CIRP Journal of Manufacturing Science and Technology 39 (2022) 91–103

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CIRP Journal of Manufacturing Science and Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cirpj

Performance analysis of an adaptive cooling system with primary

and secondary heat paths for linear direct drives in machine tools ]]
]]]]]]
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⁎
Eckart Uhlmann a,b, Sebastian Salein a,
a
Institute for Machine Tools and Factory Management (IWF), TU Berlin, Germany
b
Fraunhofer Institute for Production Systems and Design Technology IPK in Berlin, Germany

a r t i cl e i nfo a bstr ac t

Available online 30 July 2022
Keywords:
Adaptive-cooling system with thermoelectric
generators
Modelling of thermoelectric cooling systems
Cooling systems for linear direct drives
Thermoelectricity in machine tools
Machine tools subjected to high demands regarding productivity and accuracy are faced with the challenge
that thermal losses influencing the accuracy negatively. Due to high requirements regarding thermal sta-
bility of precision related machine tool components, the focused linear direct drives (LDD) must be tem-
pered by active cooling systems. In machine tools, a sufficient cooling capacity is available, but the cooling is
insufficiently adjusted to the process and the individual demand of the heat-inducing as well as precision
related components. With the intention to achieve a demand-oriented cooling, the use of thermoelectricity
in machine tools is one research objective at the Institute for Machine Tools and Factory Management (IWF).
Inspired by the concept of thermoelectric self-cooling (TSC)-systems for electronic devices, an Adaptive
Cooling (AC)-system with thermoelectric generators (TEG) for LDD in machine tools is developed and ex-
perimentally investigated. In order to enhance the performance of AC-systems, in this research a reduction
of the global thermal resistance is focused. A promising approach to achieve this goal is the division of the
induced heat flow into a primary and a secondary heat path. For a model-based performance analysis of this
approach, a system simulation is presented. To acquire experimental data for model validation, a test bench
of the AC-system with primary as well as primary and secondary heat path is put into operation. The
comparison of simulative and experimental determined data indicates a predominantly high model pre-
diction accuracy. As a result, the implementation of a secondary heat path enables a reduction of the
temperature on the upper surface of the heat source by 24.6% and thus a decrease of the global thermal
resistance by 38.1%. Compared to the initial state of the AC-system only with primary heat path, the achieved
thermal stability in the precision related machine tool component as well as the self-starting capability is
improved.
© 2022 CIRP.

Introduction
The economic efficiency of a production system is influenced by
the performance of used machine tools regarding productivity,
working accuracy, environmental behaviour as well as reliability [1].
Increasing productivity and accuracy are therefore the classical de-
velopment goals of machine tool building. Due to changed legal
restrictions regarding eco-design measures, rising energy costs as
well as an increasing awareness of sustainable manufacturing, the
energy and resource efficiency is being considered as further cri-
terion during machine tool development [1]. Productivity, accuracy
as well as energy consumption of machine tools cannot be con-
sidered independently from each other [2]. A common approach to
⁎
Correspondence to: Sulzaer Str. 19, 14199 Berlin, Germany.
E-mail addresses: salein@tu-berlin.de, salein@online.de (S. Salein).
increase productivity is the use of linear direct drives (LDD), which
allow higher acceleration a, feed rate vf and thus rapid positioning
compared to conventional ball screw drives [3,4]. During the con-
version of consumed electrical energy Eel by LDD into mechanical
energy Emech, electrical power loss ΔPJ in form of heat flow rates Q̇ ind
are induced into the adjacent machine tool components. Without
the use of countermeasures, a temporary and locally changing
temperature distribution results. This leads to thermo-elastic de-
formations of precision related machine tool components, which
directly influence the position of the Tool Centre Point (TCP), and
therefore the working accuracy of the considered machine tool [5]. A
significant proportion of workpiece errors are caused by thermally
induced displacements δ of the TCP [6]. The arrangement of the
primary part as the significant heat source of LDD close to precision
related machine tool components requires an active cooling to dis-
sipate induced heat flow rates Q̇ ind [3]. The results of research ac-
tivities in the field of energy consumption of fluidic systems in

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cirpj.2022.07.006
1755-5817/© 2022 CIRP.
E. Uhlmann and S. Salein
Fig. 1. Thermoelectric self-cooling (TSC)-system for electronic devices with an additional secondary heat path to reduce the global thermal resistance Rgl; conceptual drawing
according to Kiflemariam et al. [17].
machine tools show that sufficient cooling capacity PC is available,
but the cooling is insufficiently adjusted to the process and to the
individual demand of the machine tool components [5]. Therefore, it
is proposed to use speed-controlled pumps to provide a demand-
oriented and individual volumetric flow rate V̇ of the coolant for
each component to be cooled [7]. This volume flow controlled
cooling system is a promising approach to reduce the required pump
power [7]. With the intention to achieve a demand-oriented cooling,
the use of thermoelectricity in machine tools is one research ob-
jective at the INSTITUTE FOR MACHINE TOOLS AND FACTORY MANAGEMENT (IWF).
This approach offers potentials to achieve a high thermal stability of
precision-related machine tool components with reduced energy
requirements for cooling. In this context, thermal stability is defined
as the capability of a system to maintain a steady-state temperature
ϑB with minor deviation Δϑ even under varying induced heat flow
rates Q̇ ind [6]. Increasing or adapting the heat dissipation or heat
input by demand-oriented cooling is one possibility to raise thermal
stability of machine tools.
