CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO POWER QUALITY

1
 INTRODUCTION TO POWER QUALITY

1.1. Introduction

"Power quality" is a term used to describe the most important aspects of the
electricity supply. Both electric utilities and end-users of electrical power are becoming
increasingly concerned with power quality. For the last two decades, the term "power quality"
has become the most commonly used buzzword in the power industry, more so with the rapid

increases in availability and utilization of non-linear loads.

Voltage sags, interruptions, over-voltages, harmonics, long-duration voltage

variations, wiring and grounding are all issues related to power quality. Power quality is
becoming a very important area of research since unreliable electrical supply can have large

economic impact. With the trends of increased densities of integrated circuits that results with
faster processor speeds matched with decreasing costs, increasingly sensitive equipment, and
rapid growth in automation use, the chance of interference occurring will undoubtedly rise unless
appropriate preventive measures are taken.

Apart from those trends, end-users are becoming more concerned on issues
related to power quality. This is due to recurring electrical supply disturbances with associated
damages on electrical equipment as a result of deterioration in the quality of power supply. It has
been seen to have a direct implication to economic losses, especially within the industrial and
commercial consumers; thus the need for solutions to power quality problems grows rapidly and
provides new challenges for engineers within the electrical supply industries.

1.2. Power Quality

Power quality is the concept of powering and grounding sensitive equipment

in a matter that is suitable to the operation of that equipment. Power quality is the combination of
voltage quality and current quality.

2
 Voltage quality concerned with deviations of voltage from the ideal. The ideal
voltage is a single frequency sine wave of constant frequency and constant magnitude.

Current quality is concerned with deviation of current from ideal. The ideal
current is again a single frequency sine wave of constant frequency and constant magnitude.
Thus power quality is concerned with deviations of voltage and/or current from the ideal.

1.3. Types of Power Quality Problems

1.3.1. Transients

These are sub cycle disturbances with a very fast voltage change. They typically
have frequencies often to hundreds of kilohertz and sometimes megahertz. The voltage
excursions range from hundreds to thousands of volts. Transients are also called spikes, impulses
and surges. Two categories of transients are described, impulsive transient and oscillatory
transient. Examples of transients include lightning, electro-static discharge; load switching, line/
cable switching, capacitor bank or transformer energizing and Ferro-resonance.

1.3.2. Long- Duration Voltage Variations

Long-duration variations encompass root-mean-square (rms) deviations at power

frequencies for longer than 1 minute. A voltage variation is considered to be long-duration when
the limits are exceeded for greater than 1 minute. These variations are categorized below:

Over voltage: An over voltage is an increase in the rms voltage greater than 110 percent at
power frequency for duration longer than 1 min. Examples include load switching, incorrect tap
settings on transformers, etc.

Under voltage: An under voltage is a decrease in the rms ac voltage to less than 90 percent at

power frequency for duration longer than 1 minute. Examples include load switching, capacitor

bank switching off, overloaded circuits, etc.

3
Sustained interruptions: These come about when the supply voltage stays at zero longer than 1
min. They are often permanent and require human intervention to repair the system restoration.
Examples include system faults, protection maltrip, operator intervention, etc.

Fig. 1.1 Some types of power quality disturbances

1.3.3. Short- Duration Voltage Variations

Short-duration variations encompass the voltage dips and short interruptions. Each
type of variations can be designated as instantaneous, momentary, or temporary, depending on its
duration these variations can be categorized as:

Interruptions: This occurs when the supply voltage or load current decreases to less than 0.1 pu
for a time not exceeding 1 min. The voltage magnitude is always less than 10 percent of nominal.
Examples include system faults, equipment failures, control malfunctions, etc.

4
Sags (dips): Sag is a decrease to between 0.1 and 0.9 p.u. in rms voltage or current at power
frequency for durations from 0.5 cycle to 1 min. Examples include system faults, energization of
heavy loads, starting of large motors, etc.

Swells: A swell is an increase to between 1.1 and 1.8 p.u. in rms voltage or current at power
frequency for durations from 0.5 cycle to 1 min. Swells are not as common as sags. Sometimes
the term momentary over voltage is used as a synonym for the term swell. Examples include
system faults, switching off heavy loads, energizing a large capacitor bank, etc.

1.3.4. Voltage and Current Imbalance

Unbalance, or three-phase unbalance, is the phenomenon in a three-phase system, in

which the rms values of the voltages or the phase angles between consecutive phases are not
equal. Examples include unbalanced load, large single-phase load, blown fuse in one phase of a
three-phase capacitor bank, etc.

1.3.5. Voltage Fluctuation

The fast variation in voltage magnitude is called “voltage fluctuation”, or “ light

flicker”. Sometimes the term “voltage flicker” is also used. This voltage magnitude ranges from
0.9 to 1.1 p.u. of nominal. One example is an arc furnace.

1.3.6. Power Frequency Variations

Power frequency variations are defined as deviation of the power system

fundamental frequency from its specified nominal value (e.g. 50 or 60Hz). This frequency is
directly related to the rotational speed of the generators supplying the system. There are slight
variations in frequency as the dynamic balance between load and generation changes. The size of
the frequency shift and its duration depends on the load characteristics and the response of the
generation control system to load changes. Examples include faults on transmission system,
disconnection of large load, disconnection of large generator, etc.

