Article

“Team Play” between Renewable Energy Sources and

Vehicle Fleet to Decrease Air Pollution
Michela Longo 1, *, Wahiba Yaïci 2,† and Dario Zaninelli 1,†
Received: 12 October 2015; Accepted: 23 December 2015; Published: 29 December 2015
Academic Editor: Marc A. Rosen
1 Department of Energy, Politecnico di Milano, Via La Masa 34, Milano 20156, Italy; dario.zaninelli@polimi.it
2 Canmet ENERGY Research Centre, Natural Resources Canada, Ottawa, AB K1A 1M1, Canada;
wahiba.yaici@canada.ca
* Correspondence: michela.longo@polimi.it; Tel.: +39-02-2399-3759; Fax: +39-02-2399-8566
† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Abstract: The reduction of air pollutants for the purpose of maintaining or improving air quality
across the globe is a fundamental concern to which all modern governments are allocating varying
amounts of attention and resources. The successful amelioration of air pollution requires strategic
investments in the commercialization and adoption of “clean energy technologies” by both private
and public entities, the conversion of contemporary houses to “smart houses”, the diffusion of
Renewable Energy Sources (RES) including photovoltaic systems (PV), wind farms, and different
forms of bioenergy, and the integration of electric-powered vehicles. In concert with these ideas,
this paper aims to discuss the possibility of undertaking a feasibility study in two countries Canada
and Italy concerning the integration of electric vehicles (EVs) and electric motorcycles (EMs).
The proposed feasibility study would seek to assess the prospect of replacing the current vehicle fleets
in these two countries with EVs in a manner that utilizes renewable energy sources and, thus, does not
generate new toxic emissions. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that a pronounced introduction
and distribution of RES, EVs, and EMs can operate as a great opportunity for both the environment
and the capacities and needs of energy production. Today, the EV is not widespread. With this
contribution, it is shown how EVs can be well integrated with renewable energy. Therefore, it is the
duty of governments to implement policy strategies, in order to spread them across more territory.

Keywords: electric vehicles (EV); renewable energy resources (RES); vehicle fleet;
environmental; emissions

1. Introduction
Air pollution is a major environmental risk to health. A substantial proportion of the world’s
population live in cities [1,2], where exceedances of air quality standards occur [3–6]. The most
important greenhouse gases (GHGs) directly emitted by human activities include carbon dioxide (CO2 ),
methane (CH4 ), nitrous oxide (N2 O), and several other fluorine-containing halogenated substances.
The primary source of carbon dioxide is from the combustion of fossil fuels for the purposes of energy
production. Carbon emissions from power plants for electricity generation represent about 40% of total
GHG emissions worldwide, and are among the largest and highest-increasing sources. According to
a study performed by the IEA, the emissions from coal power plants have substantively increased
from 66% to 72% during the period 1990–2011. It is forecasted that this trend will continue rising and
will result in 2040 to the greatest share of CO2 emissions. Changing this path down is then a key major
universal challenge. In Canada, 79% of electricity is generated from non-GHG-emitting sources for
e.g., renewables, hydro, and nuclear, representing one of the highest percentages in the world, ranking
Canada a worldwide leader in clean electricity. The high level of clean energy production in Canada

Sustainability 2016, 8, 27; doi:10.3390/su8010027 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2016, 8, 27 2 of 17

indicates that emissions from power plants for electricity generation are a relatively small part of total
emissions, accounting for only 12% in 2014. Compared to the U.S. and China, non-GHG-emitting
sources provide less than one third and one fifth, respectively [7,8]. The environmental problems
related to the use of fossil fuels in transport, such as greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution is
severe. In the EU, including Italy, transport accounts for about 20% of total GHG emissions which were
continuously increasing over the last decades [9,10]. Emissions from transport in general, comprising
passenger, freight, and off-road emissions were the second major contributor to Canada’s GHG
emissions in 2012, accounting for 24% of total GHGs [6].
These emissions problems are the major motivation for the growing interest in electrification
of mobility. In recent years, there have been important efforts to study the effects of strategies to
reduce on-road traffic emissions and the consequent effects of these emissions on air quality. Presently,
the main objectives of these approaches are either (a) reducing the emission per vehicle by adopting
lower-polluting fuels and technologies, such as usage of renewable fuels or biofuels, natural gas
vehicles, fuel cell vehicles; or (b) implementing mobility management approaches such as for example
decreasing the maximum speed of circulation. Fleet electrification is one of the proposed strategies for
reducing air pollutant emissions and improving air quality in cities. It comprises a broad selection of
alternative mobility solutions ranging from plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) to pure electric
battery vehicles (EBVs). Based on the type of power plant which supplies electric energy for EVs
(electric vehicles), other possible benefits that may be attributable to fleet electrification are an increase
in energy efficiency, and decreases in conventional energy reliance, fossil fuel consumption, and GHG
emissions. Nonetheless, EVs require additional electrical load on the power supply causing a rise
in emissions from electrical generation plants, reliant on power mixture [3]. Moreover, renewable
energy sources such as wind, photovoltaic systems and solar energies have been broadly used to
provide energy in many countries. Renewable energy sources are generally utilized as distributed
generations in traditional power distribution networks and new smart grids because they usually
produce small-scale power on the sites that are close to the users [11–13].
Considering the above-mentioned concerns, the purpose of this paper is to discuss the possibility
of undertaking a feasibility study concerning the potential impact of replacing the current vehicle
fleet of Canada and Italy with electric vehicles. Such a transition is indeed possible given the existent
production of renewable resources in Canada and Italy, particularly in the form of photovoltaic
systems (PV) and wind farms. Beginning with a discussion of the collected data, this work addresses
the feasibility of replacing “non-green” vehicles with “green vehicles” via the use of renewable energy
with different percentages.
The reason to consider the two countries is because the present work is part of a funded
collaborative research project between Canada and Italy, aiming at development of user-friendly
and cost-effective tools for assessing the impact of replacing current vehicle fleet with electric vehicles
through the use of renewable energy sources. Moreover, the authors did not find any work related to
such investigation and comparison between a North American and European country. Given that it is
difficult to find data, this study will be useful for not only scientists, engineers, but also for policy and
infrastructure planners.
The paper begins by offering a description of the diffusion of renewable energy in the Canadian
and Italian settings (Section 2). Next, the report reviews the vehicle fleets (classified as automobiles and
motorcycles) in these two countries as well as the nations’ CO2 emission trends (Section 3). The next
part of the paper discusses methods of data collection, including the variables, used in the analysis
(Section 4). Finally, the results, in terms of potential reductions in CO2 emissions for both Canada and
Italy, are addressed in the concluding remarks (Section 5).

