may be mainly an irritation, especially if it continues for
long periods. But crying serves important functions for the child as well as for the parents. For
the child, crying helps improve lung capacity and the respiratory system. Perhaps more
important, the cry serves as a signal of distress. When babies cry, they indicate that they are
hungry or in pain, and this is important information for parents."

• Who - Does this passage discuss a person or group of people?

• When - Does the information contain a reference to time?

• Where - Does the text name a place?

• Why - Do you find a reason or explanation for something that happened?

• How - Does this information indicate a method or a theory?

How can I determine if I have selected the correct main idea of a paragraph?

• Write a short summary in your own words about what you have read.

59
• Does your summary agree with this general topic?

• Does your summary contain the same ideas being expressed by the author?

• Could you write a headline (or textbook subheading) that would express your summary in less
than five words?

Identifying Topics, Main Ideas, and Supporting Details

Understanding the topic, the gist, or the larger conceptual framework of a textbook chapter, an
article, a paragraph, a sentence or a passage is a sophisticated reading task. Being able to draw
conclusions, evaluate, and critically interpret articles or chapters is important for overall
comprehension in college reading. Textbook chapters, articles, paragraphs, sentences, or
passages all have topics and main ideas. The topic is the broad, general theme or message. It is
what some call the subject. The main idea is the "key concept" being expressed. Details, major
and minor, support the main idea by telling how, what, when, where, why, how much, or how
many. Locating the topic, main idea, and supporting details helps you understand the point(s)
the writer is attempting to express. Identifying the relationship between these will increase your
comprehension.

The successful communication of any author's topic is only as good as the organization the
author uses to build and define his/her subject matter.

Grasping the Main Idea: A paragraph is a group of sentences related to a particular topic, or
central theme. Every paragraph has a key concept or main idea. The main idea is the most
important piece of information the author wants you to know about the concept of that
paragraph. When authors write they have an idea in mind that they are trying to get across. This
is especially true as authors compose paragraphs. An author organizes each paragraph's main
idea and supporting details in support of the topic or central theme, and each paragraph supports
the paragraph preceding it.

A writer will state his/her main idea explicitly somewhere in the paragraph. That main idea may
be stated at the beginning of the paragraph, in the middle, or at the end. The sentence in which
the main idea is stated is the topic sentence of that paragraph.

The topic sentence announces the general theme ( or portion of the theme) to be dealt with in the
paragraph. Although the topic sentence may appear anywhere in the paragraph, it is usually first
– and for a very good reason. This sentence provides the focus for the writer while writing and
for the reader while reading. When you find the topic sentence, be sure to underline it so that it
will stand out not only now, but also later when you review.

Identifying the Topic: The first thing you must be able to do to get at the main idea of a
paragraph is to identify the topic – the subject of the paragraph. Think of the paragraph as a
wheel with the topic being the hub – the central core around which the whole wheel (or

60
paragraph) spins. Your strategy for topic identification is simply to ask yourself the question,
"What is this about?" Keep asking yourself that question as you read a paragraph, until the
answer to your question becomes clear. Sometimes you can spot the topic by looking for a word
or two that repeat. Usually you can state the topic in a few words.

Let us try this topic-finding strategy. Reread the first paragraph under the heading Grasping the
Main Idea. Ask yourself the question, "What is this paragraph about?" To answer, say to
yourself in your mind, "The author keeps talking about paragraphs and the way they are
designed. This must be the topic – paragraph organization." Reread the second paragraph of the
same section. Ask yourself, "What is this paragraph about?" Did you say to yourself, "This
paragraph is about different ways to organize a paragraph"? That is the topic. Next, reread the
third paragraph and see if you can find the topic of the paragraph. How? Write the topic in the
margin next to this paragraph. Remember, getting the main idea of a paragraph is crucial to
reading.

The bulk of an expository paragraph is made up of supporting sentences (major and minor
details), which help to explain or prove the main idea. These sentences present facts, reasons,
examples, definitions, comparison, contrasts, and other pertinent details. They are most
important because they sell the main idea.

The last sentence of a paragraph is likely to be a concluding sentence. It is used to sum up a

discussion, to emphasize a point, or to restate all or part of the topic sentence so as to bring the
paragraph to a close. The last sentence may also be a transitional sentence leading to the next
paragraph.

Of course, the paragraphs you'll be reading will be part of some longer piece of writing – a
textbook chapter, a section of a chapter, or a newspaper or magazine article. Besides expository
paragraphs, in which new information is presented and discussed, these longer writings contain
three types of paragraphs: introductory, transitional, and summarizing.

Introductory paragraphs tell you, in advance, such things as (1) the main ideas of the chapter or
section; (2) the extent or limits of the coverage; (3) how the topic is developed; and (4) the
writer's attitude toward the topic. Transitional paragraphs are usually short; their sole function is
to tie together what you have read so far and what is to come – to set the stage for succeeding
ideas of the chapter or section. Summarizing paragraphs are used to restate briefly the main
ideas of the chapter or section. The writer may also draw some conclusion from these ideas, or
speculate on some conclusion based on the evidence he/she has presented.

All three types should alert you: the introductory paragraph of things to come; the transitional
paragraph of a new topic; and the summarizing paragraph of main ideas that you should have
gotten.

61
Exercise: Read the following paragraph and underline the stated main idea. Write down in your
own words what you are able to conclude from the information.

The rules of conduct during an examination are clear. No books, calculators or papers are
allowed in the test room. Proctors will not allow anyone with such items to take the test.
Anyone caught cheating will be asked to leave the room. His or her test sheet will be taken. The
incident will be reported to the proper authority. At the end of the test period, all materials will
be returned to the proctor. Failure to abide by these rules will result in a failing grade for this
test.

Answer:

You should have underlined the first sentence in the paragraph – this is the stated main idea.
What can be concluded from the information is: If you do not follow the rules, you will
automatically fail the test. This concluding information is found in the last sentence.

You can't comprehend the subject matter if you haven't identified the topic, the main idea, and
the supporting details.

References
Adler, R. B. and Rodman, G. (1991). Understanding Human Communication. Chicago; Holt,
Rinehart, and Winston.

Devito, J. A. (1994). Human Communication: The Basic Course. New York; Harper Collins.

Mohan, K., & Banerji, M. (2004). Developing Communication Skills. Mac Millan Publichations,
New Delhi.

Rai, U. & Rai, S. M. (2002). Essentials of Business Communication Skills for Engineers.
Himalaya Publishing House. Mumbai.

Ellis, Rod. 1986. Understanding Second Language Acquisition. 2nd, improved edition. Oxford:
Oxford Univ. Press.
.
Weinreich, U. (1953). Languages in contact. New York.

Harley, T.A. (2011), Psycholinguistics. (Volume 1). SAGE Publications.

Levelt, W. (1999). "The neurocognition of language", p.87 -117. Oxford Press

Field, John (2004). Psycholinguistics. Routledge. p. 284. ISBN 978-0415258906.

Fromkin, Victoria; Berstein, Nan (1998). Speech Production Processing Models. p. 328. ISBN
978-0155041066.

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Butterworth (1982). Psycho-linguistics. Harcourt College. p. 331.

Redford, M. A. (2015). The handbook of speech production. Chichester, West Sussex; Malden,
MA : John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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