PROJECT WORK ON LIMIT, CONTINUITY, DERIVATIVE, ANTIDERIVATIVE AND

ITS INTERRELATION

A project report

Submitted to

Department of Basic Mathematics

Uniglobe Higher Secondary School and College

Kamaladi, Ganeshthan, Kathmandu, Nepal

Submitted by: ISHA PAGENI Class: 12‘C2

 Subject Teacher’s Recommendation

The project work report entitled ‘PROJECT WORK ON LIMIT, CONTINUITY,

DERIVATIVE, ANTIDERIVATIVE AND ITS INTERRELATION ’ submitted by Umesh
Prasad Pandey of Uniglobe Secondary School, Kamaladi, Kathmandu, Nepal is
prepared under my supervision as per the procedure and format requirements laid
by the Department of Mathematics, Uniglobe Secondary School, as the partial
fulfilment of the requirements of the internal evaluation of grade XII. I, therefore,
recommend the report for evaluation.

Signature:

Name of Subject Teacher: TSL

Date: 14/06/2079
Endorsement

We hereby endorese the project work report entitled ‘calculs ‘submitted by Isha
Pageni f, Uniglobe Secondary School, Kamaladi, Kathmandu, Nepal in partial
fulfilment of the requirements of the Mathematics subject internal evaluation of
grade XI.

Signature:

Signature:

Name of HoD: ADJ

Department of Mathematics

Date: 10-22 Date: 10-22

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am happy to present this project after completing it successfully. This project
would not have been possible without the guidance, assistance and suggestions of
many individuals. I would like to express my deep sense of gratitude and
indebtedness to each and every one who has helped me make this project a success.
I heartily thank our Principal, Mr. Ashok Kumar Chaudhary Uniglobe Secondary
School, Kamaladi, for his constant encouragement and inspiration in taking up this
project. I heartily thank my Professor and Head of the Department, Mr. Agni Datta
Joshi, Department of Management, Uniglobe Secondary School, Kamaladi, for his
constant encouragement and inspiration in taking up this project. I gracefully thank
our Project Guide for his intangible support and for being constant backbone for
our project. Special thanks to all the staff members of Management Department for
their help and kind co-operation. Lastly, I thank my parents and friends for the
support and encouragement given throughout in completing this precious work
successfully.
Table of Contents

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION OF THE PROJECT

➢ OBJECTIVE OF THE PRESENTATION
➢ PROFILE OF ORG./ PLACE/ EVENTS, ETC.
➢ REVIEW

➢ METHODS

➢ LIMITATIONS

CHAPTER 2 : RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

2. 1 WHAT IS LIMIT?

2.2 WHAT IS CONTINUITY

2.3 WHAT IS DERIVATIVE

2.4 INTERELATION BETWEEN DERIVATIVE AND LIMT

2.5 WHAT IS DERIVATIVE OF HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS?

2.6 Derivative of Hyperbolic Functions Formula

Chapter 3: APPLICATION OF DERIVATIVE

3.1 DIFFERENTIALS

3.2 TANGENTS AND NORMAL

3.3 L-HOSPITALS’S RULE

3.4 ROLLE’S THEOREM

3.5 LANGRAGE’S THEOREM ‘

Chapter 4: ANTIDERIVATIVE
4.1 INTRODUCTION OF ANTIDERIVATIVE
4.2 STANDARD INTRGEAL OF ANTIDERIVATIVE

Chapter 5: Summary & Conclusion

Bibliography
Appendices 30

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION OF THE PROJECT

1.1 OBJECTIVES OF THIS PROJECT

Ø To know the clear concept of derivative and antiderivative

Ø To determine the rate of change of a quality with respect to another changing

quantity.

ØTo determine maximum, minimum are saddle points of a function.

Ø To know application of deterivative and antiderivative in real life.

