Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 39 (2014) 23–35

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Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enganabound

The study of the potential flow past a submerged hydrofoil

by the complex boundary element method
Adrian Carabineanu a,b,n
a
University of Bucharest, Department of Mathematics, Str. Academiei 14, Bucharest, Romania
b
Institute of Mathematical Statistics and Applied Mathematics of Romanian Academy, Calea 13 Septembrie 13, Bucharest, Romania

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: We study the free-boundary linearized problem of the two-dimensional steady potential flow past a
Received 8 November 2012 submerged hydrofoil. The integral representation obtained herein for the complex velocity involves only
Accepted 26 October 2013 finite contours. The corresponding integral equation may be solved for any streamlined hydrofoil by
Available online 16 November 2013
means of the complex boundary element method. We calculate the free surface elevation, the velocity
Keywords: field, the pressure coefficients, the lift and the drag for the Kármán–Trefftz and Joukowsky hydrofoils and
Free surface for the circular obstacle. A comparison between some numerical and analytical results shows a very good
Hydrofoil agreement.
Complex variable boundary element & 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The high-speed marine vehicles are in commercial service as
high-priority cargo and passenger ferries. The hydrofoils are
important elements of a category of high-speed marine vehicles
that maximize the lift-to-drag ratio. A hydrofoil is a wing that
operates not in the atmosphere but in the water. The hydrofoil lifts
the vessel body out of the water freeing it from the drag of
the water and increasing the speed. The hydrofoil may be fully
immersed in the water or it may pierce the free surface. In
comparison with the surface-piercing hydrofoils, the submerged
hydrofoils have small speed loss due to incident waves. When
the speed increases, the submerged hydrofoil approaches the free
surface that separates the air from the water. Therefore the
influence of the free surface on the hydrodynamic characteristics
of the hydrofoil (lift, drag) has to be investigated. This is the aim of
the present paper.
Although the governing equations are the same, the boundary
conditions for the surface-piercing hydrofoil differ from the
boundary conditions for the submerged hydrofoil. The flow of
Newtonian fluids (air, water) is governed by Navier–Stokes equa-
tions. The numerical investigation of the Navier–Stokes equations
is time-consuming and complicated problems concerning the
existence, uniqueness, stability and bifurcation of the solutions
are to be studied. For high values of the Reynolds number, the
asymptotic Euler–Prandtl model can be used. In the inner region
n
Correspondence address: University of Bucharest, Department of Mathematics,
Str. Academiei 14, Bucharest, Romania. Tel.: þ40 729181956.
E-mail address: acara@fmi.unibuc.ro
(boundary layer) from the vicinity of a body one uses the
simplified but still non-linear Prandtl's equations and in the outer
region one uses Euler's equations which govern the flow of ideal
fluids. According to Lagrange–Cauchy theorem [1, Chapter I], if the
flow of an ideal fluid is potential in a configuration, it remains
potential in every configuration arising from the initial one.
Therefore, the flow past a body may be considered potential,
excepting a vorticity region behind the body. In the case of stream-
lined hydrofoils, the vorticity region is small and the viscous
boundary layer is thin and their influence may be neglected.
Hence we may consider that the flow is potential in the
whole domain occupied by the fluid, we may provide integral
representations for the velocity and we may use the boundary
integrals method which has the great advantage of reduction of
dimensionality.
The present paper deals with the linearized problem of the
two-dimensional steady potential flow of a heavy incompressible
inviscid fluid of infinite depth over a submerged streamlined
hydrofoil. In the non-linear approach, two conditions are imposed
on the free surface which separates the water from the atmo-
sphere: it is a material surface (the kinematic condition) and the
pressure is constant on it (dynamic condition). In the framework of
the small perturbation technique utilized herein, the dynamic
condition is linearized and it is imposed on the unperturbed
horizontal surface which represents the free surface for a uniform
translational flow.
The potential of a two-dimensional singularity (source or
vortex) situated under the free surface of a heavy inviscid fluid
has been calculated in the first half of the past century by several
authors either in the case of a fluid of infinite depth [2–4] or in the
case of a channel of finite depth [5]. In order to give an integral

0955-7997/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enganabound.2013.10.017
24 A. Carabineanu / Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 39 (2014) 23–35

representation of the potential (or velocity) for the flow past a The paper is organized as follows: in Section 2 we present
submerged hydrofoil, a superposition of singularities was consid- the linearized boundary value problem. In Section 3 we obtain
ered onto the contour of the hydrofoil such that the linearized the integral representation of the complex velocity field and the
condition on the free surface was automatically satisfied [6–9]. corresponding integral equation. In Section 4 we discretize the
The integral representation was then used to obtain an integral integral equation and in Section 5 we calculate the pressure
equation which was solved for particular cases like thin profiles coefficients for the Kármán–Trefftz and Joukowsky hydrofoils.
(see [10–14]) and circular and elliptical obstacles [14,7,15,16]. In Section 6 is devoted to the free-boundary flow past smooth
many recent papers, the authors use integral representations obstacles. Instead of Kutta-Joukowsky condition we impose a
involving not only the boundary of the hydrofoil but also the certain value to the circulation. The pressure coefficients are
free surface. For example Ghassemi and Kohansal [17] impose a calculated for the circular obstacle. The numerical results are
linearized boundary condition on the undisturbed free surface and compared with analytical ones in the case of small Froude
use quadrilateral elements to discretize the body surface and the numbers. In Section 7 we calculate the velocity field and the free
free surface. Faltinsen and Semenov [18] reduce the boundary surface elevation for the flow past a Kármán–Trefftz profile. Lift
value problem to a system of integral and integro-differential and drag coefficients are calculated in Section 8.
equations in the velocity modulus along the free surface and the
velocity angle along the hydrofoil boundary. Xie and Vassalos [19]
use sources distributed on the hydrofoil and on the undisturbed 2. The linearized boundary value problem
free surface to study the steady potential flow about 3d hydrofoil
under free surface. Chen [20] and Chen and Price [21] developed a After scaling the physical quantities by the half chord of the
vortex, respectively a doublet panel method for the investigation hydrofoil L and the velocity at infinity upstream U, we split the
of the dissipative potential flow around a hydrofoil submerged total nondimensional velocity potential into the sum of a free
below a free-water surface. The vortices and the doublets are stream potential and a perturbation potential
distributed only on the hydrofoil surface but the dissipative Green Φðx; yÞ ¼ x þ φðx; yÞ: ð1Þ
function is defined by means of an integral on an infinite contour.
We have to solve the equation [9,8]
We also mention the paper of Bal [22]. In the present paper we
construct a new integral representation (on the boundary of a Δφðx; yÞ ¼ 0;  1 ox o1; yo 0; = Γ;
ðx; yÞ2 ð2Þ
streamlined hydrofoil) for the complex velocity. The correspond- together with the linearized boundary condition on the free
ing integral equation is discretized using the complex variable surface (which is usually approximated by the Ox-axis),
boundary elements method. Unlike the integrals representations
encountered in other papers dealing with the same problem, ∂2 φ ∂φ
þk0 ¼ 0;  1o x o 1; y ¼ 0; ð3Þ
herein the integrals are calculated only on finite contours and ∂x2 ∂y
the kernels (which contain the exponential and the exponential the slipping condition
integral functions) can easily be evaluated numerically. For dis-