State of the art
Thermoelectric self-cooling systems for electronic devices
The preliminary work for this research is represented by so-
called thermoelectric self-cooling (TSC)-systems. These were devel-
oped and investigated for energy self-sufficient cooling of electronic
devices. As key components, a TSC-system includes thermoelectric
generators (TEG) arranged in a thermal parallel connection between
a heat source and a heat sink. Due to the TEG thermal conduction
resistance RTEG, a temperature difference TEG-hot/cold side Δϑh–c,
arise as the heat flow rate Q̇ TEG passes the TEG-arrangement. Based
on the thermoelectric SEEBECK-effect, TEG are capable to convert parts
of the induced heat flow rate Q̇ ind into electrical energy E [8]. By
integrating electrical consumers such as a water pump and a fan into
the electrical circuit, an electrical power Pel is recuperated. Thus,
these electrical consumers are self-sufficiently operated. The oper-
ability of TSC-systems for electronic devices has been demonstrated
manifold using finned heatsinks with fans [9–13]. Furthermore,
several investigations have shown that also TSC-systems with water
cooled microchannel heat sinks are operational [9,14,15]. TSC-sys-
tems feature adaptive characteristics, because the thermal convec-
tion resistances Rh and thus the global thermal resistance Rgl of the
system is load-dependently adjusted. Using the example of water-
cooled TCS-systems, the thermal convection resistance Rcool be-
tween the cold plate and the coolant is determined based on the
flow velocity respectively the volumetric flow rate V̇ inside the
cooling channels. The volumetric flow rate V̇ is self-regulated and
demand-oriented supplied by the electrical power Pel recuperated by
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CIRP Journal of Manufacturing Science and Technology 39 (2022) 91–103
TEG as a function of the induced heat flow rate Q̇ ind. Thus, tem-
perature regulations by a closed-loop control are not intended [14].
Reduction of the global thermal resistance
of thermoelectric self-cooling systems
The temperatures in a component to be cooled are determined by
the global thermal resistance Rgl of the cooling system. Therefore,
this parameter is crucial for evaluating of the cooling system per-
formance. The direct placement of TEG to a heat source creates a
TSC-system with a single thermal path [11]. Experimental analyses
of a TSC-system with heat pipes and finned heat sink by Martinez
et al. [16] show that the TEG-arrangement with thermal resistance
RTEG is accounting for around 60% of the global thermal resistance Rgl
[16]. As a promising solution approach to reduce the global thermal
resistance Rgl, the use of thermal bridges with high thermal con-
ductivity λ in thermal parallel connection to TEG was investigated
[13,16,17]. In TSC-systems including thermal bridges, only a part of
the induced heat flow rate Q̇ ind is crossing the TEG-arrangement. The
main proportion is removed by thermal bridges with low thermal
resistance R directly to a secondary and geometrically separated heat
sink. Thus, a secondary heat path is formed. By this measure the
temperature difference TEG-hot/cold side Δϑh–c is reduced, which
results conceptually in a decreased recuperated electrical power Pel
at the same induced heat flow rate Q̇ ind. For the experimental ana-
lysis of this concept, Kiflemariam et al. [17] used a test bench with a
heat source, a heat spreader and six TEG positioned in a rectangular
arrangement, Fig. 1 [17]. Three separate finned heat sinks are in-
stalled on the cold side of TEG, in which an energy self-sufficiently
operated fan generates forced convection. The presented design
includes a primary and a secondary heat path, Fig. 1 [17].
With the intention of conducting comparable studies, two con-
figurations of the TSC-system have been investigated by Kiflemariam
et al. [17]. First, TEG are placed in both primary and secondary heat
paths. Thus, six modules are electrically connected in series (Case A).
Second, the two TEG below the middle finned heat sink are replaced
by an aluminium block as a thermal bridge of the same size with
high thermal conductivity λ (Case B). The remaining four TEG below
the outer finned heat sinks are unchanged compared to Case A. The
experimental results reveal that the integration of thermal bridges
reduces the global thermal resistance Rgl [17]. Despite the fact that
the recuperated electrical power Pel and thus the rotational speed n
of the fan is decreased in Case B compared to Case A, a reduction r of
the temperature difference Δϑde between the device temperature ϑde
and the environment temperature ϑa is determined to r(Δϑde) ≈ 11 K
≙ 12.1% [17]. This offers potentials to improve the operability of the
electronic devices to be cooled.
E. Uhlmann and S. Salein
Fig. 2. Design of an Adaptive Cooling (AC)-system with thermoelectric generators (TEG).
Fig. 3. Prototypical integration of the AC-system with TEG into the machine tool de-
monstrator with linear direct drives (LDD) [18].
Adaptive cooling systems with integrated thermoelectric generators for
linear direct drives in machine tools
Considering the above-mentioned preliminary research activities
in the field of TSC-systems for electronic devices, the approach has
been extended by Uhlmann et al. [18–22] to enable a thermoelec-
trically assisted cooling for LDD in machine tools. Due to the high
demands regarding thermal stability of precision-related machine
tool components, an energy self-sufficient operation of the cooling
system is not suitable for all intended machining processes. As op-
posed to TSC-systems, the following presented set-up is therefore
termed Adaptive Cooling (AC)-system with TEG. Considering the re-
quired thermal connection and given restrictions regarding me-
chanical properties of TEG, a concept to integrate TEG into a feed
unit with LDD has been developed, Fig. 2 [18,19]. Allowing for ex-
perimental analyses of the AC-system as well as proving its feasibility
even under changing thermal loads, a self-designed machine tool
was selected as demonstrator.
The considered X-axis is equipped with a LDD of the type Al2830,
marketed by Beckhoff Automation GmbH, Verl, Germany, without
integrated cooling system. The designed AC-system with TEG is
placed on the upper surface of the primary part of the LDD, Fig. 2.
The heat sink of the AC-system with TEG is designed as a water
cooled cold plate, manufactured of aluminium alloy type EN AW-
5083. Aiming for recuperation of an electric power Pel, TEG are
placed in a gap between the primary part and the water cooled cold
plate. Consequently, a temperature difference TEG-hot/cold side
Δϑh–c arises during operation of the LDD. The recuperated electrical
power Pel is given as a function of the applied temperature difference
TEG-hot/cold side Δϑh–c and corresponds to the difference between
the absorbed heat flow rate Q̇ abs,h and the emitted heat flow rate
Q̇ emi,c on the hot and cold side of TEG, Fig. 2. To reduce the thermal
contact resistances Rcont, the heat sink is pressed onto the TEG-
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CIRP Journal of Manufacturing Science and Technology 39 (2022) 91–103
arrangement by screws embedded in the connection plate. Four
spacers are used to maintain the position of the primary part pre-
cisely and to transfer the occurring shear forces FS via frictional
connections, even at high accelerations a of the linear axis. Due to
the direct connection to the machine tool slide with its high de-
mands regarding thermal stability, the connection plate is defined as
the precision-related component of the assembly. In order to force a
highest possible proportion of the induced heat flow rate Q̇ ind
through the TEG-arrangement into the water cooled cold plate,
thermal insulators manufactured of duroplast HP 2061 are inserted
and provide a high thermal resistance Rhp to the connection plate,
Fig. 2. To avoid thermally induced displacements δ of the machine
tool, the AC-system with TEG focuses on maintaining a thermal
steady state in the precision related connection plate. The proto-
typical realisation of the AC-system as well as the integration into the
feed unit of the machine tool demonstrator has been implemented.