2. Renewable Energy in Canada and Italy

The various types of information consulted by this report regarding Italian and Canadian electric
power production will be presented first, covering a relatively expansive time period of 2000 to
Sustainability 2016, 8, 27 3 of 17

Sustainability 2016, 8, 27 3 of 17
2014 [14–16]. The focus here is on the electric power production obtained via the use of renewable
[14–16].
sources suchThethatfocus here isemissions
polluting on the electric
are power production
effectively obtained
canceled via the use of renewable sources
out [17].
such that polluting emissions are effectively canceled out [17].
It is very important that the governments lead the way to a fundamentally new energy direction
based on Itclean
is very importantenergy.
renewable that the governments
However, inleadthisthe way to amany
moment fundamentally new energy
governments, direction
including the U.S.
based on clean renewable energy. However, in this moment many governments, including the U.S.
government, continue to use coal, oil, or gas because this change requests time.
government, continue to use coal, oil, or gas because this change requests time.
Figure 1 reports different profiles of the energy produced from different Renewable Energy
Figure 1 reports different profiles of the energy produced from different Renewable Energy
Sources (RES),
Sources respectively
(RES), forfor
respectively Canada
CanadaandandItaly.
Italy.

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 1. Production of electric energy for different renewable sources [14–16] for (a) Canada; (b) Italy;
Figure 1. Production of electric energy for different renewable sources [14–16] for (a) Canada; (b) Italy;
and (c) hydroelectricy for Canada and Italy.
and (c) hydroelectricy for Canada and Italy.
Sustainability 2016, 8, 27 4 of 17

Sustainability 2016, 8, 27 4 of 17
Figure 1 reveals that the use of different renewable sources of energy has continuously increased
Figure 1 reveals
in Italy, especially fromthat
2006theonward.
use of different renewablethe
In particular, sources
boom of energy has continuously
in renewables can be increased
traced to the
in Italy, especially from 2006 onward. In particular, the boom in renewables can be traced to the
diffusion of photovoltaic systems, with the most notable diffusion occurring from 2011 to 2014. Of
diffusion of photovoltaic systems, with the most notable diffusion occurring from 2011 to 2014. Of all
all renewable energy sources, photovoltaic systems success is ranked second relative to hydropower,
renewable energy sources, photovoltaic systems success is ranked second relative to hydropower,
whichwhich
provided 23.4%
provided of Italy’s
23.4% electricity
of Italy’s in the
electricity in same timetime
the same period. Wind
period. Windfarms
farmsandand
geothermal
geothermalpower
plants contributed
power a further a5.8%
plants contributed and5.8%
further 2.0%andof2.0%
energy, respectively.
of energy, In general,
respectively. Italy’s
In general, wind
Italy’s windfarms
are situated in the southern regions of the country, where the wind conditions, topography,
farms are situated in the southern regions of the country, where the wind conditions, topography, and site
accessibility are favorable
and site accessibility arefor the installation
favorable and operation
for the installation of this of
and operation form
this of
formrenewable energy
of renewable [18–20].
energy
[18–20].
The situation is rather different in Canada, where one can observe a strong production of
renewableThe situation
energy is rather different
for hydroelectric in Canada,
sources and windwhere one Photovoltaic
plants. can observe asystems
strong production of
are concentrated
renewable energy for hydroelectric sources and wind plants. Photovoltaic systems
most heavily in the province of Ontario, with the provinces of Alberta, British Columbia, and are concentrated
most heavily in the province of Ontario, with the provinces of Alberta, British Columbia, and
Saskatchewan following thereafter [16]. Figure 2 displays trends concerning differences over the
Saskatchewan following thereafter [16]. Figure 2 displays trends concerning differences over the
years in the production of energy derived from wind farms and photovoltaic systems.
years in the production of energy derived from wind farms and photovoltaic systems.

20
Wind_Canada
Energy Production [TWh]

16 Wind_Italy

12

0
2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014
Year
(a)
28 0.5
Energy Production CANADA
PV_Italy
Energy Production ITALY

24
PV_Canada 0.4
20
0.3
[TWh]
[TWh]

16
12 0.2
8
0.1
4
0 0
2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014
Year
(b)
Figure 2. Energy produced from (a) Wind farm and (b) Photovoltaic systems for Canada and Italy.
Figure 2. Energy produced from (a) Wind farm; and (b) Photovoltaic systems for Canada and Italy.
3. Air Pollutant Emissions and Vehicle Fleet
3. Air Pollutant Emissions and Vehicle Fleet
The production of electric energy originating from renewable sources versus non-renewable
The production
sources of electric
varies across energy
the different originating
sectors from renewable
in both Canada sources
and Italy [21]. versus
In fact, the non-renewable
data show
sources varies across the different sectors in both Canada and Italy [21]. In fact, theusers
decreases in energy consumption levels for some sectors such as industry and household datainshow
order to save energy and reduce pollution to have a substantial health improvement.
decreases in energy consumption levels for some sectors such as industry and household users in
order to save energy and reduce pollution to have a substantial health improvement.
Sustainability 2016, 8, 27 5 of 17

On this aspect, the governments have taken action. In the 1998, the Kyoto protocol has given the
Sustainability 2016, 8, 27 5 of 17
goal to lower overall emissions from six greenhouse gases—carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
sulfur hexafluoride,
On this aspect,hydrofluorocarbons
the governments have(HFCs), and In
taken action. perfluorocarbons
the 1998, the Kyoto (PFCs) [22].
protocol has given the
There
goal are several
to lower divisionsfrom
overall emissions of airsixpollutant
greenhouse emissions. Primary
gases—carbon air methane,
dioxide, pollutants can be
nitrous produced
oxide,
by sulfur
primary sources orhydrofluorocarbons
hexafluoride, secondary sources. The pollutants
(HFCs), that are produced
and perfluorocarbons directly from the process
(PFCs) [22].
are namedThere are several
primary divisions of
pollutants. A air pollutant
typical emissions.
example Primary air
of a primary pollutants
pollutant can bebe
would produced
nitrogen by oxides,
primary
carbon sources or
monoxide, andsecondary sources. emissions
sulfur dioxide The pollutants that are
released produced
from powerdirectly
plantsfrom
[23].the process are
named
Secondary pollutants are the ones that are produced by the coupling of nitrogen
primary pollutants. A typical example of a primary pollutant would be mixing andoxides,chemical
carbon monoxide, and sulfur dioxide emissions released from power plants [23].
reactions of primary pollutants. Smog is an example of a secondary pollutant, which is generated by
Secondary pollutants are the ones that are produced by the coupling of mixing and chemical
the chemical reactions of various primary pollutants [24].
reactions of primary pollutants. Smog is an example of a secondary pollutant, which is generated by
theThe causesreactions
chemical of air pollutions derive from
of various primary different
pollutants [24]. aspects, in particular, burning of fossil fuels,
agricultural activities, exhaust from factories and industries,
The causes of air pollutions derive from different aspects, in mining operations,
particular, burningindoor
of fossilair pollution.
fuels,
Pollution emitting from vehicles including trucks, jeeps, cars, trains, and airplanes
agricultural activities, exhaust from factories and industries, mining operations, indoor air pollution. cause immense
amounts of pollution.
Pollution emittingWe relyvehicles
from on them to fulfilltrucks,
including our daily
jeeps,basic
cars,needs
trains,ofand
transportation,
airplanes cause but their
immense
overuse amounts
is killing ourofenvironment
pollution. We relyand on them
toxic to fulfill
gases our daily basic
are polluting needs of transportation, but
the environment.
their overuse
Figure is killing
3 reports theour environment
trends and toxic gases
of CO2 emissions are Canada
in both pollutingand
the environment.
Italy since 2000. The focus here
Figure 3 reports the trends of CO 2 emissions in both Canada and Italy since 2000. The focus here
on CO2 emissions is justified by the fact that CO2 emissions represent 82% of total toxic emissions,
on CO2 emissions is justified by the fact that CO2 emissions represent 82% of total toxic emissions,
with the remaining emissions corresponding to 3% fluorinated gases, 5% nitrous oxide (N2 O), and 10%
with the remaining emissions corresponding to 3% fluorinated gases, 5% nitrous oxide (N2O), and
methane (CH4 ).
10% methane (CH4).