∂φ


cretizing the integral equation we use the complex variable ¼  nx ; ð4Þ
∂n
∂Γ
boundary elements method. This method has some advantages:
the coefficients of the linear system are calculated by a simple the condition imposed far beneath the free surface and the
passage to limit (without employing the Plemelj formulas) and the upstream condition
Kutta–Joukowsky condition has the same form for the hydrofoils lim grad φðx; yÞ ¼ 0; lim grad φðx; yÞ ¼ 0: ð5Þ
with a cusped or angular trailing edge. The method can be applied y-  1 x-  1

for any hydrofoil. In order to compare the numerical results with
analytical ones we performed the calculations for the Kármán–
Trefftz and Joukowsky hydrofoils and for the circular obstacle. We
computed the lift and drag coefficients, the elevation of the free
surface and the velocity field.
In this paper Γ is the hydrofoil, ∂Γ is the contour of the hydrofoil,
∂=∂n is the inward normal derivative on ∂Γ , n ¼ ðnx ;p Þ is the
nyffiffiffiffiffi
inward normal (see Fig. 1) and k0 ¼ 1=Fr 2 where Fr ¼ U= gL is the
Froude number, g stands for the acceleration of gravity and x,y are
nondimensional Cartesian variables.

2 Air y

O x
0
Free surface

−1 d*L
(−n ,n )
y x
(n ,n )
−2 U x y ∂Γ − boundary of the hydrofoil
∂Γ 2L − length of the chord
2L d*L − dimensional submergence depth
α
(n ,ny) − inward unit normal
−3 x
TE (−ny,nx) − versor of the tangent at ∂Γ
U − speed of the fluid at infinity upstream
Ox,Oy − Cartesian coordinate axes
−4 α − angle of attack
TE − trailing edge

−5 Water

−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

Fig. 1. Submerged hydrofoil.

 A. Carabineanu / Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 39 (2014) 23–35 25

The solution of the boundary value problem (1)–(5) is not i.e.

unique. A sufficient condition for uniqueness is the existence of dwðzÞ
the following limit: i  k0 wðzÞ
dz
lim jgrad φðx; yÞj ¼ jgrad φjTE ð6Þ dwðζ Þ dwðζ Þ
ðx;yÞ-TE Z i k0 wðζ Þ Z i  k0 wðζ Þ
1 dζ 1 dζ
¼ dζ  dζ :
at the trailing edge TE (see for example [25, Section 1.4]). 2π i ∂ Γ ζ z 2π i ∂ Γ ζ z
ð18Þ

3. The integral representation of the complex velocity field Integrating by parts we get
Z " #
dwðzÞ 1 wðζ Þ wðζ Þ
We introduce the perturbation stream function ψ ðx; yÞ. This is þik0 wðzÞ ¼ þ k i dζ
2π i ∂Γ ðζ  zÞ2 ζ z
0
dz
the harmonic conjugate of φðx; yÞ and the two functions are related
Z " #
by the Cauchy–Riemann equations 1 wðζ Þ wðζ Þ
þ þ k i dζ : ð19Þ
2π i ∂Γ ðζ  zÞ2 ζ z
0
∂φðx; yÞ ∂ψ ðx; yÞ ∂φðx; yÞ ∂ψ ðx; yÞ
¼ ; ¼ : ð7Þ
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Let
We denote by z ¼ x þ iy the complex variable, by wðzÞ ¼ wðzÞ ¼ B expð  ik0 zÞ; BAC ð20Þ
uðx; yÞ ivðx; yÞ the perturbation complex velocity and by f ðzÞ ¼
φðx; yÞ þiψ ðx; yÞ the complex potential of the perturbation velocity. be the solution of the homogeneous equation
Obviously f is a holomorphic function and we have dwðzÞ
þik0 wðzÞ ¼ 0: ð21Þ
df ∂φ ∂ψ dz
¼ þi ¼ w: ð8Þ
dz ∂x ∂x According to the method of variation of the constants, we may
Since search the solution of Eq. (19) in the form

df ∂φ df ∂φ wðzÞ ¼ BðzÞexpð  ik0 zÞ: ð22Þ

Re ¼ ; Im ¼  ; ð9Þ
dz ∂x dz ∂y From (19) and (22) we get
Z " #
we deduce an equivalent form of the boundary condition on the dBðzÞ 1 wðζ Þexpðik0 zÞ wðζ Þexpðik0 zÞ
¼ þ k i dζ
free surface 2π i ∂ Γ ζ z
0
dz ðζ  zÞ2
!
2 Z " #
d f
Im i 2  k0
df
¼ 0 on z ¼ x A R ð10Þ 1 wðζ Þexpðik0 zÞ wðζ Þexpðik0 zÞ
þ  k i dζ ; ð23Þ
2π i ∂ Γ
dz 0
dz ðζ  zÞ2 ζ z
and an equivalent form for the slipping condition on the hydrofoil which is equivalent to
contour Z  
  dBðzÞ 1 d wðζ Þexpðik0 zÞ
df ¼ dζ
Im ðnx þ iny Þ ¼  nx on ∂Γ : ð11Þ dz 2π i ∂Γ dz ζ z
dz Z " # Z
1 d wðζ Þexpðik0 zÞ k0 wðζ Þexpðik0 zÞ
þ dζ  dζ :
Introducing the holomorphic function 2π i ∂Γ dz ζ z π ∂Γ ζ z
d f
2
df dw ð24Þ
FðzÞ ¼ i 2  k0 ¼ i  k0 w; ð12Þ
dz dz dz We have also the equality
Z Z "Z #
from (10) we have wðζ Þexpðik0 zÞ d z
wðζ Þexpðik0 tÞ
dζ ¼ dt dζ ; ð25Þ
Im FðzÞ ¼ 0 on z ¼ x A R: ð13Þ ∂Γ ζ z ∂Γ dz 1 ζ t
Using Schwarz's principle of analytical continuation, we may where
extend the domain of definition of F to the entire complex plane Z z Z z
expðik0 tÞ expðik0 tÞ
(excluding the domain Γ and the symmetrical domain with dt ¼ lim dt; y ¼ Im z:
respect to the Oy-axis Γ ) by means of the relation 1 ζ t α-  1 α þ iy ζ t
F ðzÞ ¼ FðzÞ: ð14Þ Taking into account the upstream condition (6), we get
lim BðzÞ ¼ 0; x ¼ Re z: ð26Þ
Since according to (3), (5) and (6) x-  1