In the course of experimental investigations, three operating
modes of the AC-system were studied. These are described in detail
below.
1. A reference operating mode without active cooling, in which the
AC-system was turned off, Fig. 4.
2. A non-energy self-sufficient operation mode in which a com-
pressor cooling unit, Typ Chilly 15, marketed by Himmelwerk
GmbH, Tübingen, Germany, was additionally used and powered
with an externally supplied energy Eext, Fig. 4.
3. An energy self-sufficient operation mode, in which the cooling
capacity PC was completely generated by using recuperated
electrical power Pel from TEG, Fig. 4.
In the second and third operation mode, the recuperated elec-
trical power Pel was directly fed to an electrical parallel circuit,
consisting of a gear pump, Typ P123001, marketed by Thermalforce
GmbH, Berlin, Germany, within a water cooling circuit and a fan, Typ
4412, manufactured by EBM-papst mulfingen GmbH, Mulfingen,
Germany, of a self-designed adiabatic air cooling unit, Fig. 4.
Therefore, the coolant was taken load-dependently and self-regu-
lated from a temperature-controlled reservoir by the named gear
pump. Both electrical consumers of the AC-system were self-suffi-
ciently supplied by TEG. In the third operation mode, the coolant
inlet temperature ϑin was completely determined by the adiabatic
air cooling unit. Due to the limited amount of recuperated electrical
power Pel, the adiabatic air cooling unit with fan was not capable of
providing coolant with a constant inlet temperature ϑin upstream of
the AC-system. In order to meet this demand for performance ana-
lyses of the AC-system, the named compressor cooling unit with a
two-point controller was additionally used, Fig. 4. This allowed a
closed-loop control of the coolant inlet temperature ϑin to a defined
E. Uhlmann and S. Salein CIRP Journal of Manufacturing Science and Technology 39 (2022) 91–103

Fig. 4. Starting processes of the AC-system in three operating modes by an induced heat flow rate Q̇ ind ≈ 700 W: (a) Temperatures on top of the primary part ϑpp and inlet
temperatures of the coolant ϑin; (b) Temperatures inside the precision related connection plate ϑcp; (c) Volumetric flow rate V̇ of the coolant and recuperated electrical power Pel.

setpoint of ϑin = 22 °C with a hysteresis H = 1.4 K, Fig. 4(a). Due to the
additional use of a compressor cooling unit, the fan of the adiabatic
air cooling unit was rotating during the second operating mode
without cooling function.
The experimental results show that the use of an AC-system with
TEG in both operating modes ensures maintaining a permissible
motor core temperature of ϑM = 100 °C and thus enables an unrest-
ricted usability of LDA, Fig. 4(a) [18]. Compared to the reference
mode, the energy self-sufficient operation shows a significant re-
duction of the temperature on top of the primary part ϑpp at the time
of t = 1350 s as well as a significantly reduced temperature rise Δϑpp
(t) in any time interval Δt, Fig. 4(a). Furthermore, the temperature
rise in the precision related connection plate Δϑcp(t) could be
significantly decreased compared to the reference operating mode,
Fig. 4(b). Responsible for this improved thermal behaviour are the
integrated TEG of the AC-system, which recuperate sufficient elec-
trical power Pel at the time t ≥ 200 s and supply the water pump as
well as the parallel-connected fan of the adiabatic air cooling unit
electrically, Fig. 4(c). Due to adaptive system characteristics of an AC-
system the volumetric flow rate V̇ inside the water cooled cold plate
is self-regulated by the recuperated electrical power Pel, Fig. 4(c).
During varying induced heat flow rates Q̇ ind an adaptive adjustment
of volumetric flow rate V̇ is observed [18,20].
Compared to a conventional cooling system for LDD with a cold
plate screwed on top of the primary part, the AC-system has an in-
creased global thermal resistance Rgl. This is because a significant

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E. Uhlmann and S. Salein
Fig. 5. Concept for implementation of a primary and secondary heat path in an AC-system with TEG.
portion of the induced heat flow rate Q̇ ind is forced through the
additionally added thermal resistance RTEG of the TEG-arrangement.
Consequently, a high temperature on top of the primary part ϑpp and
thus a negative influence regarding operability as well as thermal
stability result. Based on the presented state of the art, the ob-
jective of this research is to reduce the global thermal resistance
Rgl of AC-systems.
Design
As solution approach to reduce the global thermal resistance Rgl,
the concept of a TSC-system with primary and secondary heat path
is applied to the already existing design of the AC-systems, Fig. 5.
Each heat path requires a thermally independent heat sink. Other-
wise no sufficient temperature difference TEG-hot/cold side Δϑh–c
arises at the TEG-arrangement to supply the electrical consumers of
the AC-system. The solution approach is represented by adding
cooling channels to the spacers presented in Fig. 5. This enables a
circulation of coolant through the spacers during operation of the
AC-system. Consequently, the spacers act as additional heatsinks
with direct connection to the heat source, and have therefore a
double function, Fig. 5.
A detailed view inside the studied AC-system with primary and
secondary heat path is given by Fig. 6. Compared to previous in-
vestigations by Uhlmann et al. [18,19] the cooling geometry of the
water cooled cold plate was unchanged, Fig. 6.
The sequence of the coolant flow through the heat sinks influ-
ences the performance of the AC-system. First, the coolant is fed into
the water cooled cold plate and absorbs the heat flow rates Q̇ pri by
Fig. 6. Design of the cooling geometries inside the heat sinks of the AC-system with primary and secondary heat path.