1.3.7. Waveform Distortion

5
 Waveform distortion is defined as a steady-state deviation from an ideal sine wave of power
frequency principal characterized by the spectral content of the deviation. Three types of
waveform distortion are listed below:

Harmonics: These are steady-state sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies that are
integer multiples of the fundamental frequency. Harmonic distortion originates in the nonlinear
characteristics of devices and loads on the power system. Examples include computers; fax
machines, UPS systems, Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs), etc.

Inter harmonics: These are voltages and currents having frequency components which are not
integer multiples of the fundamental frequency. Examples include static frequency converters,
cyclo-converters, induction motors and arcing devices.

Noise: This is unwanted electrical signals with broadband spectral content lower than 200 kHz
superimposed on system voltage or current in phase conductors, or found on neutral conductors
or signal lines. Examples include power electronics applications, control circuits, solid-state
rectifiers, switching power supplies, etc.

1.4. Causes of Power Quality Variations

The main causes of poor power quality come from the customers themselves (internal),
generated from one customer that may impact other customers (neighbors), and also from the
utility. Neighbors here include those in separate buildings near the customer and separate
businesses under the same roof such as a small business park. The types and causes of power
quality variations are as follows.

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 Table 1.1 Internal Causes of Power Quality Variations

Type Cause

Small lightning strikes at low voltage levels (e.g.500V) can disrupt

or damage electronic equipment. Reactive loads turning on and off
Transient
generate spikes. Poor connections in the wiring system lead to
arcing-caused transients. Switching of power electronics devices.

Long- Over- and under-voltages are caused by load variations on the

duration system. Overloaded circuits results in under voltages. Sustained
voltage interruptions are caused by lightning strikes.
variations

Short- Sags and swells occurs whenever there is a sudden change in the
duration load current or voltage. Sags result when a load turns on suddenly
voltage (e.g. starting of large motors). Sags do not directly cause damage but
variations initiate problems indirectly. Swells caused by the sudden turning off
of loads can easily damage user equipment.

Current distortion affects the power system and distribution

equipment. Overheating and failure in transformer and high neutral
currents are some direct problems. Current harmonics may excite
Waveform resonant frequencies in the system, which can cause extremely high
distortions harmonic voltages to damage equipment. Nonlinear loads (e.g.
Variable frequency drives, induction motors, and power electronics
components) cause voltage distortions, which can cause motor to
overheat and vibrate excessively, resulting in damage to the shaft of
motors. Components in computers may also be damaged. Electrical

7
 noise indirectly causes damage and loss of product Process control
equipment and telecommunications are sensitive to such noise.

Table 1.2 Neighboring Causes of Power Quality Variations

Type Cause and effect

Transients are generated from the switching of loads. In situations

where multiple, separate businesses share wiring or other parts of the
Transient
power system, arcing-based transients are possible. Reactive loads,
regardless of light or heavy motors, generate spikes.

Long Changing currents interact with the system impedance. Loads in the
Short neighbor’s facility must be large and changing enough to affect the
duration voltage feeding the customer’s facility or office. If shared wiring is
voltage present, then even simple devices may cause similar concerns.
variations Overloading may be the cause as well.

If a customer’s neighbors draw large amount of distorted current, this

current will subsequently distort the utility supply voltage, which is
Wavefor
then fed back to the customer. Hence, loads within the customer’s
m
business are subjected to potential problems.
distortion

8
 Table 1.3 Utility Causes of Power Quality Variations

Type Cause

The most common causes of transients come from lightning surges.

Other causes include capacitor bank energization, transformer
Transient
energization, system faults

Long- These voltage variations are the result of load switching (e.g. switching
duration on/off a large load, or on/off a capacitor bank). Incorrect tap settings on
voltage transformers can also cause system over voltages. Overloaded circuits
variations can result in under voltages as well.

Short These variations are caused by fault conditions, energization of large

duration loads that require high starting currents, or intermittent loose
voltage connections in power wiring. Delayed reclosing of protective devices
variations may cause momentary or temporary interruptions.

Voltage Primary source of voltage unbalance is unbalanced load (thus current

and unbalance). This is due to an uneven spread of single-phase, low voltage
current customers over the three phases, but more commonly due to a large
imbalance single-phase load. Three-phase unbalance can also result because of
capacitor bank anomalies, such as a blown fuse in one phase of a three-
phase bank.

Power The frequency of the supply voltage is not constant. This frequency
frequency variation is due to unbalance between load and generation. Short circuits

9
variation also contribute to this variation.