Figure 3. Total CO2 emissions, respectively, for Canada and Italy.

Figure 3. Total CO2 emissions, respectively, for Canada and Italy.
For clarification purposes, the emissions indicated in Figure 3 are the sum of six different sectors
asFor clarification
in Equation purposes, the emissions indicated in Figure 3 are the sum of six different sectors
(1) below:
as in Equation (1) below:CO2tot = CO2eg + CO2ind + CO2ag + CO2tran + CO2resi + CO2com (1)
where all the components
CO2tot “ CO are2eg
expressed
` CO2indin million
` COmetric tons:
2ag ` CO2tran ` CO2resi ` CO2com (1)
- CO2eg—the amount of emissions obtained via electricity generation;
where
- COall2ind
the components
—the are expressed
emissions produced by theinindustry
millionsector;
metric tons:
- CO2ag—the pollution created by the agricultural sector;
- CO2eg —the amount of emissions obtained via electricity generation;
- CO2tran—the emissions generated by all forms of transport including all vehicle fleets; and
- - CO
CO —the emissions produced by the industry sector;
2resi—the emissions of the residential sector;
2ind
- - CO
CO2ag —the
2com —thepollution
emissions created
produced bybythe
theagricultural sector;
commercial sector.
- COThe —the of
2tranimpact emissions generated
CO2 emissions by all forms
in percentage terms of transport
presents including
a different all In
picture. vehicle fleets; and
short, emissions
- deriving
CO2resi —the emissionsrepresent
from electricity of the residential
31% of thesector;
total emissions; for transportation, the emissions
- amount
CO2com to—the
27%; industry
emissions signifies
produced21%;by
and,
thefinally, agriculture
commercial comes in at 9%, commercial at 6%,
sector.
and residential at 6%. For this region, although different sectors clearly contribute dissimilar
The impact
percentages of of CO2 emissions
emissions, the focalinconcern
percentage terms
in this presentsisathat
contribution different
of thepicture. In short,
transportation emissions
sector
deriving from electricity represent 31% of the total emissions; for transportation, the emissions
amount to 27%; industry signifies 21%; and, finally, agriculture comes in at 9%, commercial at
Sustainability 2016, 8, 27 6 of 17

Sustainability 2016, 8, 27 6 of 17

6%, and residential at 6%. For this region, although different sectors clearly contribute dissimilar
[25,26]. The major task is to determine whether it is possible, via the use of renewable energy, to
percentages of emissions, the focal concern in this contribution is that of the transportation sector [25,26].
effectively replace the existent vehicle fleets, in particular cars and motorcycles/mopeds, in Canada
The major task is to determine whether it is possible, via the use of renewable energy, to effectively
and Italy.
replace the existent vehicle fleets, in particular cars and motorcycles/mopeds, in Canada and Italy.
The transportation sector, which encompasses trucks, buses, motorcycles, and cars, is a major
The transportation sector, which encompasses trucks, buses, motorcycles, and cars, is a major
contributor to air pollution in most nations. In fact, the air emissions generated by all forms of
contributor to air pollution in most nations. In fact, the air emissions generated by all forms of transport
transport including all vehicle fleets represent about 25%–30%. Different typologies of fuel supply
including all vehicle fleets represent about 25%–30%. Different typologies of fuel supply are presented;
are presented; for example, gasoline and diesel. In recent years, the sector has witnessed an increase
for example, gasoline and diesel. In recent years, the sector has witnessed an increase in the availability
in the availability of new vehicles and, in particular, plug-in hybrid vehicles alongside electric
of new vehicles and, in particular, plug-in hybrid vehicles alongside electric vehicles.
vehicles.
In this study, the idea is to consider the full electric vehicles only. Today, different vehicles are
In this study, the idea is to consider the full electric vehicles only. Today, different vehicles are
presented in the world and, in particular, cars and motorcycles have different characteristics. In this
presented in the world and, in particular, cars and motorcycles have different characteristics. In this
way, the population can choose between different models with diverse characteristics as a function to
way, the population can choose between different models with diverse characteristics as a function
the needs. However, buses and trucks are very difficult to be fully electric because the transport must
to the needs. However, buses and trucks are very difficult to be fully electric because the transport
be carried out over several kilometers and cannot stop for too long to recharge the battery.
must be carried out over several kilometers and cannot stop for too long to recharge the battery.
Figure 4 shows the evolution of the vehicle fleet from 2009 to 2014, with a particular focus on
Figure 4 shows the evolution of the vehicle fleet from 2009 to 2014, with a particular focus on
cars and motorcycles/mopeds, over time in both Italy and Canada. These vehicles are fueled with
cars and motorcycles/mopeds, over time in both Italy and Canada. These vehicles are fueled with
conventional fuels (gasoline, diesel, etc.).
conventional fuels (gasoline, diesel, etc.).

(a)

(b)
Figure 4. Vehicles and Motorcycles and mopeds in (a) Canada and (b) Italy in different years.
Figure 4. Vehicles and Motorcycles and mopeds in (a) Canada and (b) Italy in different years.