lim FðzÞ ¼ 0; From (24)–(26) it follows:

z-1
Z Z
1 wðζ Þexpðik0 zÞ 1 wðζ Þexpðik0 zÞ
we have Cauchy's formula BðzÞ ¼ dζ þ dζ
Z Z 2π i ∂ Γ ζ z 2π i ∂Γ ζ z
1 Fðζ Þ 1 Fðζ Þ Z Z z
FðzÞ ¼ dζ þ dζ ; ζ ¼ ξ þ iη; ð15Þ k0 expðik0 tÞ
2π i ∂ Γ ζ  z 2π i ∂ Γ ζ  z  wðζ Þ dt dζ ; ð27Þ
π ∂Γ 1 ζ t
whence, taking into account that Γ and Γ are symmetrical with
whence
respect to the Oy-axis
Z Z
Z Z 1 wðζ Þ 1 wðζ Þ
1 Fðζ Þ 1 Fðζ Þ wðzÞ ¼ dζ þ dζ
FðzÞ ¼ dζ  dζ : ð16Þ 2π i ∂ Γ ζ  z 2π i ∂Γ ζ  z
2π i ∂ Γ ζ  z 2π i ∂ Γ ζ  z Z Z z
k0 expðik0 ðt  zÞÞ
 wðζ Þ dt dζ : ð28Þ
From (14) and (16) it follows: π ∂Γ 1 ζ t
Z Z
1 Fðζ Þ 1 Fðζ Þ This integral representation was given by Kotchin in 1948 [7–9].
FðzÞ ¼ dζ  dζ ; ð17Þ
2π i ∂ Γ ζ  z 2π i ∂ Γ ζ  z Kotchin first calculated the complex potential of a singularity (source
26 A. Carabineanu / Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 39 (2014) 23–35

with C¼ 0, 577215665 representing Euler's constant. We get finally

the following integral representation of the complex velocity field:
C6(R,ε) Z Z
1 wðζ Þ 1 wðζ Þ
wðzÞ ¼ dζ þ dζ
2π i ∂Γ ζ z 2π i ∂ Γ ζ  z
Z Z z
k0 expðik0 ðt  zÞÞ
þ wðζ Þ dt
π ∂Γ ξ þ iy t ζ
!
C7(R) þ expðik0 ðζ  zÞÞðπ i þ Eið  k0 ðη þ yÞÞÞ dζ : ð31Þ
C (ε)
5 ξ−iη

This integral representation is a new one. It involves only

C (ε)
4 integrals on finite contours. Putting in (31) z ¼ ζ A ∂Γ , one obtains
C (R) C an integral equation. As we will see in the forthcoming sections,
1 3
x+iy
this integral equation can successfully be solved by means of the
ξ+iy C complex variable boundary element method.
2

Fig. 2. Integration contour.

4. The discretization of the integral equation.
Kutta–Joukowsky condition
or vortex) situated beneath the free surface of the fluid and then
considered a superposition of sources and vortices on the boundary The profiles of the hydrofoils we have in view are smooth
of the hydrofoil. Herein we found the same representation, starting curves, excepting eventually the trailing edges which may be
from Cauchy's formula for holomorphic functions. In order to avoid angular points or cusps. We employ the boundary elements
the integration on an infinite contour, we shall give a novel expres- approach as it is exposed in [23,24]. The boundary ∂Γ of the
sion for the kernel of the last term. According to Cauchy's theorem profile is split into N standard continuous linear boundary ele-
for holomorphic functions we get ments ∂Γ j ; j ¼ 1; …; N, with the end points (nodes or control points)
Z
expðik0 ðt  zÞÞ ζ j ; ζ j þ 1 situated on the hydrofoil. We consider the linear inter-
dt ¼ 0; ð29Þ polation
C ζ t
where ζ  ζj þ 1 ζj  ζ
wðζ Þ∣Γ j ¼ wðζ j Þ þ wðζ j þ 1 Þ ; ð32Þ
ζj  ζj þ 1 ζj  ζj þ 1
C ¼ C 1 ðRÞ [ C 2 [ C 3 [ C 4 ðɛÞ [ C 5 ðɛÞ [ C 6 ðR; ɛÞ [ C 7 ðRÞ;
whence it follows:
C 1 ðRÞ ¼ ½  R þ ξ þ iy; ξ þiy; C 2 ¼ ½ξ þ iy; z; C 3 ¼ ½z; ξ þ iy; Z " Z
wðζ Þ N ζ  ζ j þ 1 dζ
  dζ ¼ ∑ wðζ j Þ
3π π ∂Γ ζ  z ∂Γ j ζ j  ζ j þ 1 ζ  z
C 4 ðɛÞ ¼ ½ξ þ iy; ζ  iɛ; C 5 ðɛÞ ¼ ζ þ ɛ expðiθÞ; ZθZ ; j¼1
#
2 2 Z
ζ j  ζ dζ
n o þ wðζ j Þ ; ð33Þ
π ∂Γ j þ 1 ζ j  ζ j þ 1 ζ z
C 6 ðR; ɛÞ ¼ ½ζ þ iɛ; ξ þ iy þiR; C 7 ðRÞ ¼ ξ þ iy þ R expðiθÞ; r θ r π ;
2
i.e.
as we may see in Fig. 2. Since Z
Z wðζ Þ N
expðik0 ðt  zÞÞ dζ ¼ ∑ wðζ j ÞLj ðzÞ; ð34Þ
lim dt ¼ 0; ∂Γ ζ  z j¼1
R-1 C 7 ðRÞ ζ t
with
we employ for R-1; ɛ-0, Cauchy's integral theorem and the semi-
residue formula and we get z  ζj  1 z  ζj z  ζj þ 1 z  ζj þ 1
2π iLj ðzÞ ¼ ln þ ln : ð35Þ
Z z
expðik0 ðt  zÞÞ
ζj  ζj  1 z  ζj  1 ζj  ζj þ 1 z  ζj
dt
1 ζ t Considering z ¼ ζ k A ∂Γ ; k ¼ 1; 2; …; N , we introduce the coeffi-
Z z Z ξ þ i1 cients
expðik0 ðt  zÞÞ expðik0 ðt  zÞÞ
¼ dt p:v: dt
ξ þ iy ζ t ξ þ iy ζ t Lkj ¼ Lj ðζ k Þ: ð36Þ
þ π iexpðik0 ðζ  zÞÞ; These coefficients are calculated by means of formula (35)
where “p:v:” stands for the principal value. With the successive excepting the coefficients Lðj  1Þj ; Ljj ; Lðj þ 1Þj which have the follow-
changes of variables t ¼ ξ þ is and u ¼ k0 ðs þ ηÞ we have ing expressions:
Z ξ þ i1
expðik0 ðt  zÞÞ
Z 1
expðik0 ðξ  x þ iðs  yÞÞÞ
ζj  1  ζj þ 1 ζj  1  ζj þ 1
dt ¼  p:v: 2π iLðj  1Þj ¼ 2π i lim Lj ðzÞ ¼ ln ; ð37Þ
p:v:
sþη
ds z-ζ j  1 ζj  ζj þ 1 ζj  1  ζj
ξ þ iy ζ t y
" Z 1 #
expð  uÞ ζj  ζj þ 1
¼  expðik0 ðζ  zÞÞ  p:v: du 2π iLjj ¼ 2π i lim Lj ðzÞ ¼ ln ; ð38Þ
k0 ðη þ yÞ u z-ζ j ζj  ζj  1
¼ expðik0 ðζ  zÞÞEið  k0 ðη þyÞÞ; ζj þ 1  ζj  1 ζj þ 1  ζj
2π iLðj þ 1Þj ¼ 2π i lim Lj ðzÞ ¼ ln : ð39Þ
where Ei is the exponential integral function for which the following z-ζ j þ 1 ζj  ζj  1 ζj þ 1  ζj  1
series expansion is available:
Similarly, we consider the coefficients
1xn
EiðxÞ ¼ C þlnjxj þ ∑ ; xa0 ð30Þ
n ¼ 1  n!
n L′kj ¼ Lj ðζ k Þ: ð40Þ
 A. Carabineanu / Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 39 (2014) 23–35 27