CHAPTER 2

DISTRIBUTION STATIC
COMPENSATOR (DSTATCOM)

10
 DISTRIBUTION STATIC COMPENSATOR (DSTATCOM)

2.1. Application of power electronic devices in power transmission system

The rapid development of power electronics technology provides exciting opportunities

to develop new power system equipment for better utilization of existing systems. Since 1990, a
number of devices under the term FACTS (flexible AC transmission systems) technology have
been proposed and implemented. FACTS devices can be effectively used for power flow control,
load sharing among parallel corridors, voltage regulation, and enhancement of transient stability
and mitigation of system oscillations. By giving additional flexibility, FACTS controllers can
enable a line to carry power close to its thermal rating. Mechanical switching has to be
supplemented by rapid response power electronics. It may be noted that FACTS is enabling
technology, and not a one-on-one substitute for mechanical switches.

FACTS employ high speed thyristor for switching in or out transmission line
components such as capacitors, reactors or phase shifting transformers for desirable performance
of systems. The FACTS technology is not a single high power controller, but rather a collection
of controllers, which can be applied individually or in coordination with others to control one or
more of system parameters. it started with the high voltage DC current (HVDC) transmission,
static VAR compensator (SVC) systems were employed later for the reactive power
compensation of power transmission lines . Subsequently, devices like thyristor controlled series
compensator (TCSC), static compensator (STATCOM), static synchronous series compensator
(SSSC), unified power flow controller (UPFC) were proposed and installed under the generic
name of flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS) controllers.

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2.2. Principle and Operation of Converters

The switching converter forms the heart of the FACTS controllers. Controllable
reactive power can be generated by the DC to AC switching converters which are switched in
synchronism with the line voltage with which the reactive power is exchanged. A switching
power converter consists of an array of solid state switches which connect the input terminals to
the output terminals. It has no internal storage and so the instantaneous input and output power
are equal. Further the input and output terminations are complementary, that is, if the input is
terminated by a voltage source (charged capacitor or battery), output is a current source (which
means a voltage source having an inductive impedance) and vice versa. Thus, the converter can
be voltage sourced (shunted by a capacitor or battery) or current sourced (shunted by an
inductor).

Fig 2.1 Operation of converter

Single line diagram of basic voltage sourced converter scheme for reactive power
generation is shown in fig2.1 for reactive power flow bus voltage V and converter terminal
voltage V0 are in phase.

Then on per phase basis

I= (V- V0) / X (Eq. 1.1)

The reactive power exchange is

12
 Q = VI = V (V- V0) / X (Eq. 1.2)

The switching circuit is capable of adjusting V0, the output voltage of the converter. For
V0 < V, I lags V and Q drawn from the bus is inductive, while for V 0 >V, I leads V and Q drawn
from the bus is leading. Reactive power drawn can be easily and smoothly varied by adjusting V 0
by changing the on time of the solid state solid state switches. It is to be noted that the
transformer leakage reactance is quite small, which means that a small difference in of voltage
(V- V0) causes the required I and Q flow. Thus the converter acts as the static synchronous
condenser or VAR generator. As the converter draws only reactive power, the real power drawn
from the capacitor is zero. Also at DC (zero frequency) the capacitor doesn’t change and the
capacitor establishes only a voltage level for the converter.

2.3. FACTS Controllers

The development of FACTS controllers has followed two different approaches. The first
approach employs reactive impedances or a tap changing transformer with thyristor switches as
the controlled elements, the second approach employs self commutated static converters as
voltage sources. In general these are three categories.

 in series with the power system (series compensation)

 in shunt with the power system (shunt compensation)
 both in series and in shunt with the power system
2.4. Shunt Controller

This may be variable impedance, variable source or combination of these. All shunt
controllers inject current into the system at the point of connection. Combined series-series
controllers can be combination of separate series controllers which are controlled in a
coordinated manner. Combined series and shunt controllers either controlled in coordinated
manner as in fig. or a unified power flow controller with series and shunt elements as in fig. for a
unified controller there can be real power exchange between the series and shunt controllers via
dc power link.Tasks of dynamic shunt compensation:

 Steady state and dynamic voltage control

 Reactive power control of dynamic loads

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  Damping of active power oscillations
 Improvement of system stability

2 . 4 . 1 . S t at i c V A R C om p e n s a t o r ( S V C )

Shunt-connected Static Var Compensators (SVCs) are used extensively to control the
AC voltage in transmission networks. Power electronic equipment, such as the thyristor
controlled reactor (TCR) and the thyristor switched capacitor (TSC) have gained a significant
market, primarily because of well-proven robustness to supply dynamic reactive power with fast
response time and with low maintenance. With the advent of high power gate turn-off thyristors
and transistor devices (GTO, IGBT, …) a new generation of power electronic equipment,
STATCOM, shows great promise for application in power systems .Installation of a large
number of SVCs and experience gained from recent STATCOM projects throughout the world
motivates us to clarify certain aspects of these devices.

Fig.2.2 Static Var Compensator

14
 Fig 2.2 shows a schematic diagram of a static var compensator. The compensator
normally includes a thyristor controlled reactor (TCR), thyristor-switched capacitors (TSCs) and
harmonic filters. It might also include mechanically switched shunt capacitors (MSCs), and then
the term static var system is used. The harmonic filters (for the TCR-produced harmonics) are
capacitive at fundamental frequency. The TCR is typically larger than the TSC blocks so that
continuous control is realized. Other possibilities are fixed capacitors (FCs), and thyristor
switched reactors (TSRs). Usually a dedicated transformer is used, with the compensator
equipment at medium voltage. The transmission side voltage is controlled, and the Mvar ratings
are referred to the transmission side.