Based on these data, one can see that, whereas the number of motorcycles and automobiles
differs littleon
Based these
over timedata, one can
in Italy, see that,automobiles
Canadian whereas thehavenumber of motorcycles
increased andsince
in quantity automobiles differs
2012 whilst the
little over time in Italy, Canadian automobiles have increased in quantity since
number of motorcycles has remained relatively stable [27,28]. Furthermore, for both countries, 2012 whilst the number
of motorcycles has
approximately 51%remained relatively
of the vehicle stable
fleet uses[27,28]. Furthermore,
gasoline for both41%
as a fuel supply, countries,
relies approximately
on diesel. The
51% of the vehicle fleet uses gasoline as a fuel supply, 41% relies on diesel. The
circulation of electric vehicles in Italy is very low: in fact, these vehicles, which number 1097,circulation of electric
have
vehicles in Italy is very low: in fact, these vehicles, which number 1097, have been
been available only since the year 2014. Contrastingly, the number of electric vehicles in Canada available only sinceis
the
much year 2014. with
higher, Contrastingly, the number
a total circulation of electric
of more vehicles in Canada is much higher, with a total
than 10,000.
circulation
Insofarofasmore than 10,000.
the current number of “green vehicles” already on the road in these two countries is
quite low, the potential for number
Insofar as the current replacingofthe“green vehicles”
nations’ already on
most polluting the road
vehicles andinmotorcycles
these two countries is
via the use
quite low, the sources
of renewable potentialand for“green
replacing the nations’
vehicles” most
is quite polluting
attractive. Thevehicles and motorcycles
focus here, via the use
thus, is on whether this
is a feasible undertaking.
Sustainability 2016, 8, 27 7 of 17

of renewable sources and “green vehicles” is quite attractive. The focus here, thus, is on whether this
is a feasible undertaking.

4. Case Study and Discussion of Results

The data under consideration here pertain to the energy production generated via different
renewable sources (specifically, photovoltaic systems, and wind farms) and the different categories of
vehicles across the total fleets of Canada and Italy (the focus is on cars and motorcycles) [29]. The choice
of cars and motorcycles derive with the fact that on the market, there are different models fully electric
and in this case it is possible to change the actual situation using vehicles totally green if they are
fueled with the renewable energy.
The goal is to assess the feasibility of the integration of electric vehicles with renewable sources
and to analyze the possible consequences of replacing traditional vehicles with electronic ones with
respect to different scenarios regarding the habits of citizens in the year 2014. The following variables
have been considered:

- EPVCanada and EPV Italy —the energy production expressed in GWh generated via photovoltaic
systems in Canada and in Italy;
- EW I NDCanada and EW I NDItaly —the energy production expressed in GWh generated via wind farms
in Canada and in Italy;
- EEVs and E MVs —the energy required, expressed in kWh, for the recharging of electric vehicles
and electric motorcycles.
- NVFCanada and NVFItaly —the number of cars in circulation in Canada and Italy in 2014; and
- N MFCanada and N MFItaly —the number of motorcycles in circulation in Canada and Italy in 2014.

Various facts about electric vehicles should be stressed and considered:

- Battery capacity (CbatteryEVs ) is equal to 24 kWh;

- η is the efficiency of the charging system (85%); and
- Consumption of an electric vehicle (CEVs ) is equal to 0.213 kWh/km. This quantity is an average
derived from different kinds of electric vehicles where the consumption rates vary according to
the type of vehicle (small, middle and large size).

During the use of the electric car, the Li-ion batteries are discharged up to the minimum values of
state of charge (∆SOC, State of Charge) of 40%, where SOC is the percentage of residual energy stored
in the batteries. For EVs, it is not recommended that vehicles fall below this value, especially in terms
of remaining capacity. However, even with PHEVs trying to maintain a ∆SOC > 40% to safeguard the
life of the battery is applicable. Frequent deep discharges lead to an increase of the internal resistance
and a decrease of the useful capacity, and it may also increase the failure rate and result in premature
aging of the cell.
Following the above considerations, maximum depth of discharge (DoD) is assumed to equal to
60%, and then the minimum state of charge (SOC) is equal to 40%.
Additionally, for electric motorcycles, it is necessary to make some assumptions:

- Battery capacity (CbatteryEMs ) is equal to 9 kWh;

- η is Efficiency of the charging system (85%); and
- Consumption (CEMs ) is equal to 0.115 kWh/km again. This value is an average derived from
different kinds of electric motorcycles.

Similarly, for motorcycles the same considerations apply to the DoD and the SOC. In fact, the
maximum DoD is equal to 60% and then the minimum SOC is equal to 40%.
In this survey, different scenarios for the distance travelled per day are assumed:
Sustainability 2016, 8, 27 8 of 17

- S1 : distance travelled for urban use per year is equal to 4000 km;
- S2 : distance travelled for travel salesman per year is equal to 15,000 km;
- S3 : distance travelled for commuters per day is equal to 40,000 km; and
- S4 : distance travelled for long distance per year is equal to 75,000 km

The assessment of the energy flows within the charging system requires the knowledge of the
daily production curves of the photovoltaic systems and wind farms as well as the demand curves of
the electric vehicles. In this work, the analysis addresses different percentages of the energy produced
by photovoltaic systems and wind farms distributed in Canada and Italy, observing how electric
vehicles can replace the current vehicle fleet.
Since a vehicle fleet consists in different vehicle typologies for different missions, a more suitable
value for distance travelled DTravel has to take into account all of them. Consequently, the equivalent
distance travelled per year can be calculated as follows Equation (2):

Dtravel “ α ¨ S1 ` β ¨ S2 ` γ ¨ S3 ` δ ¨ S4
(2)
where α ` β ` γ ` δ “ 1

with α is equal to 0.5, the value of β is 0.25, γ is 0.15 and δ is equal to 0.1. These variables γ, β, and α
are derived of the daily habits of the people.
According to the computed average distance, it is possible to evaluate the energy required by the
electric vehicles in the considered scenarios. In this mode, the energy required on an annual basis can
be determined as Equation (3):
pDtravel ¨ CEVs q
EEVs “ (3a)
η
pDtravel ¨ CEMs q
EEMs “ (3b)
η
where the consumption is different for vehicles (CEVs equal to 0.213 kWh/km) and motorcycles
(CEMs equal to 0.115 kWh/km) and η is the efficiency of the charging system that for electric vehicles
and motorcycles is equal to 85%.
After that, it is possible to calculate the number of electric vehicles using the energy production
obtained from wind farms and photovoltaic systems determined with Equation (4):