1.2 Profile of org./ place/ events, etc.

Derivatives may have found their way into the media in very recent times. However, they
have been used by mankind for a very long time. Since the inception of time, humans have
not liked the idea of uncertainty. More so, they did not like the idea of economic uncertainty.
Hence, the need to offset this uncertainty gave rise to the evolution of contracts. Earlier
contracts were verbal agreements and were not as sophisticated as the ones today. However,
they were contracts nonetheless. In this article, we will trace the evolution of derivatives
throughout the ages.

1.3 Method

I have collected the information in this project by using primary and secondary method. As
primary method, I have directly involved in the data collection process. In other words, I
have gathered the relevant data samples directly instead of depending on already existing
data with regards to the research context. As secondary sources, I have depended upon the
research of various institutions on the topic in the internet and books. I have also took the
reference from our Mathematics book.

1.2 LIMITATIONS

® In this project only the subtopics of derivative given in the basic mathematics book of
grade 12 are discussed. The fundamental terms of derivative required for grade 12 is
thoroughly discussed.

Chapter 2: RESULTS AND FINDINGS

2. 1 WHAT IS LIMIT?

In mathematics, a limit is the value that a function (or sequence) approaches as the input (or
index) approaches some value. Limits are essential to calculus and mathematical analysis,
and are used to define continuity, derivatives, and integrals.
The concept of a limit of a sequence is further generalized to the concept of a limit of
a topological net, and is closely related to limit and direct limit in category theory.

In formulas, a limit of a function is usually written as, (although a few

authors may use "Lt" instead of "lim") and is read as "the limit
of f of x as x approaches c equals L". The fact that a function f approaches the
limit L as x approaches c is sometimes denoted by a right arrow (→ or ), as in

which reads

2. 2 WHAT IS CONTINUITY?

A function f(x) is said to be continuous at a point x = a, in its domain if the following three
conditions are satisfied:

1. f(a) exists (i.e. the value of f(a) is finite)

2. Limx→a f(x) exists (i.e. the right-hand limit = left-hand limit, and both are finite)

3. Limx→a f(x) = f(a)

The function f(x) is said to be continuous in the interval I = [x1, x2] if the
three conditions mentioned above are satisfied for every point in the interval I.

However, note that at the end-points of the interval I, we need not consider both the right-hand
and the left-hand limits for the calculation of Limx→a f(x). For a = x1, only the right-hand limit
need be considered, and for a = x2, only the left-hand limit needs to be considered.
2. 3 WHAT IS DERIVATIVE?

In mathematics, the derivative of a function of a real variable measures the sensitivity to

change of the function value (output value) with respect to a change in its argument (input
value). Derivatives are a fundamental tool of calculus. For example, the derivative of the
position of a moving object with respect to time is the object's velocity: this measures how
quickly the position of the object changes when time advances.
The derivative of a function of a single variable at a chosen input value, when it exists, is
the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the function at that point. The tangent line is the
best linear approximation of the function near that input value. For this reason, the derivative
is often described as the "instantaneous rate of change", the ratio of the instantaneous change
in the dependent variable to that of the independent variable.

The graph of a function, drawn in black, and a tangent line to that graph, drawn in red.
The slope of the tangent line is equal to the derivative of the function at the marked point.

2.4 Relationship between Differentiability and Continuity

All differentiable functions are continuous, but not all continuous functions are differentiable.
In order for a function to be continuous,

(1) must exist.

(2) for all points a.

Discontinuities can be in the form of holes, vertical asymptotes, and jumps.

A function is differentiable anywhere its derivitive is defined. The derivative,
describes the instantaneous rate of change or slope of a graph.

Therefore the derivative is undefined:

(1) where the instantaneous slope of the graph is a vertical line
(2) where the graph is at a cusp, jump, or hole, with an unmeasurable slope

Differentiability vs. Continuity:

- Because a graph must have a measurable instantaneous slope where it is

differentiable, all differentiable functions must be continuous. The first pop up link
on this page gives a mathematical proof for this property.