Denoting From (49) it follows:

p 1 N
ζ k ¼ ξk þ iηk ; ζ j ¼ ξj þ iηj ; xp ¼ ξj þ ðξk  ξj Þ; p ¼ 1; 2; …; M þ1;  1 ¼ iðvks  nky Þðnkx þ inky Þ þ ∑ ðvls  nly Þð inlx  nly ÞLkl
M
l¼1
we have the quadrature formulas N
Z ξk þ iηk Z ξk þ ∑ ðvls  nly Þðinlx nly ÞðL′kl þ L″kl Þ: ð49Þ
expðik0 ðt  ζ k ÞÞ expðik0 ðξ  ξk ÞÞ l¼1
Λkj ¼ dt ¼ dξ
ξj þ iηk ζj  t ξj ξj  ξ  iðηj þ ηk Þ
The unknowns are the values of the tangential velocity
Z ξk
1 dðexpðik0 ðξ  ξk ÞÞÞ vks  nky ; k ¼ 1; …; N in the control points. Since the solution of the
¼
ik0 ξj ξj  ξ  iðηj þ ηk Þ boundary value problem (1)–(5) is not unique, we conclude that
!
1 M 1 1 the integral equation (31) and subsequently the system (49) have
C ∑ þ not a unique solution. In order to ensure the uniqueness of the
2ik0 p ¼ 1 ξj  xp  iðηj þ ηk Þ ξj  xp þ 1  iðηj þ ηk Þ
solution, one imposes the condition (6). In aerodynamics and
ðexpðik0 ðxp þ 1  ξk ÞÞ  expðik0 ðxp  ξk ÞÞÞ; ð41Þ hydrodynamics, this condition which states that the velocity is
and finite in the angular or cusped trailing edge (which is considered
Z Z ζk to be the node ζ1) is called Kutta–Joukowsky condition. In fact, if
k0  expðik0 ðt  ζ k ÞÞ
w ζ dt the trailing edge is an angular point, the velocity vanishes, i.e.
π ∂Γ ξ þ iη k t ζ
! v1s  n1y ¼ 0. If the hydrofoil has a cusped trailing edge we have

þexpðik0 ðζ  ζ k ÞÞðπ iþ Eið  k0 ðη þ ηk ÞÞÞ dζ ζ 2 C ζ N , whence it follows that Lk1 C 0; L′k1 C 0; L″k1 C 0; k ¼ 1; …; N.
In both cases the first terms of the sums from the right-hand part
k0 N disappear and the system (49) becomes
¼ ∑ wðζ l Þð  Λkl þexp ðik0 ðζ l  ζ k ÞÞðπ i
2π l ¼ 1 N
 1 ¼ iðvks  nky Þðnkx þ inky Þ þ ∑ ðvls  nly Þð inlx  nly ÞLkl
þEið k0 ðηk þ ηl ÞÞÞÞðζ l þ 1  ζ l  1 Þ l¼2
N N
¼ ∑ wðζ ″
l ÞLkl ; þ ∑ ðvls nly Þðinlx  nly ÞðL′kl þ L″kl Þ:
l¼1 l¼2

with Equating the real and imaginary parts it follows:

k0
L″kl ¼ ð  Λkl þ expðik0 ðζ  ζ k ÞÞðπ iþ Eið  k0 ðηk þ ηl ÞÞÞÞðζ l þ 1  ζ l  1 Þ: N
2π  nky ¼ vks  nky þ ∑ ðvls nly ÞRe½ð  inlx  nly Þð  inkx þ nky ÞLkl 
l¼2
ð42Þ
N
Hence Eq. (31) is discretized by the following linear system: þ ∑ ðvls nly ÞRe½ðinlx  nly Þð inkx þ nky ÞðL′kl þ L″kl Þ; ð50Þ
l¼2
N
wðζ k Þ ¼ ∑ ðwðζ l ÞLkl þ wðζ l ÞL′kl þ wðζ l ÞL″kl Þ: ð43Þ
l¼1 N
nkx ¼ ∑ ðvls  nly ÞIm½ð  inlx  nly Þð  inkx þ nky ÞLkl 
Let nx ; ny represent the components of the inward unit normal l¼2