E
$
& NEVwithW I ND “ W I ND
’
EEVs (4)
EPV
’
% NEVwithPV “
EEVs

Given that renewable energy (EW I ND and EPV ) obtained per year is used for different purposes,
different percentages (5%–100% with a step of 5) have been suggested with respect to the amounts to
be used for the recharging of electric vehicles.
Different percentages of green energy from renewable sources are important to consider because
different energy demands from the users are to be taken into account; for example, the case of the
industry where the energy is to be used not only for the company fleet but also for lighting, heating, etc.
The same considerations have been made also for motorcycles and using the energy production
obtained from wind farms and photovoltaic systems, it is possible to determine with Equation (5):

E
$
& NEMwithW I ND “ W I ND
’
EEMs (5)
E
’
% NEMwithPV “ PV
EEMs

The distance that electric vehicles (EVs) and electric motorcycles (EMs) could travel based on the
amount of energy supplied by wind farms in accordance with Equation (2) is shown in Figure 5.
Sustainability 2016, 8, 27 9 of 17

In the figure are reported different percentages of number of cars and motorcycles for 2014. For
example NVFCanada90% are the 90% of vehicles on the total number of cars in circulation in Canada or
NVFCanada15% are the 15% of vehicles on the total number of cars in circulation in Canada. The same
assumptions are valid for both motorcycles, for both the Italian cases.
Sustainability 2016, 8, 27 9 of 17
Note that the idea of considering different percentages of vehicles needed is to figure out
how many Notepolluting
that the ideavehicles can be replaced
of considering different with electric
percentages of vehicles powered
vehicles needed is toby electricity
figure out howfrom
greenmany
sources.polluting vehicles can be replaced with electric vehicles powered by electricity from green
Itsources.
can be seen that in neither Canada nor Italy would it be possible to generate the energy from
wind power needed
It can be seen tothat
successfully replacenor
in neither Canada all extant cars.itAs
Italy would be shown
possiblein
toFigure
generate 2, the
it seems
energylikely
from that
wind wind
power power
couldneeded to successfully
potentially provide replace all extant
the energy cars.to
required Assustain
shown most,
in Figure
but2,not
it seems likely that
all, electric vehicles
wind power could potentially provide the energy required to sustain
in Canada, whereas this would not be possible in Italy where wind power is available only in somemost, but not all, electric
areasvehicles in Canada,
of the region. whereas
Figures this would
suggest notCanada,
that, in be possible
usingin Italy
onlywhere
10% ofwind power is
available available
wind energyonlycould
in some areas of the region. Figures suggest that, in Canada, using only 10% of available wind energy
potentially replace 5% of cars currently on the road; alternatively, with the use of 82% of available
could potentially replace 5% of cars currently on the road; alternatively, with the use of 82% of
wind energy, a total of 7,965,987 electric vehicles could be powered. The situation is quite different in
available wind energy, a total of 7,965,987 electric vehicles could be powered. The situation is quite
Italy: different
63% of available
in Italy: 63% wind energy could
of available chargecould
wind energy onlycharge
15% ofonly
the 15%
vehicle fleet.
of the vehicle fleet.

25,000,000
NVFCanada
NVFCanada 90%
Number of vehicles in Canada

20,000,000

15,000,000 NVFCanada 65%

NVFCanada 45%
10,000,000
NVFCanada 35%
NVFCanada 25%
5,000,000
NVFCanada 15%
NVFCanada 5%
,0,0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% of Wind Energy in Canada
(a)
40,000,000
NVFItaly
35,000,000
NVFItaly 90%
Number of vehicles in Italy

30,000,000

25,000,000 NVFItaly 65%

20,000,000
NVFItaly 45%
15,000,000
NVFItaly 35%
10,000,000 NVFItaly 25%
5,000,000 NVFItaly 15%
NVFItaly 5%
,0,0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% of Wind Energy in Italy
(b)
Figure 5. Possible electric vehicles recharged with wind energy in (a) Canada and (b) Italy.
Figure 5. Possible electric vehicles recharged with wind energy in (a) Canada; and (b) Italy.
Figure 6 reports the amounts of energy required to replace the extant fleet of
motorcycles/mopeds in Canada and Italy. Data show that the available energy is sufficient to replace
all motorcycles with electric motorcycles. In fact, only 5% of Canada’s energy output from wind farms
Sustainability 2016, 8, 27 10 of 17

Figure 6 reports the amounts of energy required to replace the extant fleet of motorcycles/mopeds
in Canada and Italy. Data show that the available energy is sufficient to replace all motorcycles with
Sustainability
electric motorcycles.2016, 8, 27
In fact, only 5% of Canada’s energy output from wind farms would be 10 ofneeded
17

to charge all electric motorcycles; this means that the remaining 95% of energy produced could be
would be needed to charge all electric motorcycles; this means that the remaining 95% of energy
reserved for different uses. However, in Italy, a much higher percentage, i.e., 40% of the country’s
produced could be reserved for different uses. However, in Italy, a much higher percentage, i.e., 40%
energyof supply would
the country’s be required
energy for thebeequivalent
supply would task.
required for the equivalent task.

20,000,000
Number of motorcycles in Canada

16,000,000

12,000,000

8,000,000

4,000,000

NMFCanada
,0,0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% of Wind Energy in Canada
(a)
20,000,000
Number of motocycles in Italy

16,000,000

12,000,000

8,000,000
NMFItaly

4,000,000

,0,0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% of Wind Energy in Italy
(b)
Figure 6. Possible electric motorcycles/mopeds recharged with wind energy in (a) Canada and (b) Italy.
Figure 6. Possible electric motorcycles/mopeds recharged with wind energy in (a) Canada; and
(b) Italy.
The availability and diffusion of photovoltaic systems is different in Canada versus Italy. As
shown in Figure 2, the energy produced by photovoltaic systems in Canada is not sufficient to sustain
electric
The vehicles but
availability andthis energy of
diffusion could be used tosystems
photovoltaic rechargeiselectric motorcycles.
different in CanadaInversus
fact using
Italy.58% of
As shown
available energy it is possible to recharge 240,871 electric motorcycles as shown in Figure 7.
in Figure 2, the energy produced by photovoltaic systems in Canada is not sufficient to sustain electric However,
in Italy
vehicles the energy
but this situation is dissimilar:
could be used to28% of energy
recharge would
electric be required
motorcycles. to account
In fact using 58% for of
electric
available
motorcycles, and by dedicating 75% Italy could recharge 5,689,990 EVs.
energy it is possible to recharge 240,871 electric motorcycles as shown in Figure 7. However, in Italy
the situation is dissimilar: 28% of energy would be required to account for electric motorcycles, and by
dedicating 75% Italy could recharge 5,689,990 EVs.
Sustainability 2016, 8, 27 11 of 17
Sustainability 2016, 8, 27 11 of 17