- Continuous graphs may contain cusps or vertical segments with undefined slopes, so
not all continuous functions are differentiable. The second link here gives the proof
for this property.

A differentiable and therefore continuous function:

Two examples of continuous but non-differentiable functions and explanations:

Here are several applets which model the derivatives of functions. The functions: x^(1/3), and
lxl would provide examples of continuity vs differentiability.

2.5 What is Derivative of Hyperbolic Functions?

The derivative of hyperbolic functions gives the rate of change in the hyperbolic functions as
differentiation of a function determines the rate of change in function with respect to the
variable. We can evaluate these derivatives using the derivative of exponential
functions ex and e-x along with other hyperbolic functions formulas and identities. We have
six main hyperbolic functions namely,

• Sinhx
• Coshx
• Tanhx
• Cothx
• Sechx
• Cosechx

The derivative of hyperbolic functions is used in describing the shape of electrical wires
hanging freely between two poles. They are also used to describe any freely hanging cable
between two ends. Among other applications, the derivative of hyperbolic functions is used
to describe the formation of satellite rings and planets. In the next section, we will explore the
formulas of the derivatives of hyperbolic functions.
2.6 Derivative of Hyperbolic Functions Formula

Now, we will go through the formulas of the derivatives of hyperbolic functions. The
hyperbolic functions are combinations of exponential functions ex and e-x. Given below are
the formulas for the derivative of hyperbolic functions:

• Derivative of Hyperbolic Sine Function: d(sinhx)/dx = coshx

• Derivative of Hyperbolic Cosine Function: d(coshx)/dx = sinhx
• Derivative of Hyperbolic Tangent Function: d(tanhx)/dx = sech2x
• Derivative of Hyperbolic Cotangent Function: d(cothx)/dx = -csch2x (x ≠ 0)
• Derivative of Hyperbolic Secant Function: d(sechx)/dx = -sechx tanhx
• Derivative of Hyperbolic Cosecant Function: d(cosechx)/dx = -cosechx cothx (x ≠ 0)
Chapter 3 : Application of Derivative

Let y = f(x) be a function of x. Then

(i) the differential, dx, of the independent

variable x, is an arbitrary increment of x; that
is, dx= ∆𝑥

(ii) the differential, dy of the dependent

variable y is dy=f'(x) dx, where f'(x) is the
derivative of f(x). While the differential dx of the independent variable is an increment ∆𝑥,
the differential dy of the dependent variable is not, in general, equal to the corresponding
increment ∆y. Because

∆y=f(x+∆𝑥)=f(x) and dy= f'(x) dx

Let P(x, y) and Q(x+ ∆x, y + ∆y) be two neighbouring points on the graph of y = f(x),
We have,

tan𝜃=ƒ'(x)
𝑇𝑅
=f'(x) dx
𝑃𝑅

TR= f'(x) dx
dy=f'(x) dx
TR=dy
QR = ∆y

Difference between ∆y and dy is TQ. TQ can be made as small as we please by taking ∆𝑥

sufficiently small, so that dy will approximate ∆y.
This is also known as the tangent line approximation as dy is the tangent line increment and
∆y is the curve increment for an increment ∆x or dx in x.
3.2 Tangents and Normal

Tangents and normals are the lines associated with curves such as a circle, parabola, ellipse,
hyperbola. A tangent is a line touching the curve at one distinct point, and this distinct point
is called the point of contact. Normal is a line perpendicular to the tangent, at the point of
contact. The normal is also passing through the focus of the curve.

There are numerous tangents that can be drawn to a curve, at each of the distinct points lying
on the curve. The tangents and normals are straight lines and hence they are represented as a
linear equation in x and y. The general form of the equation of a tangent and normal is ax +
by + c = 0. The point of contact satisfies the equation of the tangent and the equation of the
curve.

Geometrical Interpretation
Slope of Tangents
Slope of Normals

The normal to a curve at P(x1,y1)P(x1,y1) is a line perpendicular to the tangent at PP.