2.4.2. Static compensator (STATCOM)

STATCOM systems essentially consist of a DC voltage source behind self

commutated inverters using insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), gate turn-off (GTO), or gate
commutated turn-off (GCT) thyristors and an interconnecting transformer. The voltage source
inverter set connects to the power system via a multi-winding or two winding inverter
transformer, depending upon the application. The figure on the top shows the basic STATCOM
configuration. The inverter and DC voltage source can be modeled as a variable voltage source,
as shown in the equivalent circuit (bottom figure). The power system also can be modeled as a
voltage source. An inductor representing the leakage reactance of the transformer connects the
two voltage sources. The output voltage phase of the thyristor-based inverter, V i, is controlled in
the same way as the system voltage, Vs. The compact design of STATCOM systems takes up
approximately 1/3 the area and 1/5 the volume of conventional static var compensation (SVC)
systems.

15
 Fig.2.3 Static Compensator (STATCOM)

2.5. Power Electronic Applications in Distribution System

The flexible ac transmission technology allows a greater a control of power flow.

Since these devices provide very fast power swing damping, the power transmission lines can be
securely loaded up to their thermal limits. In a similar way power electronic devices can be
applied to the power distribution systems to increase the reliability and quality of power supplied
to the customers. The technology of the application of power electronics to the power
distribution system for the benefit of a customer or group of customers is called CUSTOM
POWER (CP) since through this technology the utilities can supply value added power to these
specific customers. Other applications of power electronics are to improve the power quality to
general customers in a region.

Custom power provides an integrated solution to the present problems that are faced
by the utilities and power distributors. Through this technology the reliability of the power
delivered can be improved in terms of reduced interruptions and reduced voltage variations. The
proper use of this technology will benefit all the industrial, commercial and domestic customers.

The compensating devices used for active filtering, load balancing, power factor
correction and voltage regulation. The active filters, which eliminate harmonic currents, can be
connected in both shunt and series. However, the shunt filters are more popular than the series

16
filters because of their ease of protection. Some of these devices are used as load compensators
and some others are operated to provide balanced, harmonic free voltage to the customers. The
family of compensating devices has the following members

1. Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR)

2. Distributed Static Compensator (DSTATCOM)
3. Unified Power Quality Conditioner (UPQC)

2.5.1. Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR)

The DVR mitigates voltage sags by injecting a compensating voltage into the
power system in synchronous real time. The DVR is a high-speed switching power electronic
converter that consists of an energy storage system that feeds three independent single-phase
pulse width modulated (PWM) inverters. As shown in Fig.2.4.1, the energy storage system for
the DVR is a dc capacitor bank, which is interfaced to the PWM inverters by using a boost
converter (dc to dc). The boost converter regulates the voltage across the dc link capacitor that
serves as a common voltage source for the PWM inverters. The three voltage source single-phase
PWM inverters (dc to ac) synthesize the appropriate voltage waveform as determined by the
DVR’s digital control system. This compensating voltage waveform is injected into the power
system through three single-phase series injection transformers. The DVR control system
compares the input voltage to an adaptive reference signal and injects voltage so that the output
voltage remains within specifications (e.g.1 per unit).

17
 Fig. 2.4 Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR)
Under normal operating conditions (no sag), the DVR injects only a small voltage to
compensate for the series reactance of the injection transformers and device losses. During sag,
the DVR control system calculates and synthesizes the voltage required to maintain the output
voltage and injects this voltage in synchronous real time.

2.5.2. Distributed static compensator (DSTATCOM)

The Distribution Static Compensator (DSTATCOM) is a voltage source inverter

based static compensator (similar in many respects to the DVR) that is used for the correction of
bus voltage sags. Connection (shunt) to the distribution network is via a standard power
distribution transformer. The DSTATCOM is capable of generating continuously variable
inductive or capacitive shunt compensation at a level up its maximum MVA rating. The
DSTATCOM continuously checks the line waveform with respect to a reference ac signal, and
therefore, it can provide the correct amount of leading or lagging reactive current compensation
to reduce the amount of voltage fluctuations. The major components of a DSTATCOM are

18
shown in Fig. 2.5. It consists of a dc capacitor, one or more inverter modules, an ac filter, a
transformer to match the inverter output to the line voltage, and a PWM control strategy. In this
DSTATCOM implementation, a voltage-source inverter converts a dc voltage into a three-phase
ac voltage that is synchronized with, and connected to, the ac line through a small tie reactor and
capacitor (ac filter).

Fig.2.5 Block diagram of DSTATCOM circuit

2 . 6 DSTATCOM Components

DSTATCOM involves mainly four parts. They are,

2.6.1. IGBT based dc-to-ac inverters

These inverters are used which create an output voltage wave that’s controlled in
magnitude and phase angle to produce either leading or lagging reactive current, depending on
the compensation required.