800,000
Number of motorcycles in Canada NMFCanada
NMFCanada 90%
600,000

NMFCanada 65%
400,000
NMFCanada 45%
NMFCanada 35%
200,000 NMFCanada 25%
NMFCanada 15%
NMFCanada 5%
0,0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% of PV Energy in Canada
(a)
42,000,000
NVFItaly
36,000,000 NVFItaly 90%
Number of vehicles in Italy

30,000,000
NVFItaly 65%
24,000,000

18,000,000 NVFItaly 45%

NVFItaly 35%
12,000,000
NVFItaly 25%
6,000,000 NVFItaly 15%
NVFItaly 5%
,0,0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% of PV Energy in Italy
(b)
Figure 7. Possible electric vehicle fleet recharged with PV energy in (a) Canada and (b) Italy.
Figure 7. Possible electric vehicle fleet recharged with PV energy in (a) Canada; and (b) Italy.
5. Pollutant Emissions Reduction
5. Pollutant Emissions
Across the globe Reduction
today, efforts are being made to help the energy sector improve its air pollution
emission performance; specifically, governments aim to advance clean electricity and cleaner energy
Across the globe today, efforts are being made to help the energy sector improve its air pollution
production, increase the production capacity and use of alternative fuels, and improve end-use
emission performance; specifically, governments aim to advance clean electricity and cleaner energy
energy efficiencies. Concerning this last method in particular, governments have supported strategic
production, increase the production capacity and use of alternative fuels, and improve end-use
investments in the commercialization and adoption of clean energy technologies with the goal, for
energy efficiencies. Concerning
instance, to incentivize this last method
the deployment of wind in particular,
farms governments
or photovoltaic systemshave supported
or tax breaks forstrategic
the
investments
purchasein of the commercialization
electric and adoption
vehicles. These developments of clean
are driven by energy
a varietytechnologies with thethose
of factors, in particular goal, for
instance, to incentivize
associated the deployment
with the Kyoto Protocol andof windproblems
certain farms orresulting
photovoltaic systems
from the use of or taxfuels
fossil breaks for the
(such
as the greenhouse effect, acid rain, and climate change) [20,21]. Insofar as renewable
purchase of electric vehicles. These developments are driven by a variety of factors, in particular energies have
thosespread rapidly
associated in recent
with yearsProtocol
the Kyoto whereas,andat the same problems
certain time, the availability of electric
resulting from vehicles
the use has fuels
of fossil
remained relatively low, and taking in account the discussion in Section 4 above, there
(such as the greenhouse effect, acid rain, and climate change) [20,21]. Insofar as renewable energies are potentially
have huge
spreadadvantages associated with implementing these new vehicles, especially in terms of quality of
rapidly in recent years whereas, at the same time, the availability of electric vehicles has
life improvements [22,23].
remained relatively low, and taking in account the discussion in Section 4 above, there are potentially
For this survey, it is necessary to consider some further variables:
huge advantages associated with implementing these new vehicles, especially in terms of quality of
life improvements [22,23].
For this survey, it is necessary to consider some further variables:
Sustainability 2016, 8, 27 12 of 17

- Coeff M1 —the emission factor for motorcycles/mopeds that it is equal to 82 g/km in scenario S1
where, in most cases, the use of motorcycles/mopeds is restricted to urban roads;
Sustainability 2016, 8, 27 12 of 17
- Coeff M234 —equal to 93 g/km. In this case, this value is used for scenarios S2 , S3, and S4 . This
value
- is the
Coeff average generated from different roads, in particular urban streets, extra-urban roads,
M1—the emission factor for motorcycles/mopeds that it is equal to 82 g/km in scenario S1
and where,
highways; in most cases, the use of motorcycles/mopeds is restricted to urban roads;
- CoeffCoeff
- V1 —the
M234 emission
—equal factor
to 93 g/km.for
In vehicles. In scenario
this case, this value is S1 , the
used foruse of car is
scenarios S2,typically
S3, and S4.for urban
This valueroads,
is the average generated
and this value is equal to 203 g/km; from different roads, in particular urban streets, extra-urban roads, and
- highways;
Coeff V234 —the emission factor for vehicles, equal to 170 g/km. Here, this value is used for
- CoeffV1—the emission factor for vehicles. In scenario S1, the use of car is typically for urban roads,
scenarios S2 , S3, and S4 . This value is the average generated from different roads, in particular
and this value is equal to 203 g/km;
urban streets, extra-urban roads, and highways; and
- CoeffV234—the emission factor for vehicles, equal to 170 g/km. Here, this value is used for
- Coeffscenarios
V and Coeff S2, SM —the emission factors for vehicle which, in this case, is equal to 168 g/km
3, and S4. This value is the average generated from different roads, in particular
whereas
urban for the motorcycle/moped
streets, extra-urban roads, and is equal to 81 and
highways; g/km. The values are obtained from the average
of
- different kinds of vehicles such that the consumption
CoeffV and CoeffM—the emission factors for vehicle which, varies according
in this to thetotype
case, is equal of vehicle
168 g/km
whereas
(small, middle, for the
andmotorcycle/moped
large size) and the is equal
type to 81 g/km.fuel
different The used.
values are obtained from the average
of different kinds of vehicles such that the consumption varies according to the type of vehicle
Considering the above
(small, middle, assumptions,
and large in the
size) and the typeFigures
different8–10
fuelone can see the amount of CO2 emissions
used.
spared in accordance with the percentage of energy to be used to fuel vehicles or electric motorcycles.
Considering the above assumptions, in the Figures 8–10 one can see the amount of CO2 emissions
Figure 8 reports
spared the Italian
in accordance withcase where it isofpossible
the percentage energy toto beobserve thatvehicles
used to fuel the energy obtained
or electric from wind
motorcycles.
farmsFigure
or photovoltaic
8 reports the Italian case where it is possible to observe that the energy obtained from 25%
systems can sustain, in one case 15% of vehicles, and in another case windof the
total farms
vehicle fleet, excluding
or photovoltaic buses,
systems trucks, in
can sustain, andonetrailers.
case 15%Aofkey pointand
vehicles, to keep in mind
in another is the
case 25% of fact
the that
“green vehicles”
total produce
vehicle fleet, no pollution
excluding sinceand
buses, trucks, they are fueled
trailers. A key by renewable
point to keep inenergy.
mind is In
thethis
factcase,
that it is
“green
possible vehicles”that
to observe produce
aboutno pollution
1000 metricsince
tons they are fueled
are avoided by renewable
using 55% of wind energy. In this
energy case, it is
replacing 15% of
possible to observe that about 1000 metric tons are avoided using 55% of wind energy
the vehicles (NVFItaly15% ) with fully electric vehicles. Obviously, if the wind energy is low, for example replacing 15%
of theonly
it is used vehicles
the(N VFItaly15%) with fully electric vehicles. Obviously, if the wind energy is low, for example
20% with 5% of vehicles (NVFItaly5% ) fueled with RES, in this case the emissions
it is used only the 20% with 5% of vehicles (NVFItaly5%) fueled with RES, in this case the emissions
avoided are about 350 tons. If all motorcycles are replaced with electric motorcycles (N MFItaly ), the
avoided are about 350 tons. If all motorcycles are replaced with electric motorcycles (NMFItaly), the CO2
CO2 emissions are equal to 550 tons. If the EVs or EMs use photovoltaic systems for recharging, then
emissions are equal to 550 tons. If the EVs or EMs use photovoltaic systems for recharging, then in
in that
thatcase
casebecause
because the productionisisvery
the production very high,
high, it isitpossible
is possible to replace
to replace totallytotally
the 25%theof25% of vehicles.
vehicles. In
In this mode,
this mode,thetheCO
CO22 emissions avoided
emissions avoided areare equal
equal to 1600
to 1600 tons.tons.