at ∂Γ and ðsx ; sy Þ ¼ ð  ny ; nx Þ the tangent at ∂Γ . The tangential N

velocity is ¼ ∑ ðvls nly ÞIm½ðinlx  nly Þð  inkx þ nky ÞðL′kl þ L″kl Þ; k ¼ 2; …; N:
l¼2
ð1 þ uÞsx þ vsy ¼ vs ny : ð51Þ
We denote by vn and vs the normal and tangential components We can solve either the linear system (50) or the system (51).
of the perturbation velocity on ∂Γ . We have They both come from the same integral equation (31). But after
w∣∂Γ ¼ ðvn  ivs Þðnx  iny Þ: ð44Þ discretization, the exact solution of (50) is only an approximate
solution of (51) and vice versa. Moreover, one of the systems may
From the slip condition it follows: be ill-conditioned. Instead of choosing one of these systems it
vn ∣∂Γ ¼  nx : ð45Þ is more convenient to use the least squares method for solving
the linear system (50)–(51) which consists of 2N  2 equations for
Using the superscript k to indicate the values of the functions in
N  1 unknowns vls  nly ; l ¼ 2; …; N. After solving the system we
the nodes ζk, k ¼ 1; 2; …; N, we get
calculate
wðζ k Þ ¼ ð  nkx  ivks Þðnkx  inky Þ: ð46Þ
wðζ k Þ ¼ ð  nkx ivks Þðnkx  inky Þ ¼  1  iðvls nly Þðnkx  inky Þ:
Taking into account (43) we obtain
In hydrodynamics, one also calculates the pressure coefficient
N
ð  nkx ivks Þðnkx  inky Þ ¼ ∑ ð  nlx  ivls Þðnlx  inly ÞLkl pn þ ρgyn  pnatm
l¼1 Cp ¼ :
N
ρU 2
1
2
þ ∑ ð  nlx þ ivls Þðnlx þinly ÞðL′kl þ L″kl Þ; ð47Þ
l¼1 We denote by pn the dimensional pressure, by pnatm the dimen-
sional atmospheric pressure, by yn the dimensional Cartesian
equivalent to variable and by ρ the density of the fluid. Taking into account
N Bernoulli's law, which has in our case the following expression:
½ð  nkx  inky Þ  iðvks  nky Þðnkx inky Þ ¼ ∑ ½ð  nlx  inly Þ
l¼1 pn þ ρgyn þ 12 ρU 2 ðvs  ny Þ2 ¼ pnatm þ 12 ρU 2 ;
N
 iðvls nly Þðnlx  inly ÞLkl þ ∑ ½ð  nlx þ inly Þ we obtain in the nodes ζl the pressure coefficients
l¼1

þ iðvls nly Þðnlx þ inly ÞðL′kl þ L″kl Þ: ð48Þ C lp ¼ 1 ðvls  nly Þ2 ; l ¼ 2; …; N: ð52Þ
28 A. Carabineanu / Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 39 (2014) 23–35

5. Pressure coefficient field. Examples cusped trailing edge. We change the location of ζ N on ∂Γ in order
to satisfy the condition jζ N  ζ 1 j ¼ jζ 2  ζ 1 j. Taking into account
We use the Kármán–Trefftz function that the tangents at ∂Γ in ζ1 coincide, we get ζ 2 C ζ N , whence it
follows that Lk1 C0; L′k1 C 0; L″k1 C 0; k ¼ 1; …; N. In our calculations
ðz þ1Þk þðz  1Þk
Z¼k ; 1 ok r 2; ð53Þ we took N ¼72.
ðz þ1Þk ðz  1Þk In Figs. 3 and 4 we use dashed lines to present the pressure
to map conformally the exterior of a circle from the z-plane onto coefficient distribution in the points of a nondimensional Kármán–
the exterior of the profile from the Z-plane. The half-chord of the Trefftz, respectively Joukowsky profile for various values of the
profile is nondimensional depth. We considered the angles of attack α ¼ 01
for the Kármán–Trefftz profile respectively α ¼ 51 for the Jou-
maxjRe ZðzÞ  Re Zðz′Þj kowsky profile.
L¼ :
2 For large values of the nondimensional submergence depth (we
We introduce the dimensionless profiles, using the transformation considered the value 10) the influence of the free surface is very

 small, as we may see in Fig. 3(d) respectively Fig. 4(d). In these
ZðzÞ  Zð1Þ
ζ ðzÞ ¼ expð iαÞ þ 1  id; pictures we use the dashed line to present the pressure coefficient
L
distribution calculated numerically and small circles “o” to present
where d is the submergence depth of the profile and α is the the pressure coefficient distribution for the profile in a free stream
angle of attack. ζ ð1Þ represents the affix of the trailing edge of (with no free surface) calculated analytically by the aid of the
the nondimensional profile and it is an angular point. Herein we formula
considered the circle
2½ sin ðθ0  αÞ  sin ðθ  αÞ
V¼

; Cp ¼ 1  V 2:
1 π 6
dz

z ¼ R expðiθÞ   R sin θ0 ; θ A ½0; 2π ; θ0 ¼  ; R ¼


5 20 5 cos θ0
dZ

and we put k ¼1.8 for the Kármán–Trefftz profile. For k ¼2, the
function (53) becomes the Joukowsky transformation
1
Z ¼ zþ ;
z
and the trailing edge has a cusp. After solving the system (50)–(51)
we may use the linear interpolation (32) to construct the function
wN ðζ Þ which is an approximation of wðζ Þ. On the Kármán–Trefftz
and Joukowsky profiles we consider the Fejér mesh points which
may be obtained from equidistant points of a circle by means of
one of the conformal mappings (53) or (54). According to Spinei
and Zolotarevschi [26], when N-1, the functions wN ðζ Þ converge
to the exact solution in the H β space norm. Here H β is a Hölder
space and 0 o β o 1. For the Joukowsky profile, ζ1 is the affix of the
ð54Þ 6. The submerged smooth profile
If the submerged profile has neither a sharp nor a cusped
trailing edge, we cannot use the Kutta–Joukowsky condition.
In order to ensure the uniqueness of the solution, one may impose
the zero value of the velocity in a certain point of the smooth
profile and utilize the system (50)–(51). One may also impose the
value of the circulation (see [25, Section 1.4]):
Z
ðvs  ny Þ ds ¼ 4π sin γ :
∂Γ

1 1

0.5
0.5
Pressure coefficient

Pressure coefficient

0 −0.5

−1
−0.5 −1.5

−2
−1
−2.5
−1.5 −3
−1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 −1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Froude number = 1, relative depth = 0.5 Froude number = 1, relative depth = 1.5

1 1
0.5 0.5
Pressure coefficient

Pressure coefficient

0
0
−0.5
−0.5
−1
−1
−1.5
−1.5
−2

−2.5 −2

−3 −2.5
−1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 −1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Froude number = 1, relative depth = 3 Froude number = 1, relative depth = 10

Fig. 3. Pressure coefficients for the Kármán–Trefftz profile.