19
 Fig. 2.6 An IGBT based Voltage Source Converter

2.6.2. Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM) generator

For each arm of the VSC shown in Fig. 2.6 pulses are generated by PWM generator.
It compares a triangular carrier waveform to a reference modulating signal as shown in Fig. 2.7.
The modulating signals can be generated by the PWM generator itself. Three reference signals
are needed to generate the pulses for a three-phase, single or double bridge. The reference signals
used here are three-phase sinusoidal signals. These are generated by controller circuit. The
output of PWM generator is given by:

When Va0> VT T+ on; T- off; Va0 = ½Vd, and (Eq. 2.1)

when Va0 < VT T- on; T+ off; Va0 = -½Vd (Eq. 2.2)

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 Fig. 2.7 Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM) technique

2.6.3. L-C filter

The LC filter is used which reduces harmonics and matches inverter output
impedance to enable multiple parallel inverters to share current. The LC filter is chosen in
accordance with the type of the system and the harmonics present at the output of the inverter.

2.6.4. Control block

Control block is used which switch Pure Wave DSTATCOM modules as required.
They can control external devices such as mechanically switched capacitor banks too. These
control blocks are designed based on the various control theories and algorithms like
instantaneous PQ theory, synchronous frame theory etc.. All these different algorithms are
discussed in the next chapter.

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2.7. Principle of DSTATCOM of Voltage Regulation

2.7.1. Voltage Regulation without Compensator

Fig. 2.8 Equivalent Circuit of Load and Supply System

Fig.2.9 Phasor diagram of Uncompensated Line

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 Fig 2.10 Phasor diagram of the compensated line
As shown in Fig 2.8 voltage E and V mean source voltage and PCC voltage respectively.
Without a voltage compensator, the PCC voltage drop caused by the load current, IL is given by:

∆V = E -V = ZSIL (Eq. 2.3)

S = VI*, S*= V*I (Eq. 2.4)

From above equation

I=
L (P L−
V
jQ L
) (Eq. 2.5)

ΔV = ( R + j X )( P −VjQ )
S S
L L

So that,

= (R P S L−

V
XSQ L
) (X P
+J
S L+

V
RS Q L
)
=Δ V R+ Δ V X
(Eq. 2.6)

The voltage change has a component ∆V R in phase with V and a component ∆V x, in

quadrature with V, which are illustrated in Fig. 2.9, it is clear that both magnitude and phase of

23
V, relative to the supply voltage E, are the functions of magnitude and phase of load current, i.e.
voltage drop depends on the both the real and reactive power of the load. The component ∆V can

be written as,
ΔV=ISRS+ j ISXS (Eq. 2.7)

2.7.2. Voltage Regulation using DSTATCOM

Fig. 2.10 shows the vector diagram with voltage compensation. By adding a

compensator in parallel with the load, it is possible to make |E|=|V| by controlling the current of
the compensator.

I =I +I
S L R (Eq. 2.8)
Where, IR is compensator current.

2.8. Basic Operating Principle

Basic operating principle of a DSATCOM is similar to that of synchronous

machine. The synchronous machine will provide lagging current when under excited and leading
current when over excited.
DSTATCOM can generate and absorb reactive power similar to that of
synchronous machine and it can also exchange real power if provided with an external device
DC source.

Exchange of reactive power

If the load voltage is greater than the system voltage then the DSATCOM will act
as capacitor and generate reactive power (i.e. provide lagging current to the system).
Exchange of real power
As the switching devices are not lossless there is a need for the DC capacitor to
provide the required real power to the switches. Hence there is a need for real power exchange
with an AC system to make the capacitor voltage constant in case of direct voltage control. There
is also a real power exchange with the AC system if DSTATCOM is provided with an external
DC source to regulate the voltage incase of very low voltage in the distribution system or in case

24
of faults and if the load voltage leads the system voltage, then the real power from the capacitor
or the DC source will be supplied to the AC system to regulate the system voltage.
Hence, the exchange of real power and reactive power of the voltage source
converter with AC system is the major required phenomenon for the regulation in the
transmission as well as in the distribution system.

CHAPTER 3

DECOUPLED CURRENT CONTROL

ALGORITHM

25
 DECOUPLED CURRENT CONTROL ALGORITHM

3.1 Introduction

For reactive power compensation, DSTATCOM provides reactive power as needed

by the load and therefore the source current remains at unity power factor (UPF). Since only real
power is being supplied by the source, load balancing is achieved by making the source reference
current balanced. The reference source current used to decide the switching of the DSTATCOM
has real fundamental frequency component of the load current which is being extracted by these
techniques.
A STATCOM at the transmission level handles only fundamental reactive
power and provides voltage support while as a DSTATCOM is employed at the distribution level
or at the load end for power factor improvement and voltage regulation. DSTATCOM can be one
of the viable alternatives to SVC in a distribution network. Additionally, a DSTATCOM can also
behave as a shunt active filter, to eliminate unbalance or distortions in the source current or the
supply voltage. Since a DSTATCOM is such a multifunctional device, the main objective of any
control algorithm should be to make it flexible and easy to implement in addition to exploiting its
multi functionality to the maximum.
The main objective of any compensation scheme is that it should have a fast
response, flexible and easy to implement. The control algorithms of a DSTATCOM are mainly
implemented in the following steps:

 Measurements of system voltages and current and

 signal conditioning

26
  Calculation of compensating signals
 Generation of firing angles of switching devices
Generation of proper PWM firing is the most important part of DSTATCOM control
and has a great impact on the compensation objectives, transient as well as steady state
performance. Since a DSTATCOM shares many concepts to that of a STATCOM at
transmission level, a few control algorithms have been directly implemented to a DSTATCOM,
incorporating Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) switching.