(a)
Figure 8. Cont.
Figure 8. Cont.
Sustainability 2016, 8, 27 13 of 17
Sustainability 2016, 8, 27 13 of 17

Sustainability 2016, 8, 27 13 of 17

(b)
Figure 8. Emissions of CO2 spared replacing the vehicles using (a) Wind farm and (b) Photovoltaic
Figure 8. Emissions
system for Italy. of CO2 spared replacing the(b) vehicles using (a) Wind farm; and (b) Photovoltaic
system for Italy.
Figure 8. Emissions
The situation of CO2 spared
in Canada differsreplacing
from that the in
vehicles
Italy: using (a) Wind farm
the diffusion and (b) Photovoltaic
of renewable energy is low
system for
concerning Italy.
photovoltaic systems, leaving only wind energy—however, wind energy is useful
The situation in Canada differs from that in Italy: the diffusion of renewable energy is low
because 35% of vehicles and all motorcycles/mopeds can be replaced with total electric transportation
concerning The photovoltaic
situation systems, leaving onlythat
wind energy—however, wind energyenergyis useful because
as shown in Figure in Canada
9. In differs
this case, it is from
possible toin Italy:
observe the
thatdiffusion
about 900oftons renewable
are avoided usingis 50%
low
35% concerning
of vehicles photovoltaic
and all motorcycles/mopeds
systems, leaving canwind
only be replaced with totalwind
energy—however, electric
energytransportation
is useful as
of wind energy replacing 25% of the vehicles (NVFCanada25%) with fully-electric vehicles. Obviously, if
shown in
because Figure
35% 9.
of In this
vehicles case,
and allit is possible
motorcycles/mopeds to observe
can bethat about
replaced 900
with
the wind energy is low, for example it is used only 10% with 5% of vehicles (NVFCanada5%) fueled with tons
total are
electricavoided using
transportation 50%
as
of wind shown
RES, thenin
energy Figure
inreplacing
that case9. Inthe
this
25% case,
of the
emissionsit vehicles
isavoided
possible(N toVFCanada25%
are observe
about 200 that)tons.
about
withOn 900thetons arehand,
fully-electric
other avoided
vehicles.using
using 50%
Obviously,
70% of
of wind
if theenergy
wind energyenergy replacing
obtainedisfrom low,wind 25% of
for example the
farm and it vehicles (N
is used35%
replacing onlyof10%
VFCanada25%) with fully-electric
with 5%(Nof
the vehicles vehicles.
vehicles
VFCanada35%
Obviously,
(NVFCanada5%
), then CO2 emissions if
) fueled
with the
RES, wind
avoided then energy
are thatisto
inequal low,
case
1300 for
the example
emissions
tons. it is used only
avoided are10%
aboutwith200 5%tons.
of vehicles
On the(Nother VFCanada5%) fueled with
hand, using 70% of
RES, Ifthen in that
all motorcycles case the
are emissions
replaced avoided
with electric are about
motorcycles200 tons. On
(NMFCanada the other hand,
), the CO2 emissions using
are70% of
energy obtained from wind farm and replacing 35% of the vehicles (NVFCanada35% ), then CO 2 equal
emissions
energy
to 150 obtained from wind farm and replacing 35% of the vehicles (N VFCanada35%), then CO2 emissions
avoided aretonsequalusingto only
13004% tons.of energy obtained from wind energy.
avoided are equal to 1300 tons.
If allIfmotorcycles
all motorcycles are are
replaced
replaced with
with electric
electricmotorcycles
motorcycles(N (NMFCanada ), the CO2 emissions
MFCanada), the CO2 emissions
are equal
are equal
to 150totons using only 4% of energy obtained
150 tons using only 4% of energy obtained from wind energy. from wind energy.

(a)
Figure 9. Cont.
(a)
Figure 9. Cont.
Figure 9. Cont.
Sustainability 2016, 8, 27 14 of 17
Sustainability 2016, 8, 27 14 of 17

Sustainability 2016, 8, 27 14 of 17

(b)
Figure 9. Emissions of CO2 spared replacing (a) the vehicle fleet and (b) motorcycles/mopeds using
Figure 9. Emissions of CO2 spared replacing (a) the
(b) vehicle fleet; and (b) motorcycles/mopeds using
wind farms for Canada.
wind farms for Canada.
Figure 9. Emissions of CO2 spared replacing (a) the vehicle fleet and (b) motorcycles/mopeds using
Using different forms of renewable energy, in particular for Canada in this case they are
wind farms for Canada.
considered the PVforms
Using different systemsof and for Italyenergy,
renewable also wind farms. Figure
in particular for 10 indicates
Canada that case
in this it is possible
they aretoconsidered
use
72% of renewable
Using different
the PV systems energy
and forforms to
Italy ofchange 45%
renewable
also of
wind farms. motorcycles/mopeds
energy, in particular
Figure in Canada
for Canada
10 indicates for “green
that itinis this vehicles”,
case they
possible to useare72% of
whereas allthe
considered motorcycles/mopeds in Italy
alsocould
windbe replaced with the totalthat
electric transportation
renewable energyPVto systems
change and45%forof Italy farms.
motorcycles/mopeds Figure 10 indicates
in Canada for “green it is possible
vehicles”, to use
whereas all
provided
72% by the PVenergy
of renewable systemstorepresenting
change 45%26% of energy and wind farms,
of motorcycles/mopeds 40% for
in Canada for energy.
“green vehicles”,
motorcycles/mopeds in Italy could be replaced with the total electric transportation provided by the
whereas all motorcycles/mopeds in Italy could be replaced with the total electric transportation
PV systems representing 26% of energy and wind farms, 40% for energy.
provided by the PV systems representing 26% of energy and wind farms, 40% for energy.