 A. Carabineanu / Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 39 (2014) 23–35 29

In this case the discretized system of equations is N

nkx ¼ ∑ ðvls  nly ÞIm½ð  inlx  nly Þð  inkx þ nky ÞLkl 
N l¼1
nky ¼ vks  nky þ ∑ ðvls  nly ÞRe½ð  inlx nly Þð  inkx þ nky ÞLkl 
l¼1 N
¼ ∑ ðvls nly ÞIm½ðinlx  nly Þð inkx þ nky ÞðL′kl þ L″kl Þ; k ¼ 1; …; N:
N l¼1
þ ∑ ðvls  nly ÞRe½ðinlx  nly Þð  inkx þ nky ÞðL′kl þ L″kl Þ; ð55Þ
l¼1 ð56Þ

1 1
0.5
0.5
Pressure coefficient

Pressure coefficient
0
0 −0.5
−1
−0.5
−1.5
−1 −2
−2.5
−1.5
−3
−2 −3.5
−1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 −1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Froude number = 1, relative depth = 0.5 Froude number = 1, relative depth = 1.5

1 1
0.5
0.5
Pressure coefficient

Pressure coefficient

0
0
−0.5
−1 −0.5

−1.5 −1
−2
−1.5
−2.5
−3 −2

−3.5 −2.5
−1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 −1 −0.8 −0.6 −0.4 −0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Froude number = 1, relative depth = 3 Froude number = 1, relative depth = 10

Fig. 4. Pressure coefficients for the Joukowsky profile.

1 1 1

0 0 0

−1 −1 −1
Pressure coefficient
Pressure coefficient

Pressure coefficient

−2 −2 −2

−3 −3 −3

−4 −4 −4

−5 −5 −5

−1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1

γ = 0; Froude = 0.5 γ = 0; Froude = 0.5 γ = 0; Froude = 0.5

Fig. 5. Circular obstacle. Pressure coefficients for various values of the depth.
30 A. Carabineanu / Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 39 (2014) 23–35

1 1

0
0
0

−1
−2

−1
−2

Pressure coefficient
Pressure coefficient

Pressure coefficient
−4
−3
−2

−4
−6
−3
−5

−6 −8
−4

−7

−5 −10

−8

−6 −9 −12
−1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 −2 −1 0 1 2
γ = 0; Froude = 0.1 γ = π/32; Froude = 0.1 γ = π/16; Froude = 0.1

Fig. 6. Circular obstacle. Pressure coefficients for various values of the circulation.

N jζ  ζ l  1 j þ jζ l þ 1  ζ l  1 j
∑ ðvls  nly Þ l þ 1 ¼ 4π sin γ : ð57Þ herein and small circles “o” to present the pressure coefficient
l¼1 2
field calculated with the previous analytical formulas. We notice a
One solves the linear system (55)–(57) consisting of 2N þ 1 very good agreement.
equations for N unknowns vls  nly ; l ¼ 1; …; N, utilizing the least
squares method. In Fig. 5 we use dashed lines to present the
pressure coefficient distribution in the points of the unit circle for
γ ¼ 0 and for various values of the nondimensional depth. For large 7. The free surface and the velocity field
values of the nondimensional depth the influence of the free
surface is very small, as we may see in Fig. 5(c). In this picture we In the previous sections we calculated the velocity of the fluid
use the dashed line to present the pressure coefficient field on the boundary of the hydrofoil. We may then use the integral
calculated numerically and small circles “o” to present the pres- representation (31) to calculate the velocity in every point from
sure coefficient field for the profile in a free stream (with no free the domain occupied by the fluid. After calculating the velocity
surface) calculated analytically by the aid of the formula of the fluid particles situated on the Ox-axis we may use the
linearized Bernoulli equation to calculate the free surface. We
V ¼ 2j sin θ  sin γ j; Cp ¼ 1  V 2: will observe that far away downstream, behind the obstacle, the
free surface and the velocity field coincide with those of the
For k0 -1, i.e. Fr-0, the boundary condition for the free
traveling waves.
surface is
Let zs ¼ xs A R. We have
∂φ
¼ 0: Z Z
∂y 1 wðζ Þ 1 wðζ Þ
wðxs Þ ¼ dζ þ dζ
2π i ∂Γ ζ xs 2π i ∂ Γ ζ  x s
This is the condition imposed for studying the flow past a
profile in ground effects. In [27] one shows that denoting by d the Z Z xs
k0 expðik0 ðt  xs ÞÞ
distance from the ground (Ox-axis) to the center of the circle, the þ wðζ Þ dt
π ∂Γ ξ t ζ
nondimensional complex velocity of the flow past the unit circular
!
obstacle is
þ expðik0 ðζ  xs Þðπ i þ Eið  k0 ðηÞÞÞÞ dζ : ð58Þ
dF 1 bn ζ
ζ  ih
W¼ ; FðςÞ ¼ ζ þ 2 ∑ 2 þ 2i sin γ ln ;
dζ n ¼ 1 ζ þ a2 ζ þ ih
n
Denoting
with
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi p1
xpl ¼ ξl þ ðxs  ξl Þ; p ¼ 1; 2; …; M þ 1;
2
h ¼ d  1; M
we have the quadrature formulas
1 2 Z xs Z xs
a1 ¼ d; an þ 1 ¼ d  ; bn ¼ a2n  h : expðik0 ðt  xs ÞÞ expðik0 ðt xs ÞÞ
d þ an Λ~ l ðxs Þ ¼ dt ¼ dt
ξl ζl  t ξl ξl t  iηl
In Fig. 6 we considered Fr ¼0.1, i.e. k0 ¼ 100 and various values of Z xs
the circulation. We use dashed lines to present the pressure 1 dðexpðik0 ðt  xs ÞÞÞ
¼
coefficient field calculated with the numerical method presented ik0 ξl ξl t  iηl
 A. Carabineanu / Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 39 (2014) 23–35 31

4 4

Free surface elevation

Free surface elevation

2 2

0 0

−2 −2

−4 −4
Froude = 2; relative submergence depth = 1.5 Froude = 1; relative submergence depth = 1.5
−6 −6
−4 −2 0 2 4 6 8 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8
Ox = axis Ox = axis

4 4

Free surface elevation

Free surface elevation

2 2

0 0

−2 −2

−4 −4
Froude = 0.66; relative submergence depth = 1.5 Froude = 0.5; relative submergence depth = 1.5
−6 −6
−4 −2 0 2 4 6 8 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8
Ox = axis Ox = axis

Fig. 7. Free surface in the vicinity of the hydrofoil.