3.2. Decoupled Current Control (P-Q theory)

3.2.1. Rotating Transformation

The dq0 transformation is a transformation of coordinates from the three-phase
stationary coordinate system to the dq0 rotating coordinate system. This transformation is made
in two steps:
1) A transformation from the three-phase stationary coordinate system to the two-phase, so
called αβ0, stationary coordinate system and
2) A transformation from the αβ0 stationary coordinate system to the dq0 rotating coordinate
system.
These steps are shown in Fig. 3.1 representation of a vector in any n-dimensional space
is accomplished through the product of a transpose n-dimensional vector (base) of coordinate
units and a vector representation of the vector, whose elements are corresponding projections on
each coordinate axis, normalized by their unit values. In three phase (three dimensional) space, it
looks like this:

(Eq. 3.1)

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 Assuming a balanced three-phase system (xo= 0), a three-phase vector representation
transforms to dq0 vector representation (zero-axis component is 0) through the transformation
matrix T, defined as:

(Eq. 3.2)

In other words, the transformation from three-phase coordinates to dq0 rotating

coordinates, called Park’s transformation, is obtained through the multiplication of the vector
Xabc by the matrix T.

Where,

(Eq. 3.3)

(Eq. 3.4 )

(Eq. 3.5)

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 Fig. 3.1 Park’s transformation
The inverse transformation matrix (from dq_to_abc) is defined as,

(Eq. 3.5)

The inverse transformation is calculated as

(Eq. 3.6)

3.2.2. P-Q Theory

This algorithm requires the measurement of instantaneous values of three phase

voltage and current. Fig.3.2 shows the block diagram representation of the control scheme. The
compensation is achieved by the control of Id and Iq. Using the definition of the instantaneous
reactive power theory for a balanced three phase three wire system, the quadrature component of

29
the voltage is always zero, the real (P) and the reactive power (Q) injected into the system by the
DSTATCOM can be expressed under the d-q reference frame as

P=VdId+VqIq (Eq. 3.7)

Q=VqId -VdIq (Eq. 3.8)

Transformation of three phase system to synchronously roatating reference frame

using Park’s transformation, and letting d-axis lay on the space vector of system voltage Vs,
always gives Vq=0. Therefore, real(P) and reactive power(Q) injected into the system by the
DSTATCOM can be expressed as

P=VdId (Eq. 3.9)

Q= -VdIq (Eq. 3.10)

From the above expressions, I d and Iq completely describe the instantaneous value
of real and reactive powers produced by the DSTATCOM when the system voltage remains
constant. Therefore the instantaneous three phase current measured is transformed by
abc_to_dqo transformation.

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 Fig. 3.2 Block Diagram of Decoupled Theory based control of DSTATCOM

The decoupled d-axis component Id and q axis component Iq are regulated by two separate PI
regulators. The instantaneous Id reference and the instantaneous Iq reference are obtained by the
control of the dc voltage and the ac terminal voltage measured. Thus, instantaneous current
tracking control is achieved using four PI regulators.

A Phase Locked Loop (PLL) is used to synchronize the control loop to the ac
supply so as to operate in the abc_to_dqo reference frame.

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 CHAPTER 4

SIMULATION OF TEST SYSTEM

SIMULATION OF TEST SYSTEM

4.1. Introduction to MATLAB
MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates
computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems and
solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation. Typical uses include

 Math and computation

32
  Algorithm development
 Data acquisition
 Modeling, simulation, and prototyping
 Data analysis, exploration, and visualization
 Scientific and engineering graphics

MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not
require dimensioning. This allows solving many technical computing problems, especially those
with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it would take to write a program in
a scalar non-interactive language such as C or FORTRAN.

4.2. MATLAB/SIMULINK tools

4.2.1. Three Phase Source Block

Fig 4.1 Three Phase Source Block

The Three-Phase Source block implements a balanced three-phase voltage source with
internal R-L impedance. The three voltage sources are connected in Y with a neutral connection
that can be internally ground.

4.2.2. V-I measurement block

Fig 4.2 V-I measurement block

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 The Three-Phase V-I Measurement block is used to measure three-phase voltages
and currents in a circuit. When connected in series with three-phase elements, it returns the three
phase-to-ground or phase-to-phase voltages and the three line currents

4.2.3. Scope

Fig 4.3 Scope

Display signals generated during a simulation. The Scope block displays its input
with respect to simulation time. The Scope block can have multiple axes (one per port); all axes
have a common time range with independent y-axes. The Scope allows you to adjust the amount
of time and the range of input values displayed. You can move and resize the Scope window and
you can modify the Scope's parameter values during the simulation

4.2.4. Three-Phase Series RLC Load

Fig 4.4 Three-Phase Series RLC Load

The Three-Phase Series RLC Load block implements a three-phase balanced load
as a series combination of RLC elements. At the specified frequency, the load exhibits constant
impedance. The active and reactive powers absorbed by the load are proportional to the square of
the applied voltage.

