College of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering

Department of Electrical Engineering

EE-260 : Electrical Machine

Week # 12

Synchronous Generators

Instructor: Dr Sarmad Majeed Malik

Class: 40EE
1
Problem
Solution
 Reading Assignment
4.5 INDUCED TORQUE IN AN AC MACHINE
 AC machine power flows and losses
The efficiency of an AC machine is defined as

Since the difference between the input and output powers of a machine is due
to the losses occurring inside it, the efficiency is

Losses occurring in an AC machine can be divided into four categories:

1. Electrical or Copper losses
These losses are resistive heating losses that occur in the stator (armature)
winding and in the rotor (field) winding of the machine. For a 3-phase machine,
the stator copper losses and synchronous rotor copper losses are:
 AC machine power flows and losses
2. Core Losses
These losses are the hysteresis losses and eddy current losses. They vary as B 2
(flux density) and as n1.5 (speed of rotation of the magnetic field).
3. Mechanical losses
There are two types of mechanical losses: friction (friction of the bearings) and
windage (friction between the moving parts of the machine and the air inside the
casing). These losses are often lumped together and called the no-load rotational
loss of the machine. They vary as the cube of rotation speed n 3.

4. Stray (miscellaneous) losses

These are the losses that cannot be classified in any of the previous categories.
They are usually due to inaccuracies in modeling. For many machines, stray
losses are assumed as 1% of full load.
The power-flow diagram
Synchronous Generators
 Synchronous Generator Construction
•Synchronous generators or alternators are synchronous machines used to convert
mechanical power to ac electric power.
•In a synchronous generator, a dc current is applied to the rotor winding, which
produces a rotor magnetic field.
•The rotor of the generator is then turned by a prime mover, producing a rotating
magnetic field within the machine.
•Two terms commonly used to describe the windings on a machine are field windings
and armature windings.
•the term "field windings" applies to the windings that produce the main magnetic
field in a machine.
•the term "armature windings" applies to the windings where the main voltage is
induced.
•For synchronous machines, the field windings are on the rotor, so the terms "rotor
windings" and " field windings" are used interchangeably.
•Similarly, the terms "stator windings" and "armature windings" are used
interchangeably.
 Synchronous Generator Construction
•The rotor of a synchronous generator is essentially a large electromagnet.
•The magnetic poles on the rotor can be of either salient or nonsalient construction.
•Salient pole is a magnetic pole that sticks out from the surface of the rotor.
•Nonsalient pole is a magnetic pole constructed flush with the surface of the rotor.
 Synchronous Generator Construction
•Nonsalient-pole rotors are normally used for two- and four-pole rotors, while salient-
pole rotors are normally used for rotors with four or more poles.
•Because the rotor is subjected to changing magnetic fields, it is constructed of thin
laminations to reduce eddy current losses.
•A dc current must be supplied to the field circuit on the rotor.
•Since the rotor is rotating, a special arrangement is required to get the dc power to its
field windings. There are two common approaches to supplying this dc power:
1) Supply the dc power from an external dc source to the rotor by means of slip rings
and brushes.
2) Supply the dc power from a special dc power source mounted directly on the shaft
of the synchronous generator.
 Brushless Exciters
•On larger generators and motors, brushless exciters are used to supply the dc field
current to the machine.
•A brushless exciter is a small ac generator with its field circuit mounted on the stator
and its armature circuit mounted on the rotor shaft.
•The three-phase output of the exciter generator is rectified to direct current by a
three-phase rectifier circuit also mounted on the shaft of the generator, and is then fed
into the main dc field circuit.
•By controlling the small dc field current of the exciter generator (located on the
stator), it is possible to adjust the field current on the main machine without slip rings
and brushes.
•Since no mechanical contacts ever occur between the rotor and the stator, a brushless
exciter requires much less maintenance than slip rings and brushes.
Brushless Exciters
 Pilot Exciter
•To make the excitation of a generator completely independent of any external power
sources, a small pilot exciter is often included in the system.
•A pilot exciter is a small ac generator with permanent magnets mounted on the rotor
shaft and a 3-phase winding on the stator.
•It produces the power for the field circuit of the exciter, which in turn controls the
field circuit of the main machine.
•If a pilot exciter is included on the generator shaft, then no external electric power is
required.
•Even though machines with brushless exciters do not need slip rings and brushes,
they still include the slip rings and brushes so that an auxiliary source of dc field
current is available in emergencies.
Pilot Exciter
 The Speed of Rotation of a Synchronous
Generator
•Synchronous generators are by definition synchronous, meaning that the electrical
frequency produced is locked in or synchronized with the mechanical rate of rotation
of the generator.
•A synchronous generator’s rotor consists of an electromagnet to which direct current
is supplied.
•The rotor’s magnetic field points in the direction the rotor is turned. Hence, the rate
of rotation of the magnetic field in the machine is related to the stator electrical
frequency as:

•Since the rotor turns at the same speed as the magnetic field , this equation relates the
speed of rotor rotation to the resulting electrical frequency.
•Electric power is generated at 50 or 60 Hz, so the generator must turn at a fixed speed
depending on the number of poles on the machine.
•For example, to generate 60-Hz power in a two-pole machine, the rotor must turn at
3600 r/min.
 The Internal Generated Voltage of a
Synchronous Generator
Voltage induced is dependent upon flux and speed of rotation, hence from what we
have learnt so far, the induced voltage can be found as follows:

For simplicity, it may be simplified to as follows:

 The Equivalent Circuit of a
Synchronous Generator
•The voltage E A is the internal generated voltage produced in one phase of a
synchronous generator.
•If the machine is not connected to a load (no armature current flowing), the terminal
voltage will be equivalent to the voltage induced at the stator coils. This is due to the
fact that there are no current flow in the stator coils hence no losses.
•When there is a load connected to the generator, there will be differences between
E A and V . These differences are due to:
a) Distortion of the air gap magnetic field by the current flowing in the stator called
armature reaction.
b) Self inductance of the armature coil
c) Resistance of the armature coils
d) The effect of salient pole rotor shapes.
 Armature Reaction
•When the rotor is spun, a voltage E A is induced in the stator windings.
•If a load is attached to the terminals of the generator, a current flows. But a 3-phase
stator current flow will produce a magnetic field of its own.
•This stator magnetic field will distorts the original rotor magnetic field, changing the
resulting phase voltage.
•This effect is called armature reaction because the armature (stator) current affects the
magnetic field, which produced it in the first place.
 Armature Reaction
•Figure shows a two-pole rotor spinning inside a three-phase stator.
•There is no load connected to the stator.
•The rotor magnetic field BR produces an internal generated voltage E A whose peak
value coincides with the direction of BR .
•The voltage will be positive out of the conductors at the top and negative into the
conductors at the bottom of the figure.
•With no load on the generator, there is no armature current flow, and E A will be equal
to the phase voltage V.
 Armature Reaction
•Now suppose that the generator is connected to a lagging load.
•Because the load is lagging, the peak current will occur at an angle behind the peak
voltage.
 Armature Reaction
•The current flowing in the stator windings produces a magnetic field of its own.
•This stator magnetic field is called BS and its direction is given by the right hand rule.
•The stator magnetic field BS produces a voltage of its own in the stator, and this
voltage is called Estat .
 Armature Reaction
•With two voltages present in the stator windings, the total voltage in a phase is the
sum of the internal generated voltage E A and the armature reaction voltage Estat :

•The net magnetic field Bnet is just the sum of the rotor and stator magnetic fields:

•Since the angles of E A and BR are the same and the angles of Estat and BS are the
same, the resulting magnetic field Bnet. will coincide with the net voltage V .
 How can the effects of armature reaction
on the phase voltage be modeled?
•First, note that the voltage Estat lies at an angle of 90° behind the plane of maximum
current I A .
•Second, the voltage Estat is directly proportional to the current I A.
•If X is a constant of proportionality, then the armature reaction voltage can be
expressed as

•The voltage on a phase is thus

•Thus, the armature reaction voltage can be modeled as an inductor in series with the
internal generated voltage.
 Self-inductance and Resistance of the
Armature Coils
•If the stator self-inductance is called L A (reactance is X A) while the stator resistance is
called RA , then the total difference between E A and V is:

•The armature reaction effects and the self- inductance in the machine are both
represented by reactances, and it is customary to combine them into a single reactance,
called the synchronous reactance of the machine:

•Therefore, the final equation describing V is

Full Equivalent Circuit of a 3-phase
Synchronous Generator
Generator Equivalent Circuit Connected
in Y and Δ
 Phasor Diagram of a Synchronous
Generator
•For a given phase voltage and
armature current, a larger
internal voltage E A is needed for
lagging loads than for leading
loads. Thus, a larger field current
is needed to get the same
terminal voltage because E A  K
and ω must be kept constant to
keep constant frequency.
•Alternatively, for a given field
current and magnitude of load
current, the terminal voltage is
lower for lagging loads and
higher for leading loads.
 Power and Torque in Synchronous
Generators
•A generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy, hence the input power
will be a mechanical prime mover, e.g. diesel engine, steam turbine, water turbine or
anything similar.
•Regardless of the type of prime mover, the rotor velocity must remain constant to
maintain a stable system frequency.
Power and Torque in Synchronous
Generators
 Power and Torque in Synchronous
Generators
•Simplifying the phasor diagram, an assumption may be made whereby the armature
resistance RA is considered to be negligible and assuming that load connected to it is
lagging in nature. This gives a phasor diagram as shown:

•Based upon the simplified phasor diagram:

 Power and Torque in Synchronous
Generators
which gives another form of output power expression (since RA assumed to be zero):

•From the above equation, it can be seen that power is dependent upon:
a) The angle between V and E A which is δ.
b) δ is known as the torque angle of the machine.
c) maximum torque may be found when sin δ is 1 which gives the maximum power
(a.k.a. static stability limit) to be:

•The basic torque equation:

•An alternative expression can be derived from the power expression since Pout  Pconv
when RA assumed to be zero. Because Pconv   ind m , the induced voltage is:
Measuring Synchronous Generator Model
Parameters
There are basically 3 types of relationship which needs to be found for a synchronous
generator:
a) Field current and flux relationship (and thus between the field current and E A )
b) Synchronous reactance
c) Armature resistance

Open Circuit test

Steps:
1) Generator is rotated at the rated speed.
2) No load is connected at the terminals.
3) Field current is increased from 0 to maximum.
4) Record values of the terminal voltage and field current value.

With the terminals open, I A =0, so E A  V . It is thus possible to construct a plot of E A

or VT vs I F graph. This plot is called open-circuit characteristic (OCC) of a generator.
With this characteristic, it is possible to find the internal generated voltage of the
generator for any given field current.
Measuring Synchronous Generator Model
Parameters

Explanation: Recall the magnetization curve from chapter 1

Measuring Synchronous Generator Model
Parameters
Short circuit test
Steps:
1) Generator is rotated at rated speed.
2) Adjust field current to 0.
3) Short circuit the terminals.
4) Measure armature current or line current as the field current is increased.

Note: During the short circuit analysis, the net magnetic field is very small, hence the
core is not saturated, hence the reason why the relationship is linear.
Measuring Synchronous Generator Model
Parameters
SCC is essentially a straight line. To understand why this characteristic is a straight
line, look at the equivalent circuit below when the terminals are short circuited.

When the terminals are short circuited, the armature current I A is:

And its magnitude is:

In short circuit test, in linear unsaturated region, flux is proportional to mmf (or field
current), E A is proportional to flux and I A is proportional to E A . Thus, we have a
linear relation between I A and I F .
Measuring Synchronous Generator Model
Parameters
From both tests, here we can find the internal machine impedance ( E A from OCC, I A
fom SCC):

Since X S  RA , the equation reduces to:

Therefore, an approximate method for determining the synchronous reactance X S at a

given field current
is:
1. Get the internal generated voltage E A from the OCC at that field current.
2. Get the short circuited current flow I A,SC at that field current from the SCC.
3. Find X S by applying the equation above.
Measuring Synchronous Generator Model
Parameters
Problem with this method:
• E A is taken from the OCC whereby the core would be partially saturated for large
field currents while I A is taken from the SCC where the core is not saturated at all field
currents. Therefore, E A value taken during the OCC may not be the same E A value in
the SCC test. Hence the value of X S is only an approximate.
•Hence to gain better accuracy, the test should be done at low field currents which
looks at the linear region of the OCC test.
•To find out on the resistive element of the machine, it can simply be found by
applying a DC voltage to the machine terminals with the rotor stationary.

Short Circuit Ratio

Ratio of the field current required for the rated voltage at open circuit to the field
current required for rated armature current at short circuit.
Problem
Solution
Solution
42