!
1 M 1 1 We use two methods to calculate the free surface far away
C ∑ þ ðexpðik0 ðxðp þ 1Þl xs ÞÞ
2ik0 p ¼ 1 ξl  xpl  iηl ξl  xðp þ 1Þl  iηl downstream, behind the obstacle. From (31) and the residue
theorem it follows:
 expðik0 ðxpl  xs ÞÞÞ;
Z Z 1
k0 expðik0 tÞ
and lim wðxs Þexpðik0 xs Þ ¼  wðζ Þ dt dζ
!
xs -1 π ∂Γ 1 ζ t
Z Z
k0 xs
expðik0 ðt  xs ÞÞ Z
wðζ Þ dt þ expðik0 ðζ  xs ÞÞðπ i þ Eið  k0 ðηÞÞÞ dζ N
π ∂Γ ξ t ζ ¼2 wðζ l Þdðexpðik0 ζ ÞÞ C ∑ wðζ l Þðexpðik0 ζ j þ 1 Þ  expðik0 ζ j  1 ÞÞ:
∂Γ l¼1

k0 N ~ ðx Þ ð62Þ
¼ ∑ wðζ l Þð  Λ
2π l ¼ 1 l s
Downstream, far away from the obstacle, we used a continuous
þexpðik0 ðζ l  xs ÞÞðπ i þ Eið  k0 ðηl ÞÞÞÞðζ l þ 1  ζ l  1 Þ line to represent the free surface calculated by means of Eqs. (60),
N (61) and “ þ ” to represent the free surface calculated by means
¼ ∑ wðζ l ÞL~ l ðxs Þ; of Eqs. (62), (61). We noticed that the results are very close
l¼1
(Fig. 8).
with For calculating the velocity in the nodes of a certain grid we
k0 ~ ðx Þ þ expðik ðζ x ÞÞðπ i þEið  k ðη ÞÞÞÞðζ employ formulas similar to (58)–(60). In Fig. 9 we present the
L~ l ðxs Þ ¼ ð  Λ l þ 1  ζ l  1 Þ:
2π l s velocity field for the flow past a Kármán–Trefftz profile. In some
0 l s 0 l

ð59Þ papers [16] it was noticed that far away downstream, behind the
obstacle, the free surface and the velocity field are that of the
From (58) it follows:
traveling waves which have the velocity potential
N
wðxs Þ C ∑ ðwðζ l ÞLl ðxs Þ þ wðζ l ÞLl ðxs Þ þ wðζ l ÞL~ l ðxs ÞÞ: ð60Þ Φðx; yÞ ¼ a expðχ yÞ sin ðχ x þ βÞ ð63Þ
l¼1
and the complex velocity
Let ys ðxs Þ be the equation of the free surface. On the free surface,
the pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure. We denote W ¼ aχ expðχ yÞ cos ðχ x þ βÞ iaχ expðχ yÞ sin ðχ x þ β Þ ð64Þ
by patm the nondimensional atmospheric pressure. At infinity
upstream the constant uniform velocity has the nondimensional where a represents the amplitude of the surface wave. From (61)
value 1. We linearize the nondimensional Bernoulli equation and (64) we deduce that

patm þ 12 j1 þ wðys Þj2 þ k0 ys ðxs Þ ¼ patm þ 12 ; χ ¼ k0 : ð65Þ

and we obtain The wave length is

1 2π
ys ðxs Þ ¼  Reðwðxs ÞÞ: ð61Þ ¼ 2ðxmax  xmin Þ; ð66Þ
k0 χ
In Fig. 7 we present the free surface in the vicinity of the obstacle where xmax is the abscissa of a point of maximum surface eleva-
for various values of the nondimensional submergence depth and tion and xmin is the abscissa of the closest point of maximum
Froude number. surface elevation (we may take xmax 4xmin ). From the relation
32 A. Carabineanu / Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 39 (2014) 23–35
Elevation

1
0
−1
112 114 116 118 120 122 124 126 128
Distance to hydrofoil
Elevation

1
0
−1
112 114 116 118 120 122 124 126 128
Distance to hydrofoil
Elevation

1
0
−1
112 114 116 118 120 122 124 126 128
Distance to hydrofoil
Elevation

1
0
−1
112 114 116 118 120 122 124 126 128
Distance to hydrofoil
Elevation

1
0
−1
112 114 116 118 120 122 124 126 128
Distance to hydrofoil
Elevation

1
0
−1
112 114 116 118 120 122 124 126 128
Distance to hydrofoil

Fig. 8. Free surface at infinity downstream.

Karman − Trefftz profile, relative submergence depth = 1.8, Froude = 0.66, angle of attack (radians) = π/36
0.5

−0.5

−1
Oy − axis

−1.5

−2

−2.5

−3

−3.5

−4
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Ox − axis

Fig. 9. Flow past a Kármán–Trefftz profile. Velocity field.

χ xmax þ β ¼ π we calculate the phase angle In Fig. 10 we present the velocity field and the free surface far
behind a Kármán–Trefftz hydrofoil. For obtaining Fig. 10(a), we
 π xmin
β¼ : ð67Þ have performed numerical calculations using the integral repre-
xmax xmin sentation of the velocity. Then, we calculated xmax ; xmin and a.
 A. Carabineanu / Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 39 (2014) 23–35 33

−1

Oy − axis
−2

−3

−4

−5
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Ox − axis

−1
Oy − axis

−2

−3

−4

−5 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Ox − axis

Fig. 10. Velocity field far behind a Kármán–Trefftz profile.