∴ Slope of the normal at
Equation of Slope and Tangent

3.3 L- Hospital’s Rule

L-Hospital’s rule is a general method of evaluating indeterminate forms such as 0/0 or ∞/∞.
To evaluate the limits of indeterminate forms for the derivatives in calculus, L-Hospital’s rule
is used. L Hospit al rule can be applied more than once. You can apply this rule still it holds
any indefinite form every time after its applications. If the problem is out of the indeterminate
forms, you can’t be able to apply L’Hospital’s Rule.
L-Hospital’s Rule Formula
L-hospital’s rule states that

Note: The limit of the quotient of function is equivalent to the limit of the quotient of their
derivatives, given that the provided conditions are satisfied.

L’Hospital’s Rule Uses

Using L Hospital’s rule, we can solve the problem in 0/0, ∞/∞, ∞ – ∞, 0 x ∞, 1∞, ∞0, or
00 forms. These forms are known as indeterminate forms. To remove the indeterminate forms
in the problem, we can use L-Hospital’s rule.

3.4 Rolle's theorem

In calculus, Rolle's theorem states that if a differentiable function (real-valued)

attains equal values at two distinct points then it must have at least one fixed point
somewhere between them where the first derivative is zero. Rolle's theorem is
named after Michel Rolle, a French mathematician. Rolle’s Theorem is a special
case of the mean value theorem.

Rolle's Theorem Statement:

Rolle's theorem states that "If a function f is defined in the closed interval [a, b] in
such a way that it satisfies the following condition: i) f is continuous on [a, b], ii) f
is differentiable on (a, b), and iii) f (a) = f (b), then there exists at least one value of
x, let us assume this value to be c, which lies between a and b i.e. (a < c < b ) in
such a way that f‘(c) = 0."
Geometric Interpretation of Rolle’s Theorem

In the given graph, the curve y = f(x) is continuous between x = a and x = b and at every
point, within the interval, it is possible to draw a tangent and ordinates corresponding to the
abscissa and are equal then there exists at least one tangent to the curve which is parallel to
the x-axis. Algebraically, this theorem tells us that if f (x) is representing a polynomial
function in x and the two roots of the equation f(x) = 0 are x = a and x = b, then there exists at
least one root of the equation f‘(x) = 0 lying between these values. the converse of Rolle’s
theorem is not true and it is also possible that there exists more than one value of x, for which
the theorem holds good but there is a definite chance of the existence of one such value.

Rolle's Theorem Proof

When proving a theorem directly, you start by assuming all of the conditions are satisfied. So,
our discussion below relates only to functions

• that is continuous over [a, b],

• that is differentiable (a, b),
• and have f(a) = f(b).

With that in mind, notice that when a function satisfies Rolle's Theorem, the place where
f′(x)=0 occurs at a maximum or a minimum value (i.e., extrema).

3.5 Langrage’s Theorem ‘

Lagrange’s mean value theorem is also termed as the mean value theorem itself or the first
mean value theorem. Commonly, the mean is considered as the average of the given values
but in the case of integrals, the method of finding the mean value of two different functions is
different. In this article let us learn Rolle’s theorem and the mean value of such functions
along with their geometrical interpretation.
Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem Statement:

The mean value theorem states that "If a function f is defined on the closed interval [a,b]
satisfying the following conditions: i) the function f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b]
and ii)the function f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b). Then there exists a value x =
c in such a way that f'(c) = [f(b) – f(a)]/(b-a)".

This theorem is also known with the name "first mean value theorem". A special case of
Lagrange’s mean value theorem is Rolle’s Theorem. Let us now understand what is Rolle's
Theorem.

Geometrical Interpretation of Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem

In the given graph the curve y = f(x) is continuous from x = a and x = b and differentiable
within the closed interval [a,b] then according to Lagrange’s mean value theorem, for any
function that is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b) then there exists some c in the
interval (a, b) such that the secant joining the endpoints of the interval [a, b] is parallel to the
tangent at c.
CHAPTER 4 : ANTIDERIVATIVE

4.1 Introduction
In calculus, an antiderivative is a function that reverses what the derivative
does. One function has many antiderivatives but they all are written in the form
of a function including the constant of integration.