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CIRP Journal of Manufacturing Science and Technology 39 (2022) 91–103
forced convection in the cooling channels, Fig. 6. Thus, the primary
heat path is formed. After that, the outlets of the water cooled cold
plate are connected to the inputs of the cooling channels inside
spacers. Each two of them are arranged in fluidic series connection,
Fig. 6. In order to maximise the amount of recuperated electrical
power Pel, this sequence is essential to reach high temperature dif-
ferences TEG hot/cold side Δϑh–c.
For experimental analyses of this concept, as well as for valida-
tion of the derived models, a test bench of the AC-system has been
put into operation. The primary part of LDD was therefore replaced
by a heating plate with cartridge heaters, which are operated by an
adjustable power supply. The test bench enables the imitation of the
induced heat flow rates Q̇ ind, previously measured in the machine
tool demonstrator, Fig. 3. Thus, the acquisition of relevant data is
possible without axis movement and under controlled boundary
conditions.
Modelling
With the objective of simulation-based analyses of the thermo-
electric behaviour and further optimisation of AC-systems, a pre-
viously by Uhlmann et al. [19] presented simulation model is applied
to the new design shown in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 with primary and
secondary heat path. The already existing model architecture is
based on a thermal resistance network and has been implemented
as a system simulation in MATLAB/Simulink, MathWorks, Natick,
USA, Fig. 7. Supported by block libraries of the Simscape-toolbox, the
model is composed of the physical domains thermal, thermal-liquid,
and electrical, which are in permanent interaction. The thermal
E. Uhlmann and S. Salein
Fig. 7. Thermal resistance network for model-based analyses of the AC-system with divided heat paths.
system behaviour is derived by a mesh of representative nodes, each
one connected to the surrounding nodes by a thermal resistance R
and endowed with a thermal capacity C, Fig. 7.
As a model simplification, the AC-system is considered symme-
trical to the centre line, Fig. 7. Therefore, the thermal conduction
resistances of the connection plate Rcp, the thermal insulators Rinsu,
the spacers Rsp, the heating plate Rhp and the thermal convection
resistances Rcool of the not shown right side, are mirrored to form
merged substitute thermal resistors. In addition, the installed 19 TEG
are combined to a substitute component. Thereby, temperature
differences Δϑ between different TEG and increasing cooling water
temperatures ϑcool within cooling channels are neglected. The tem-
perature rise of coolant Δϑcool at the outlets of each heat sink is
determined using Simscape-toolbox. In conclusion, the model is
capable of simulating both, steady and transient states of the AC-
system. Therefore, all system-determining temperatures, open-cir-
cuit voltage UOC, load voltage UL, load current I, recuperated elec-
trical power Pel, volumetric flow rate V,̇ and all heat flow rates by
Peltier (Q̇ P)- and Joule-effect Q̇ J are calculated. A more detailed de-
scription of the modelling is given by Uhlmann et al. [19]. The
comparison of simulative and experimental data of the AC-system
with primary heat path has shown a high model prediction accuracy
for steady state as well as transient conditions [19].
To predict the thermoelectric behaviour of the AC-system with
primary and secondary heat path, the model is enhanced by cooling
channels with forced convection in the spacers, Fig. 7. The convec-
tion thermal resistance between spacers and coolant Rcool,sp is cal-
culated based on cross section area Acr of the cooling channels and
the convective heat transfer coefficient h, which is given for a de-
fined Nusselt number Nu. Due to the partially curved cooling chan-
nels as well as the rectangular cross section area Acr, the flow is
considered laminar up to a Reynold number Re ≤ 1000. The values of
Nusselt number Nu for laminar flow Re ≤ 1000, transitional flow
1000 < Re < 5000 and turbulent flow Re ≤ 5000 are determined as a
function of the volumetric flow rate V.̇ In addition to experimental
Table 1
Experimentally determined performance parameters of used TEG-types.
Given values for ϑm = 40 °C Seebeck coefficient α in V/K
TEG199 0.092(ϑm)
TEG287 0.103(ϑm)
CIRP Journal of Manufacturing Science and Technology 39 (2022) 91–103
analyses of the AC-system with primary and secondary heat path, the
described modelling enables a comparison with simulative data. Due
to the mentioned model simplification, the location specific heat-up
of coolant is calculated with a significant error e. This is due to the
coolant flow through the spacers in series connection, which
changes from the left to the right side of the assembly, Fig. 6. As a
consequence, the major error e between experimentally and simu-
latively determined data is expected at the temperature below the
spacer ϑsp,h.
Performance analysis
In order to analyse the thermoelectric system behaviour, the
described test bench has been used to collect experimental data. To
compare and evaluate the influence of different TEG-types, two se-
parate measurement series were conducted. The used TEG-types
were preselected on basis of their thermoelectric characteristics
stated by the manufacturers. First, TEG1-40-40-10/100, marketed by
Eureca Messtechnik GmbH, Cologne, Germany, which has already
been applied by Uhlmann et al. [19,20] in previous investigations.
Due to the number of thermocouples inside, this TEG-type is here-
inafter uniformly termed TEG199. Second, TGM-287-1.0-1.5, pro-
duced by Kryotherm, Saint-Petersburg, Russia, which was chosen for
the first time to be integrated into the AC-system. This TEG-type is
hereinafter uniformly termed TEG 287. Both TEG-types have a square
base area with an edge length sl = 40 mm. The deviating thickness st
= 3.2 mm of TEG199 and st = 3.8 mm for TEG287 is compensated by
an adjustable position of the water cooled cold plate inside the as-
sembly. After completion of a first series of measurements, the re-
placement of all integrated TEG199 with TEG287 was realised. In
order to achieve a high prediction accuracy of the derived model, the
thermoelectric characteristics of both TEG-types have been experi-
mentally determined. The measured values of these thermoelectric
performance parameters are given in Table 1 at a mean temperature
between TEG-hot and cold side ϑm = 40 °C.
Electrical internal resistance Ri in Ω Thermal resistance of one TEG RTEG,m in K/W
1.64(ϑm) 0.57; as a constant
6.30(ϑm) 1.36; as a constant
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E. Uhlmann and S. Salein
Table 2
Realised electrical circuits to ensure an effective operation of TEG.