In Fig. 10(b), we present the velocity field and the free surface is the circulation. In Fig. 11(c) and (d) we present the lift coefficient
calculated analytically by means of formulas (64)–(67) and (61). for the circular obstacle.
We notice a very good agreement between the two pictures. In Fig. 11(c) we present (considering the angle of attack α ¼ 0
and the depth d ¼2) the lift coefficient against γ A ½  π =18; π =18.
For Fr ¼0.2 (i.e. k0 ¼ 25) we employed a continuous line to
8. Lift and drag represent the lift coefficient calculated numerically and small
circles “o” to represent the lift coefficient calculated analytically
8.1. Lift coefficient by means of formula (70). We notice a very good agreement. In the
same picture we use a dashed line to represent the lift coefficient
The nondimensional hydrodynamic action is calculated numeri- calculated numerically for k0 ¼ 1.
cally by the aid of the formulas In Fig. 11(d) we present (considering α ¼ 0 and γ ¼ 0) the
N jζ l þ 1  ζ l jþ jζ l  ζ l  1 j lift coefficient against the submergence depth. For Fr ¼0.2
C ¼ ðC D ; C L Þ ¼ ∑ C lp nl : ð68Þ (i.e. k0 ¼ 25) we employed a continuous line to represent the lift
l¼1 2
coefficient calculated numerically and small circles “o” to repre-
We denote the lift coefficient by CL and the drag coefficient by sent the lift coefficient calculated analytically by means of formula
CD. For large values of the submergence depth, the free surface (70). We notice a very good agreement. In the same picture we use
does not influence the hydrodynamic action and one has for the a dashed line to represent the lift coefficient calculated numeri-
Joukowski profile, the theoretical formula cally for Fr ¼1.
4π R sin ðα  θ0 Þ
CL ¼ : ð69Þ
L 8.2. Drag coefficient (wave resistance coefficient)
In Fig. 11(a), we used a continuous line to present the lift
coefficient calculated numerically for the depth d ¼15 against the For calculating the drag coefficient one may utilize formula (68).
angle of attack expressed in radians α A ½  π =18; π =18. We used In [8] one demonstrates also the formula
small circles “o” to present the theoretical lift coefficient calculated k0 a2
by means of formula (69). We notice a very good agreement. We CD ¼ ; ð71Þ
2
have also presented the lift coefficient against the angle of attack
for the depth d ¼1.5. In Fig. 11(b), we present the lift coefficient for where a stands for the amplitude of the waves generated down-
the Joukowski profile against the depth for α ¼ 0 and for various stream, far away from the obstacle. In Fig. 12(a), we present the drag
values of the Froude number. We notice that for Fr ¼1 and Fr ¼ 2 coefficient versus Froude number, in Fig. 12(b), we present the drag
(i.e. k0 ¼ 1 and k0 ¼ 0:25) the lift coefficient decreases in the coefficient versus the submergence depth and in Fig. 12(c),
vicinity of the free surface. we present the drag coefficient versus the angle of attack. We used
In [27] one gives (with the notations introduced in Section 6) a continuous line to represent the drag coefficients calculated
the analytical expression of the lift for the circular obstacle in the by integration of the pressure coefficients over the profile (formula
presence of a solid straight wall: (68)) and small circles “o” to represent the drag coefficients calcu-
" # lated by means of formula (71). We notice a very good agreement.
Γ~
2
bn bm ~  1 þ2 ∑ bn
C L ¼ 8π ∑ ∑ þ 2 Γ þ ; ð70Þ
n Z 1m Z 1ðan þam Þ
3
n Z 1ðan þ hÞ
2 2hπ
9. Conclusions
where
h π πi The novel integral representation for the perturbation of the
Γ~ ¼ 4π sin γ ; γA  ; ;
2 2 complex velocity obtained in this paper involves only finite contours.
34 A. Carabineanu / Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 39 (2014) 23–35

8 4.5
7 4 Froude = 0.5
Lift coefficient 6 Depth = 1.5 3.5

Lift coefficient
5
3
4
2.5
3 Depth = 15
2 Froude = 1
2
1 1.5

0 1 Froude = 2
−1 0.5
−0.2 −0.15 −0.1 −0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Angle of attack (radians) Depth

10 1.6
1.4
Froude = 1
1.2

Lift coefficient
Lift coefficient

5 1
0.8 Froude = 1
Froude = 0.2
0.6
0 0.4
0.2
0 Froude = 0.2
−5 −0.2
−0.2 −0.15 −0.1 −0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
γ Depth

Fig. 11. Lift coefficient.

0.8
Drag coefficient

0.6
0.4
0.2
0
−0.2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Froude number

0.6
Drag coefficient

0.4

0.2

−0.2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Depth

2
Drag coefficient

1.5

0.5

0
−0.2 −0.15 −0.1 −0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
Angle of attack (radians)

Fig. 12. Drag coefficient.

The complex variable boundary element method used herein for smooth obstacles we imposed a certain value for the circulation
solving the corresponding integral equation has a great advantage: instead of imposing the Kutta–Joukowsky condition. We investigated
the Kutta–Joukowsky uniqueness condition is implemented in the the free surface flow past the circular obstacle. In order to verify the
same manner for the hydrofoils with either cusped or sharp trailing correctness of the numerical method, we compared in some parti-
edges. We calculated the pressure coefficients, the velocity field, the cular cases the numerical results with analytical ones and we have
elevation of the free surface and the lift and drag coefficients for the noticed a very good agreement. For example in the case of high
Kármán–Trefftz and Joukowsky submerged hydrofoils. In the case of submergence depth, we calculated analytically and numerically the
 A. Carabineanu / Engineering Analysis with Boundary Elements 39 (2014) 23–35
pressure coefficients for the Kármán–Trefftz and Joukowsky hydro-
foils and for the circular obstacle. We have also calculated numeri-
cally and analytically the values of the drag coefficient for a Kármán–
Trefftz hydrofoil and we observed that they are very close. Far behind
the hydrofoil we compared the numerical values of the velocity field
with values obtained by the aid of the analytical formulas for the
traveling waves. We have also calculated numerically and analytically
and compared the pressure coefficients and the lift coefficient for the
flow past the submerged circular obstacle at low Froude numbers.
The results obtained herein are in agreement with the results
obtained in other papers dedicated to free surface flow past
hydrofoils. For example, examining Figs. 11 and 12 we draw
the same conclusions as Bal [22], i.e. “the free surface causes a
decrease in the lift coefficient of the hydrofoil for higher Froude
numbers and an increase of the drag coefficient of the hydrofoil for
smaller submergence depth”.
References
[1] Dragoş L. Mathematical methods in aerodynamics. Kluwer, Ed. Academiei
Române; 2003.
[2] Havelock TH. The theory of wave resistance. Proc R Soc London A 1932;138:
339–48.
[3] Sretensky LN. On the motion of a glider on deep water. Izv Nauk SSSR otdel
Mat Estestv Nauk 1933:817–35 [in Russian].
[4] Keldysh MV. Notes on certain motions of a heavy fluid. Tekh Zametki Tsentr
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