Antiderivatives are also known as integral. But mostly it is related to the

indefinite integral or it is the key part of the indefinite integral. In general, the
antiderivative is the opposite of the derivative. There are two main types of
integral (antiderivative).

(1) Definite

(2) Indefinite

The definite type of integral is frequently used in calculus. This type of

integration has upper and lower bounds of the function like interval (r, s). The
first term of the interval is the lower limit and the second value of the interval is
the upper limit.

Antiderivatives are widely used in calculus to find the area under the curve. It is
usually used to find the integrals of the functions with respect to their
integrating variables. The function can be exponential, linear, logarithmic,
polynomial, or constant.

Limits play a vital role in the antiderivatives to find the result of a definite type
of antiderivative. In this post, we’ll learn the definition of antiderivative, its
types, and formulas along with a lot of examples.
4.2 Antiderivative of standard integrals
The subject of integration can be treated in two different points of view.
Actually it has developed in course of evaluation of the area under a plane curve
and has been interpreted as a limit of a sum when the number of terms in the
sum tends to infinity and each term tends to later. Both points of view are
identical. The equivalence of these two view-points has been zero. The other
interpretation of integration as the inverse of differentiation came some time
established in what is known as the Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus.

At the elementary stage, it is better to introduce the subject of integration as the

inverse of differentiation, keeping in reserve the other one to use in some
application. For a given function f(x), if there exists a function F(x) such that
𝑑𝐹(𝑥)
= f(x),
𝑑𝑥

then F(x) is said to be an integral of f(x) with respect to x. Symbolically, we

write

f(x) dx = F(x)

Example 1.
𝑑(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥_)
=d(sin x)
𝑑𝑥

cos x dx = sin x

Example 2.
𝑑(log(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)) 𝑎
= 𝑎𝑥+𝑏
𝑑𝑥

𝑎
dx=log(ax+b)
𝑎𝑥+𝑏

The process of finding the integral of a function f(x) is called the integration and
the function f(x) which has been integrated is called the integrand.

The integral of a function f(x) is not unique, because if F(x) is an integral of

f(x), then F(x) + c is also an integral for any real number c. We know
 𝑑{𝐹(𝑥) + 𝑐} 𝑑𝐹(𝑥)
= = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

which implies 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝑐

For this reason, the integral is called the indefinite integral. These ideas are
there in what we have done in the first volume. For further knowledge of
integration we now start with following fundamental results, known us Standard
Integrals. The standard integrals have been divided into different groups
according to the different techniques to be used during the process of
integration.
Chapter 5: Summary and Conclusion
With this mini-project we came to the conclusion that the derivative
and integration can be used in several ways. We first mention the
reason to choose the particular topic we worked on. We mention the
various findings and data we got after the research, beneficial for
future studies and research. The project emphasis the use of derivative
with an aim to let reader witness the application of derivative to solve
problem.. By differentiate the trigonometry equation that generally
used in car and unknown coordinate both of the graphs, we equateit
with zero to find the critical points.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

https://www.mathcentre.ac.uk/resources/uploaded/
mc-ty-tannorm-2009-1.pdf

https://byjus.com/maths/rolles-theorem-and-
lagranges-mean-value-theorem/

https://calcworkshop.com/derivatives/lhopitals-rule/

https://www.khanacademy.org/math/differential-
calculus
https://www.embibe.com/exams/tangents-and-
normals/

https://www.studysmarter.us/explanations/math/pur
e-maths/standard-integrals/

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/d/derivative.as
p#:~:text=Investopedia%20%2F%20Katie%20Kerp
el,What%20Is%20a%20Derivative%3F,the%2Dcou
nter%20(OTC).