Electrical load resistance RL in
Ω arrangement Ri,a in Ω
AC-system Pump motor:RL = 130 Ω (P)
with TEG199; Fan motor: RL = 47 Ω (P)
exp. and simulated Parallel connection: RL,a≈ 35 Ω
(P)
AC-system with TEG287 and old Old pump motor: RL = 130 Ω
pump ; only simulated (P)
Fan motor: RL = 47 Ω (P)
Parallel connection: RL,a≈ 35 Ω
(P)
AC-system New pump motor: R = 44 Ω (P)
with TEG287 Fan motor: R =47 Ω (P)
and new pump; exp. and Parallel connection: RL,a≈ 23 Ω
simulated (P)
Aiming for an efficient operation of TEG, the matching of elec-
trical load resistances RL to the electrical internal resistance of the
TEG-arrangement Ri,a represents a fundamental design rule of
thermoelectric systems. If both parameters have the same amount,
so-called matched load is reached. Then the recuperated electrical
power Pel is maximised, which is shown by Eq. (1).
Uoc2·RL
Pel =
(RL +Ri,a)2
where: Pel – Recuperated electrical power in W, UOC – Open-circuit
voltage in V, RL – Electrical load resistance in Ω, Ri,a – Electrical in-
ternal resistance of the TEG-arrangement in Ω.
To maximise the recuperated electrical power Pel the TEG-ar-
rangement of the investigated AC-system should be always con-
nected to an electrical load resistance RL a bit higher than its
electrical internal resistance Ri,a. The experimental and simulative
analyses are carried out using the electrical consumers and circuits
shown in Table 2. Due to a defect of the water pump motor, the
experimental analysis of the AC-system with TEG287 had to be
conducted with a new motor with changed load resistance RL. To
assess the influence of this change regarding comparability between
both measurement series, a simulation of the TEG287 performance
combined with the old water pump motor was also carried out.
Referring to the described design rule, the bold marked values in
Table 2 show that in each configuration the load resistances RL,a have
higher amounts than the internal resistances Ri,a.
To compare and evaluate the AC-system with primary as well as
primary and secondary heat path, the following output parameters
are defined: temperature TEG-hot side ϑh, temperature difference
TEG-hot/cold side Δϑh–c, temperature under the spacer ϑsp, re-
cuperated electrical power Pel, volumetric flow rate V̇ , temperature
on the upper surface of the connection plate ϑcp, temperature dif-
ference outlet/inlet Δϑout–in. These parameters are of main relevance
for the performance and operability of the AC-system. The positions
of the installed thermocouples are shown in Fig. 8.
Fig. 8. Positions of the installed thermocouples for temperature measurement.
CIRP Journal of Manufacturing Science and Technology 39 (2022) 91–103
Realised electrical circuit of the TEG-arrangement Electrical internal resistance of the TEG-
Electrical series circuit consisting of 18 TEG199 Ri,a ≈ 30 Ω (ϑm)
Electrical parallel circuit consisting of two arrays, Ri,a ≈ 28 Ω (ϑm)
each one with nine series-connected TEG287
Ri,a ≈ 13 Ω
Electrical parallel circuit consisting of three arrays, (ϑm)
each one with six series-connected TEG287
Impact of a secondary heat path on the performance of AC-systems
For comparative analyses of the AC-system with primary as well
as primary and secondary heat path, several starting processes are
studied. During the entire experimental investigations presented
in chapter 5, the AC-system is running in the described non-en-
ergy self-sufficient operation mode, in which a compressor cooling
unit is additionally used and powered with an externally supplied
(1)) energy Eext. The induced heat flow rates Q̇ ind were varied between a
full-load operation with an amount of Q̇ ind = 1060 W (Fig. 9) in a first
measurement series and a partial-load operation with an amount of
Q̇ ind = 400 W (Fig. 10) in a second measurement series. The column
(a) of both figures displays experimentally and simulatively de-
termined data of the AC-system with primary heat path, which have
already been presented by Uhlmann et al. [19]. The column (b)
contains data of the AC-system with primary and secondary heat
path, which are contrasted as the novelty of this research with
the results of the preliminary investigations. A detailed analysis of
the thermoelectric behaviour of both AC-systems is done in three
steps along lines 1–3 of Fig. 9 and Fig. 10.
As a conclusion of the first measurement series at full-load
operation, it is revealed that the AC-system with primary and sec-
ondary heat paths shows predominantly advantages compared to
the AC-system with primary heat paths. Based on a comparison of
experimentally and simulatively determined data, a high prediction
accuracy of the derived model is revealed. Following, a detailed
presentation of the acquired data is given, Fig. 9.
Firstly, the comparison begins with the two plots in Fig 9-1. The
temperature under the spacer ϑsp,pri shows the highest determined
values, and allows therefore an evaluation regarding operability and
a detrimental overheating of the primary part, Fig. 9-1. In the AC-
system with primary heat paths the temperatures ϑsp,pri rise with the
time t and reach a thermal steady state at the time t ≥ 1400 s with an
absolute temperature of ϑsp,pri = 67.0 °C, Fig. 9-1 (a). In the AC-system
with primary and secondary heat path, a temperature under the
spacer ϑsp,sec = 48.3 °C is measured after reaching the thermal steady
state, Fig. 9-1 (b). The comparison of both configurations of the AC-
system reveals a reduction rpri/sec(ϑsp) = 18.7 K ≙ 27.9% at the time of
t ≥ 1400 s. The maximum error e between measured and simulated
values is e(ϑsp,sec) = 3.8 K ≙ 7.9% at the time of t ≥ 1400 s, Fig. 9-1 (b).
This error is explainable due to the model simplification based on
mirroring, described in Section 3. Due to coolant flow through the
spacers with a direct connection to the heating plate, the tempera-
ture under the spacer ϑsp,sec as well as the temperature TEG-hot side
ϑh,sec are close to each other, Fig. 9-1 (b). Both, the reduction r of
temperature under the spacer ϑsp,sec and a more homogeneous
temperature profile inside the primary part has advantages
97
E. Uhlmann and S. Salein CIRP Journal of Manufacturing Science and Technology 39 (2022) 91–103

Fig. 9. Comparison of experimentally and simulatively determined data during starting processes of the AC-system with induced heat flow rates Q̇ ind = 1060 W: (a) AC-system
with primary heat path; (b) AC-system with primary as well as primary and secondary heat path.