4.2.5. Three-Phase Breaker block

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 Fig 4.5 Three-Phase Breaker block

The Three-Phase Breaker block implements a three-phase circuit breaker where

the opening and closing times can be controlled either from an external Simulink signal or from
an internal control signal.

4.2.6. Gain block

Fig 4.6 Gain block

The Gain block multiplies the input by a constant value (gain). The input and the
gain can each be a scalar, vector, or matrix.

4.2.7. Universal Bridge

Fig 4.7 Universal Bridge

The Universal Bridge block implements a universal three-phase power converter,

that consists of up to six power switches connected in a bridge configuration. The type of power-
switch and converter configuration are selectable from the dialog box. The Universal Bridge
block allows simulation of converters using both naturally commutated (or line-commutated)
power electronic devices (diodes or thyristors) and forced-commutated devices (GTO, IGBT,

35
and MOSFET). The Universal Bridge block is the basic block for building two-level voltage-
sourced converters (VSC).

4.2.8. Discrete PWM Generator

Fig 4.8 Discrete PWM Generator

The PWM Generator block generates pulses for carrier-based pulse width
modulation (PWM) converters using two-level topology. The block can be used to fire the
forced-commutated devices (FETs, GTOs, or IGBTs) of single-phase, two-phase, three-phase,
two-level bridges or a combination of two three-phase bridges.

4.2.9. abc_to_dq0 transformation block

Fig 4.9 abc_to_dq0 transformation block

The abc_to_dq0 Transformation block computes the direct axis, quadratic axis, and
zero sequence quantities in a two-axis rotating reference frame for a three-phase sinusoidal
signal.

4.2.10. dq0_to_abc transformation block

Fig 4.10 dq0_to_abc transformation block

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 The dq0_to_abc Transformation block performs the reverse of the so-called Park
transformation, which is commonly used in three-phase electric machine models. It transforms
three quantities (direct axis, quadratic axis, and zero-sequence components) expressed in a two-
axis reference frame back to phase quantities.

4.2.11. Terminator

Fig 4.11 Terminator

The Terminator block can be used to cap blocks whose output ports are not connected
to other blocks. If you run a simulation with blocks having unconnected output ports, Simulink
issues warning messages. Using Terminator blocks to cap those blocks avoids warning messages.

4.2.12. Constant

Fig 4.12 Constant

The Constant block generates a real or complex constant value. The block generates
scalar (1x1 2-D array), vector (1-D array), or matrix (2-D array) output, depending on the
dimensionality of the Constant value parameter and the setting of the Interpret vector parameters
as 1-D parameter

4.3. Test System

4.3.1. Main Power System Network
Fig 4.13shows the main power system network without DSTATCOM. The
test system comprises a 25 KV, 100 MVA, 60 Hz substation, represented by a thevenin’s
equivalent, feeding a distribution network. A fixed load is connected to the distribution line and a

37
heavy inductive and capacitive load is connected to the system to study the performance of the
DSTATCOM

Fig 4.13 Test System without DSTATCOM

4.3.2. DSATCOM Circuit

A VSC based DSTATCOM is connected at the load side to provide

instantaneous voltage support at the load point as shown in Fig. 4.14.The DSTATCOM circuit
connected in shunt with the system through a 25 KV/2 KV, Yg/ ∆, transformer

The main aim of the DSATCOM is to provide voltage regulation at

the load point. Compensation capacity of the DSTATCOM is ± 5 MVar. The DSTATCOM
circuit comprises an IGBT based voltage source inverter and a DC capacitor of 10,000 µF as the
DC source with a capacity of 5 MVA is connected in shunt with the system through a
transformer of 25 KV/2 KV as shown in the figure.

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 Fig 4.14 Test system with DSTATCOM

The DC capacitor should charge up to a voltage of 4000 V in order to invert

into an ac voltage of 2000 KV as the line-line rms voltage is given by

V LL = 0.612MaVd

Where,

V LL= Output Ac voltage,

Ma= Amplitude Modulation ratio,

V d = Input DC voltage

A filter circuit is connected at the output of the DSTATCOM circuit to

eliminate the harmonics produced during switching. The reference PWM signals are given to the
PWM generator to generate PWM pulses for the inverter.

4.4. MATLAB Implementation

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4.4.1. Main Power System Network

The test system model developed using power system blockset

(MATLAB/SIMULINK) is allowed to run for a period of .4 seconds. A fixed inductive load is
always connected to the network. The increase (swell) or decrease (sag) in voltage is developed
in .2-.3 sec by the addition of capacitive or inductive loads in the circuit by the use of circuit
breakers. Simulations are carried out for both the cases where the DSTATCOM is connected into
the system and not.