(a)
Figure 10. Cont.
(a)
Figure 10. Cont.
Figure 10. Cont.
Sustainability 2016, 8, 27 15 of 17
Sustainability 2016, 8, 27 15 of 17

(b)
Figure 10. Emissions of CO2 spared replacing the motorcycles/mopeds park using renewable energy
Figure 10. Emissions of CO2 spared replacing the motorcycles/mopeds park using renewable energy
for (a) Canada and (b) Italy.
for (a) Canada; and (b) Italy.
6. Conclusions
6. Conclusions
Pollution is now a commonplace term. It can affect people and other living areas. In the world,
there are currently
Pollution is nownumerous
a commonplacelarge cities
term.withIt low
can air quality.
affect Governments
people and otherare nowareas.
living taking In
actions
the world,
to reduce and cut as much as possible emissions of carbon dioxide
there are currently numerous large cities with low air quality. Governments are now taking and other greenhouse gases. Oneactions
of the known approaches is through the Kyoto Protocol, which is an agreement between nations,
to reduce and cut as much as possible emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases.
stipulating CO2 emissions reduction. Another way is to put taxes on carbon emissions or set higher
One of the known approaches is through the Kyoto Protocol, which is an agreement between nations,
taxes on gasoline. This latter method will provide more incentives and motivations to companies and
stipulating COfor
individuals 2 emissions reduction.and
energy conservation Another
pollution way is to put taxes on carbon emissions or set higher
reduction.
taxes on For
gasoline. This latter
these reasons, method
this paper willbyprovide
began reviewing more incentives
the present and motivations
situation in terms of thetoavailability
companies and
individuals for energy conservation and pollution reduction.
of renewable energy in Canada and Italy, specifically regarding the state of CO2 emissions and the
For these
extant reasons,
vehicle this paper
fleets, which, began
in this case, by reviewing
refer only to cars theandpresent situation in terms
motorcycles/mopeds, of the in
excluding availability
the
analysis trucks,
of renewable energy buses, and trailers.
in Canada and Italy, specifically regarding the state of CO2 emissions and the
The decision
extant vehicle fleets, to consider
which, onlycase,
in this vehicles
referand
only motorcycles
to cars andis motorcycles/mopeds,
because there are different models in the
excluding
available on the market for
analysis trucks, buses, and trailers. fully-electric vehicles.
The study has considered the habits of drivers with respect to proposed different scenarios based
The decision to consider only vehicles and motorcycles is because there are different models
on the kilometers travelled during the year. The main focus has been to analyze how much renewable
available on the market for fully-electric vehicles.
energy (in terms of percentage), in particular wind farms and PV systems, it is necessary in order to
The study
replace has considered
the current thepresent
vehicle fleets habits within
of driversCanadawithandrespect
Italy. to proposed different scenarios based
on the kilometers travelled during the year. The main
The choice to use different percentages of renewable energy focus hasemerged
been to because
analyzerenewable
how much renewable
energy
energy
can (in terms of to
be dedicated percentage),
other uses, forin particular wind farms
example domestic and PV
use, lighting systems,
public spaces, it etc.
is necessary in order to
replace theThecurrent vehicle
results here showfleets
that present
in there iswithin Canada and
great potential for aItaly.
better exploitation of ‘green sources’
within Canada,
The choice especially
to use considering
different percentagestheirofwidespread
renewableavailability.
energy emerged Still, itbecause
is very important
renewabletoenergy
increase the dissemination of renewable energies. The situation
can be dedicated to other uses, for example domestic use, lighting public spaces, etc. is different for Italy where there is
already a significant amount of renewables available and so it is possible
The results here show that in there is great potential for a better exploitation of ‘green to hypothesize that future
sources’
growth in the years to come will not be high. Generally speaking, the results reveal that it is possible
within Canada, especially considering their widespread availability. Still, it is very important to
to replace the actual vehicle fleets, and fuel the new vehicle fleet, using some but not all of the energy
increase the dissemination of renewable energies. The situation is different for Italy where there is
obtained via renewables.
already aOfsignificant
course, theamount
situationof is renewables
critical when available and so ithave
the cars concerned is possible
very high to values.
hypothesize that future
For Canada,
growth
usingin82%
the ofyears to come
the energy will not
obtained be wind
from high.farms
Generally speaking,
it is possible the results
to replace 35% ofreveal that
the total it is possible
vehicle in
to replace
the formtheofactual vehicle
electric fleets,
vehicles; usingand5%fuel the new
of energy, it vehicle
is possiblefleet,
to using
replacesome but not all of the energy
all motorcycles/mopeds.
obtained via renewables.
Conversely, using 60% of the energy obtained from PV systems Canada could replace 35% of the total
Of course, the situation is critical when the cars concerned have very high values. For Canada,
using 82% of the energy obtained from wind farms it is possible to replace 35% of the total vehicle
in the form of electric vehicles; using 5% of energy, it is possible to replace all motorcycles/mopeds.
Sustainability 2016, 8, 27 16 of 17

Conversely, using 60% of the energy obtained from PV systems Canada could replace 35% of the total
motorcycles in the form of electric motorcycles. It simply does not appear possible to use the PV
energy supply to successfully fuel the cars. The Italian context is different: in both cases, it is possible
to use the energy to fuel “green vehicles”. Using 60% of the energy from wind farms it is possible
to replace 15% of the total vehicle fleet in the form of electric vehicles; 40% is required to replace all
motorcycles/mopeds. Alternatively, using 75% and 28% of the energy obtained from PV systems, Italy
can replace 25% of the total vehicle fleet into electric vehicles and all motorcycles/mopeds into electric
motorcycles, respectively. These values are encouraging because they show that it is not necessary to
allocate all available energy to the recharging of EVs and, thus, the remaining energy can be set aside
for other uses, such as domestic or business uses.
In summary, then, the results of this study have been directed at exploring the possible benefits,
in the form of reduced CO2 emissions, associated with the potential implementation of the powering
of EVs and electric motorcycles via renewables in the countries of Canada and Italy.
In conclusion, it is clearly shown that a pronounced introduction and distribution of Renewable
Energy Sources (RES), electric vehicles (EVs) and electric motorcycles (EMs) can operate as a great
opportunity for both the environment and the capacities and needs of energy production.
Finally, it should be recognized that today, the electric vehicle is not widespread. With this study,
it is demonstrated how EVs can be well integrated with renewable energy. Therefore, it is the duty
of governments to implement policy strategies; for example, by providing direct subsidies or fiscal
incentives, in order to spread them to more territory.

Author Contributions: These authors contributed equally to this work.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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