regarding the operability of the LDD as well as the thermal stability
of the presented machine tool demonstrator. By comparing experi-
mental data of the temperature differences TEG-hot/cold side Δϑh–c,
a significant reduction rpri/sec(Δϑh–c) = 10.5 K ≙ 44.6% is found for the
AC-system with primary and secondary heat path, Fig. 9-1. This is
explainable due to a decreased amount of heat flow rate Q̇ pri crossing
the TEG-arrangement compared to the AC-system with primary heat
path. The temperature difference between TEG-hot/cold side Δϑh–c
determines the amount of recuperated electrical power Pel and thus
the operability of water pump and fan as electrical consumers.
Secondly, the comparison continues with the two plots in Fig. 9-
2. In comparison, the AC-system with primary and secondary heat
path shows a significant reduction of recuperated electrical power
rpri/sec(Pel) = 5.9 W ≙ 68.1%, and therefore a significant reduction of
volumetric flow rate rpri/sec(V̇ ) = 0.7 l/min ≙ 39.0%, Fig. 9-2 (b). Both
due to a decreased temperature difference TEG-hot/cold side
Δϑh–c,sec, Fig. 9-1 (b). This distinction is considered as a dis-
advantage of the AC-system with primary and secondary heat path.
Optimisation measures using TEG287 are discussed in the next
section to overcome this disadvantage. With exception of a sig-
nificant deviation again shortly after start, the maximum error e
between measured and simulated values of recuperated electrical
power e(Pel,sec) as well as error of volumetric flow rate e(V̇ sec) are
found to be negligibly small, Fig. 9-2 (b).Therefore, the derived

98
E. Uhlmann and S. Salein
Fig. 10. Comparison of experimentally and simulatively determined data during starting processes of the AC-system with induced heat flow rates Q̇ ind = 400 W: (a) AC-system with
primary heat path; (b) AC-system with primary as well as primary and secondary heat path.
model is capable to calculate both parameters with high prediction
accuracy. Due to the direct dependence between temperature dif-
ference Δϑh – c and recuperated electrical power Pel, an adaptive
adjustment of the volumetric flow rate V̇ is found for both config-
urations of the AC-systems, Fig. 9-2. The experimentally and simu-
latively determined data show that both configurations adaptively
regulate the volumetric flow rate V̇ as a function of the induced heat
flow rate Q̇ ind without closed-loop control. Thus, the thermal con-
vection resistance Rcool between the cold plate and the coolant re-
spectively the global thermal resistance Rgl of the AC-system is load-
dependently and demand-oriented adjusted.
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CIRP Journal of Manufacturing Science and Technology 39 (2022) 91–103
Thirdly, the first measurement series is concluded with the two
diagrams in Fig. 9-3. The adaptively adjusted volumetric flow rate V̇
influences the temperature difference outlet/inlet Δϑout–in, which is
experimentally determined to an amount of Δϑout–in,pri = 7.8 K for the
AC-system with primary heat path, Fig. 9-3 (a). Compared to the AC-
system with primary and secondary heat path, an increase ipri/sec
(Δϑout–in) = 5.7 K ≙ 42.2% at the time t ≥ 425 s is measured, Fig. 9-3
(a). This is due to a significantly lower amount of volumetric flow
rate V̇ pri through the cooling channels of the AC-system with primary
and secondary heat path, Fig. 9-2 (b). Regarding the temperature
difference outlet/inlet Δϑout–in, a high correspondence between
E. Uhlmann and S. Salein
Table 3
Simulated parameters of the AC-system with TEG287: (a) Using the new pump motor with load resistance RL = 44 Ω; (b) Using the old pump motor with RL = 130 Ω, which was
installed during all analyses with TEG199.
Temp.TEG hot side Temp. diff. TEG-hot/cold Temp. spacer
ϑh,sec in °C side Δϑh–c,sec in K ϑsp,sec in °C
a) 37.1 10.1 35.3
b) 36.8 10.1 34.9
experimental and simulated values is found, Fig. 9-3 (b). The last
studied parameter is the temperature on the upper surface of the
connection plate ϑcp. Due to the direct connection to the machine
tool slide, this parameter is of main interest to assess the cooling
performance of the AC-system. Increasing temperature of the con-
necting plate ϑcp with thermally induced deformations could cause
negative influences on the working accuracy of the machine tool
demonstrator. An idealised thermal behaviour of the assembly in-
cludes a constant temperature of the connection plate ϑcp(t) over
time t, also during varying induced heat flow rates Q̇ ind. Neither the
AC-system with primary heat path investigated by Uhlmann et al.
[19] nor conventional cooling systems with an attached water cooled
cold plate or an integrated cooling geometry in the primary part are
capable to meet this goal perfectly. Therefore, a reduction of devia-
tions from the thermal steady state are considered positive. The
temperature ϑcp is experimentally determined to an amount of ϑcp
= 36.2 °C at the time of t = 1700 s for the AC-system with primary heat
path, Fig. 9-3 (a). At this time the temperatures ϑcp has not reached
thermal steady state. Compared to the AC-system with primary and
secondary heat path, an reduction rpri/sec(ϑcp) = 5.5 K ≙ 15.2% is
measured, which is assessed as positive, Fig. 9-3. Regarding the
temperature ϑcp, major deviations of the model-based data are
found, Fig. 9-3 (b). The maximum error e between measured and
simulated values is e(ϑcp) = 4,0 K ≙ 13.0% at the time t = 1700 s for the
AC-system with primary and secondary heat path, Fig. 9-3 (b). This
poor prediction accuracy is explainable due to the chosen modelling
method using a thermal resistance network, which is incapable of
simulating temperature gradients Δϑ within one component. Due to
the large surfaces to the environment, this effects the connection
plate particularly noticeably.
In the second measurement series at partial-load operation,
the induced heat flow rate Q̇ ind was adjusted, while all other
boundary conditions were kept constant, Fig. 10. As a conclusion, it
is revealed that the AC-system with primary and secondary heat
paths is incapable of performing a self-starting process. After an
externally given start impulse, the water pump and the fan operate
self-sufficiently based on adaptive system characteristics. The low-
ered temperature under the spacer ϑsp,sec as well as the decreased
temperature on the upper surface of the connection plate ϑcp,
compared to the AC-system with primary heat path, are considered
again as an advantage of the AC-system with primary and secondary
heat path. Following, a detailed presentation of the acquired data is
given, Fig. 10.