Fig 4.15 MATLAB based model of Test System

40
 5.1.2 DSATCOM circuit:

4.4.2. DSATCOM Circuit

Fig 4.16 shows the sub circuit of the DSTATCOM circuit. The control signals
generated by control circuit are fed to the discrete PWM generator to generate appropriate pulses
to trigger the inverter.

41
 Fig 4.16 MATLAB based model of DSTATCOM circuit

Output of the inverter is connected to a filter circuit to reduce harmonic

content in the output voltage. Here, filter used is harmonic LC filter, and is connected in shunt
with the system through the transformer.

4.4.3. Control Circuit

Fig 4.17 shows the control circuit based on decoupled control algorithm.

42
 Fig 4.17 MATLAB based model of Control Circuit

Rms value of system voltage is compared with nominal voltage (i.e. 1 p.u.)
to produce the reference d-axis component of current. DC voltage of capacitor is compared with
reference I p.u. value to produce quadrature axis component of DSTATCOM current. Actual
values of dq components of current are compared with these reference values to produce
reference signals to PWM generator and are transformed into inverse dq transformation (i.e.
dq0_to_abc).

4.5. System Parameters

Supply Voltage 25 KV

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Fundamental Frequency 60 Hz

Filter Inductance 600 µH

Filter Resistance .67 Ω

Filter Capacitance 120µF

DC capacitance 10000 µF

Reference DC link voltage 4 KV

Fixed RL load P=1 MW, Q=.5Mvar

DSTATCOM (turn on time) .02 sec

Load values for voltage sag

Variable RL load(turned on at .2 sec-.3 sec and P=10 MW, Q= 5 Mvar

RC load turned off)
Amount of voltage sag .89 P.U i.e. 11℅ decrease from nominal value

Load values for voltage swell

Variable RC load(turned on at .2 sec-.3 sec P=2 MW, Q= 20Mvar

and RL load turned off)
Amount of voltage swell 1.22 P.U i.e. 22℅ increase from nominal value

Table 5.1 System parameters

44
 CHAPTER 5

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

45
5.1. Simulation Results
5.1.1. Voltage Sag
Voltage sag is created by applying heavy inductive load (i.e. by closing the circuit breaker
BIL) from .2 seconds to .3 seconds and response is shown in Fig 5.1. At the first cycle breaker
BDL is closed (i.e. DSTATCOM is included in the circuit) and response is shown in Fig. 5.2

Case 1: Without Compensation

Fig 5.1 Load voltage with inductive load with uncompensated line

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Case 2: With Compensation

Fig 5.2 Load voltage with inductive load with compensated line

5.1.2. Voltage Swell

47
 Voltage swell is created by applying heavy capacitive load (i.e. by closing circuit breaker
BCL) from.2seconds to .3 seconds and response is shown in Fig. 5.3. At the first cycle breaker
BDL is closed (i.e. DSTATCOM is included in the circuit) and response is shown in Fig 5.4

Case 1: Without Compensation

Fig 6.4 Load voltage with capacitive load with uncompensated line

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Case 2: With Compensation

Fig 5.4 Load voltage with capacitive load with uncompensated line

5.2. CONCLUSIONS

49
 Different types of power quality problems and their causes are explained. A new
generation of power electronic based equipment called Distribution Static Compensator
(DSTATCOM) is introduced and its operating principle is explained.

Decoupled current control algorithm for DSTATCOM is described and

DSTATCOM is designed for mitigation of voltage sags/swells that are caused due to increase in
inductive and capacitive load respectively. A 25 KV, 100MVA, 60 Hz substation system is
assumed to study the performance of DSTATCOM under voltage sags/swells condition.

Through detailed simulation studies using MATLAB/SIMULINK, it has been found

that DSTATCOM can compensate the voltage against voltage sags/swells and can enhance the
quality of power flow in low voltage distribution system.

50
 REFERENCES

1. Deepika Masand, Shailendra Jain and Gayatri Agnihotri and Maulana Azad, “Control

Algorithms for Distribution Static Compensator,” IEEE ISIE 2006, July 9-12, 2006.

2. Jovitha Jerome and R. Subha, “Power Quality Enhancement in Distribution System

(DSTATCOM) “, IIT, MADRAS 600 036 DEC. 27-30.
3. N. G. Hingorani and L. Gyugyi, “Understanding FACTS, Concepts and Technology of
Flexible AC Transmission Systems,” IEEE press, first Indian edition,2001
4. Math H. J. Bollen, “Understanding Power Quality Problems, Voltage sags and
interruptions”, IEEE press, first Indian edition, 2001.
5. J. Sun, D. Czarkowski and Z. Zabar, ”Voltage Flicker Mitigation Using PWM-Based
Distribution STATCOM,” IEEE Trans., 2002
6. Sung-Min Woo, Dae-wook Kang, Woo-Chol Lee and Dong-Seok Hyun, “The
Distribution STATCOM for Reducing Effect of Voltage Sag and Swell,” IEEE, 2001.
7. Bhim Singh andJitendrs Solanki, “A Comparison of Control Algorithms for
DSTATCOM,” IEEE Trans. on Industrial Electronics, Vol. 56, No. 7, July 2009.

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