Compared to results at full-load operation in Fig. 9, a similar
transient thermoelectric system behaviour by starting the AC-system
with primary heat path is found, Fig. 10-1 (a). As expected, all stu-
died parameters show decreased amounts after reaching the
thermal steady state, Fig. 10-1 (a). In contrast, the simulated and
experimentally determined data of the AC-system with primary and
secondary heat path shows a completely different thermoelectric
system behaviour, Fig. 10-1 (b). At the time of t ≤ 651 s the tem-
perature under the spacer ϑsp,sec as well as the temperature TEG-hot
side ϑh,sec rise continuously, Fig. 10-1 (b). However, after a short
increase of the temperature difference TEG-hot/cold side Δϑh–c, it
stabilises at a value of Δϑh–c,sec = 2.5 K. Even so, the temperature
TEG-hot side ϑh,sec keeps rising continuously. Consequently, the
CIRP Journal of Manufacturing Science and Technology 39 (2022) 91–103
Volumetric flow Electrical power Temp. connection plate Temp. diff. outlet/inlet
rate Pel,sec in W ϑcp,sec in °C Δϑout–in, in °C
V̇ sec in l/min
0.76 0.47 25.0 6.76
0.79 0.42 24.9 6.54
recuperated electrical power Pel remains at an amount of Pel,sec
= 0.07 W, at which the water pump is not starting in the AC-system
with primary and secondary heat path, Fig. 10-2 (b). This is ex-
plainable due to a higher pressure drop Δpsec caused by added
cooling channels inside spacers, compared to the AC-system with
primary heat path. The simulative results of the AC-system with
primary and secondary heat path show that the heat-up continues
steadily and no self-starting of the AC-system is expected, Fig. 10-1/2
(b). To prevent an overheating, a start impulse with an electrical
power P = 2.1 W is given manually at the time t = 652 s by using an
external power supply, Fig. 10-2 (b). Due to the not operating water
pump at the time t < 652 s, the heated coolant is abruptly pumped
out of the cooling channels and leads to a rapid rise of the tem-
perature difference outlet/inlet Δϑout-in,sec, Fig. 10-3 (b). In ac-
cordance to a self-starting process, at the time between
652 s < t ≤ 1700 s the volumetric flow rate V̇ is self-regulated by the
adaptive system characteristics without closed-loop control, Fig. 10-
2 (b). After an evidently required start impulse, the AC-system
reaches a thermal steady state, Fig. 10 (b). With exception of the
temperature difference outlet/inlet Δϑout–in,sec, the amounts of all
parameters are below those of the AC-system with primary
heat path.
Impact of increased thermal resistance of TEG
on the performance of AC-systems
In order to enable a self-starting process of the AC-system with
primary and secondary heat path, even with low induced heat flow
rates Q̇ ind, increasing the recuperated electrical power Pel is a pro-
mising approach. To achieve this, both the usage of TEG with a high
Seebeck coefficient α as well as an increase of the temperature dif-
ference TEG-hot/cold side Δϑh–c is feasible.
In a third measurement series, TEG287 are therefore used,
whose performance parameters are shown in Table 1. TEG287
combines an slightly enhanced Seebeck coefficient α as well as an
significant increased thermal resistance RTEG,m, compared to the al-
ready used TEG199, Table 1. Before conducting a comparative ana-
lysis of the AC-system with both TEG-types, it is essential to assess
the influence of the changed water pump motor regarding the
thermoelectric behaviour. The replacement was unavoidable due to
a defect of the motor with a load resistance RL = 130 Ω, used for all
already presented experimental investigations with TEG199. To
identify a possible influence of a reduced motor load resistance RL
= 44 Ω, simulations with both motors was conducted. The simula-
tively determined data of the relevant parameters are displayed in
Table 3 at the time of t = 1700 s. Both simulations were carried out
for the AC-system with primary and secondary heat path.
As a result, the deviations between the simulated parameters are
found to be negligibly small, Table 3. Therefore, the influence of the
changed water pump motor with deviating load resistances RL re-
garding the thermoelectric behaviour of the AC-system is assessed as
marginal. Thus, an analysis of experimentally determined data of the
AC-system with TEG287 and new pump motor compared to the al-
ready presented results is possible.
For comparative analyses of the AC-system with primary and
secondary heat path and using TEG 287, in the third measurement
100
E. Uhlmann and S. Salein
Fig. 11. Comparison of experimentally and simulatively determined data during starting processes of the AC-system with primary as well as primary and secondary heat path: (a)
Induced heat flow rate Q̇ ind = 1060 W; (b) Induced heat flow rate Q̇ ind = 400 W.
series starting processes at full-load operation and partial-load op-
eration are studied, Fig. 11. The amounts of induced heat flow rates
Q̇ ind remain unchanged compared to Section 5.1. In opposite to the
already discussed Fig. 9 and Fig. 10, in Fig. 11 (a) and Fig. 11 (b) the
resulting data of the AC-system with primary and secondary heat
path are shown.
As a conclusion of the third measurement series, it is revealed
that the integration of TEG287 with high thermal resistance RTEG,m
shows advantages at partial-load operation to realise a self-starting
process, compared to results with TEG199. The thermal behaviour of
the precision related connection plate is assessed as comparable
between the results with TEG287 and TEG199. Using TEG287, the
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CIRP Journal of Manufacturing Science and Technology 39 (2022) 91–103
modified model shows significant deviations by calculating some
parameters. However, the model is capable of simulating the tran-
sient thermoelectric behaviour sufficiently to carry out further
model-based investigations to optimise AC-systems.
Quantification of the global thermal resistance
In order to compare the performance of different configurations
of the AC-system, the global thermal resistance Rgl between the heat
source and the inlet of coolant is considered. As a representing
temperature of the heat source a mean temperature between mea-
sured values of temperature TEG-hot side ϑh,sec and temperature
E. Uhlmann and S. Salein
Table 4
Comparison of temperatures after reaching the thermal steady state and calculated values of the global thermal resistance Rgl at an induced heat flow rate Q̇ ind = 1060 W.
TEG-type 199
Configuration of heat path Primary
Mean temperature ϑme in °C 63.2
between ϑh,sec and ϑsp,sec
Reduction r(ϑme) related to – 24.6%
TEG 199 with primary heat path
Inlet Temp. ϑin in °C 22.2
Global thermal 0.0387
resistance Rgl in K/W
Reduction r(Rgl) related to – 38.1%
TEG 199 with primary heat path
Fig. 12. Visualisation of a revealed optimisation problem regarding an identification of optimised area ratios.
under the spacer ϑsp,sec is determined. To calculate the global
thermal resistance Rgl Eq. (2) is used.
me – in
Rgl =
Q ind
where: Rgl – Global thermal resistance in K/W, ϑme – Mean tem-
perature between temperature TEG-hot side ϑh,sec and temperature
under the spacer ϑsp,sec in °C, ϑin – Coolant inlet temperature in °C.
Based on the experimentally determined temperatures of the AC-
system with primary heat path, a global thermal resistance Rgl
= 0.0387 K/W is calculated. The results show that this amount is
reduced by 38.1% if a secondary heat path is implemented to the AC-
system with TEG199, Table 4. When using TEG287 a reduction of
26.1% compared to the initial configuration with TEG199 is de-
termined. This is assessed as a disadvantage when using TEG287,
because the reduction of the global thermal resistance Rgl represents
the objective of the analysed optimisation measures. Due to cap-
ability to perform a self-starting process even at low induced heat
flow rates Q̇ ind, this configuration is focused for further research
activities in the field of AC-systems with TEG for machine tools.
Identification of further optimisation potentials
The presented investigations were conducted based on an al-
ready existing and unchangeable geometry of the AC-system. The
area ratio ATEG/Atb between the area covered with thermal bridges
Atb and the area covered with TEG ATEG was defined considering
several geometric restrictions caused by the integrated LDA. In ad-
dition, the used TEG-types were preselected based on thermoelectric
characteristics given by the manufacturers. The results show that
these preliminary decisions already yield some advantages
CIRP Journal of Manufacturing Science and Technology 39 (2022) 91–103
199 287
Primary and secondary Primary and secondary
47.6 52.5
16.9%
0.0239 0.0286
26.1%
regarding the thermoelectric behaviour of AC-systems. The pre-
selected TEG and the defined area ratio ATEG/Atb are representing
probably not the optimal solution for the given boundary conditions.
Therefore, the following research question emerges as a result of this
(2)) study:
In order to achieve an optimal performance of the AC-system,
which area ratio ATEG/Atb as well as which thermoelectric char-
acteristics of TEG should be chosen for various boundary conditions?
The resulting optimisation problem is visualised in Fig. 12. Due to
the adaptive system characteristics, the identification of such sweet
spots requires the presented and now validated model. Further re-
search activities to analyse the effects of various area ratios ATEG/Atb
and thermoelectric characteristics of TEG are intended.
Summary
The use of thermoelectricity for demand-oriented cooling of
heat-inducing as well as precision related components of machine
tools is a promising solution approach. In preliminary research ac-
tivities, an Adaptive Cooling (AC)-system for machine tools with linear
direct drives (LDD) has been developed, which uses thermoelectric
generators (TEG) to recuperate parts of the crossing heat flow rate
into electrical energy. The recuperated power Pel is directly fed to a
pump of the water cooling circuit, which self-sufficiently operates a
decentralised cooling system with demand-oriented volumetric flow
rates V̇ of the coolant. Due to the additional thermal resistance RTEG
of TEG in the heat path between the primary part of the LDD as heat
source and a water cooled cold plate, the AC-system shows a high
global thermal resistance Rgl. The objective of this research is to
reduce the global thermal resistance Rgl of the AC-system by di-
viding the induced heat flow rate Q̇ ind into a primary and a
102
E. Uhlmann and S. Salein
secondary heat path. The impact on the thermoelectric system be-
haviour by implementing a primary and secondary heat path is
investigated. The comparison between simulatively and experi-
mentally determined data allows a validation of the derived model.
Compared to the AC-system only with primary heat path as non-
optimised set-up, the determined mean temperature on the upper
surface of the heat source ϑme inside the AC-system with primary and
secondary heat path shows a reduction r(ϑme) = 15.6 K ≙ 24.6% after
reaching thermal steady state. Therefore, the implementation of a
secondary heat path enables a reduction of the global thermal re-
sistance r(Rgl) = 0,0148 K/W ≙ 38.1%. This enables a more effective
dissipation of the induced heat flow rate Q̇ to the coolant. As a fur-
ther result of this optimisation measure, the temperature on the
upper surface of the precision related connection plate ϑcp shows a
reduction r(ϑcp) = 5.5 K ≙ 15.2%. This leads to lowered thermally
caused deformations of the connecting plate, and therefore to a re-
duction of the negative influence regarding a constant positioning
between workpiece and Tool Center Point (TCP). Thus, the intended
objective of the presented investigation is reached. As one dis-
advantage, the temperature difference TEG-hot/cold side Δϑh–c, and
thus the recuperated electrical power Pel as well as the volumetric
flow rate V̇ are significantly reduced compared to the non-optimised
set-up of the AC-system with primary heat path. This is especially
detrimental regarding the capability to perform a self-starting pro-
cess of the AC-system at low induced heat flow rates Q̇ ind. As an
approach to overcome this, TEG with raised thermal resistance RTEG
were used and their impact on the thermoelectric system behaviour
is investigated. The experimentally and simulatively determined
data of this measure show an improved capability to perform a self-
starting process, but also a slightly higher temperature on the upper
surface of the heat source ϑme when reaching thermal steady state as
one disadvantage. Based on these results, an optimisation problem
regarding the geometrical configuration of AC-systems and the
characteristics of integrated TEG is found. Further research efforts
are intended to identify so-called sweet spots with optimised system
variables for various given boundary conditions. The modified and
now validated model shows a sufficient prediction accuracy for this
purpose.
Funding
This research was funded by the German Research Foundation
(DFG). The title of the research project was “Concepts for
energy self-sufficient cooling of linear direct drives”
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing fi-
nancial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
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CIRP Journal of Manufacturing Science and Technology 39 (2022) 91–103
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