Cognitive psychology

Obstacles and aids to problem-solving

Unit III sun unit (b)

PYQs
1. blocks to problem solving

2.Discuss the obstacles to it in detail

Note: 1. sir’s notes are in blue 2.stuff from the

internet is in red 3. stuff from galotti is in green

Algorithm problem-solving strategy characterized by a specific set of instructions

Anchoring bias faulty heuristic in which you fixate on a single aspect of a problem
to find a solution

Availability heuristic faulty heuristic in which you make a decision based on

information readily available to you

Confirmation bias faulty heuristic in which you focus on information that confirms
your beliefs

Functional fixedness inability to see an object as useful for any other use other
than the one for which it was intended

Heuristic mental shortcut that saves time when solving a problem

Hindsight bias belief that the event just experienced was predictable, even though
it really wasn’t

Mental set continually using an old solution to a problem without results

Problem-solving strategy method for solving problems

Representative bias faulty heuristic in which you stereotype someone or something
without a valid basis for your judgment

Trial and error problem-solving strategy in which multiple solutions are attempted
until the correct one is found

Working backwards heuristic in which you begin to solve a problem by focusing on

the end result

Types and techniques of problem solving sir’s PPT

Method Description Example

Continue trying Restarting phone, turning off WiFi, turning

Trial and
different solutions until off bluetooth in order to determine why your
error
problem is solved phone is malfunctioning

Step-by-step problem- Instruction manual for installing

Algorithm
solving formula new software on your computer

General problem- Working backwards; breaking

Heuristic
solving framework a task into steps

 Trial and error (mechanical solution)- Trying one solution

after another until finding one that works. Pin number.
Haphazard, systematic.
 Algorithms- are specific step by step procedures for solving
certain types of problems. Will always result in correct
solutions.
 9th-century mathematician Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-
Khwārizmī.
 Algorithms do not exist for many problems.

Algorithm problem-solving strategy characterized by a

specific set of instructions
 An algorithm is a problem-solving formula that provides you with step-by-
step instructions used to achieve a desired outcome (Kahneman, 2011). You
can think of an algorithm as a recipe with highly detailed instructions that
produce the same result every time they are performed.
 Algorithms are used frequently in our everyday lives, especially in computer
science.
 Heuristics- Herbert Simon. A guiding principle or ‘rule of
thumb’ used in solving problems or making decisions.
 A simple rule that is intended to apply to many situations.
 It is an educated guess based on prior experiences that helps
narrow down the possible solutions for a problem.
 A heuristic is another type of problem solving strategy. While an algorithm
must be followed exactly to produce a correct result, a heuristic is a general
problem-solving framework (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974). You can think of
these as mental shortcuts that are used to solve problems. A “rule of
thumb” is an example of a heuristic. Such a rule saves the person time and
energy when making a decision, but despite its time-saving characteristics,
it is not always the best method for making a rational decision.

1. Representative heuristic- for categorizing objects simply

assumes that any object (or person) that shares
characteristics with the members of a particular category is
also a member of that category.
Useful for categorizing plants but does not work well with
people.
Are all people with dark skin from Africa? Can be used or
misused to create and sustain stereotypes.
2. Work backward- shortest way.
 Working backwards is a useful heuristic in which you begin solving the
problem by focusing on the end result.

3. Break a goal down into sub goals- each sub goal is

achieved the final solution that is much closer. Another useful
heuristic is the practice of accomplishing a large goal or task by breaking it
into a series of smaller steps. Students often use this common method to
complete a large research project or long essay for school.
The large task becomes less overwhelming when it is broken down into a
series of small steps.

2. Means end analysis- Person determines the difference

between the current situation and the goal and then tries to
reduce that difference by various means (methods).
Invitation, one sample.
Means-ends analysis – choosing and analyzing an action at a series of
smaller steps to move closer to the goal.

One example of means-end analysis can be found by using the Tower of

Hanoi paradigm.

5. Availability- involves making decisions based upon how

easy it is to bring something to mind. Relevant examples.
Since these are more readily available in your memory, you
will likely judge these outcomes as being more common or
frequently occurring.
Thinking of flying, recent airlines accidents, car
6. Affect- making choices that are influenced by the
emotions that an individual is experiencing at that moment.
People are more likely to see decisions as having benefits
and lower risks when they are in a positive mood. Negative
emotion lead people to focus on potential downsizes
7. Anchoring- The tendency to be overly influenced by the
first bit of information we hear or learn. This can make it
 more difficult to consider other factors and lead to poor
choices. For example, how much willing to pay, first offer.

Additional Problem Solving Strategies:

 Abstraction – refers to solving the problem within a model of

the situation before applying it to reality.
 Analogy – is using a solution that solves a similar problem.
 Brainstorming – refers to collecting an analyzing a large
amount of solutions, especially within a group of people, to
combine the solutions and developing them until an optimal
solution is reached.
 Divide and conquer – breaking down large complex problems
into smaller more manageable problems.
 Hypothesis testing – method used in experimentation where
an assumption about what would happen in response to
manipulating an independent variable is made, and analysis of
the affects of the manipulation are made and compared to the
original hypothesis.
 Lateral thinking – approaching problems indirectly and
creatively by viewing the problem in a new and unusual light.
 Means-ends analysis – choosing and analyzing an action at a
series of smaller steps to move closer to the goal.
 Method of focal objects – putting seemingly non-matching
characteristics of different procedures together to make
something new that will get you closer to the goal.
 Morphological analysis – analyzing the outputs of and
interactions of many pieces that together make up a whole
system.
 Proof – trying to prove that a problem cannot be solved. Where
the proof fails becomes the starting point or solving the
problem.
 Reduction – adapting the problem to be as similar problems
where a solution exists.
  Research – using existing knowledge or solutions to similar
problems to solve the problem.
 Root cause analysis – trying to identify the cause of the
problem

Obstacles to problem solving

1. Irrelevant information- Sternberg (1986), incorrectly
assume that all the numerical information in a problem is
necessary to solve it.
When you are trying to solve a problem, it is important to
distinguish between information that is relevant to the
issue and irrelevant data that can lead to faulty solutions.
When a problem is very complex, the easier it is to focus
on misleading or irrelevant information
Irrelevant information is information that is presented as
part of a problem, but which is unrelated or unimportant
to that problem and will not help solve it. Typically, it
detracts from the problem-solving process, as it may seem
pertinent and distract people from finding the most
efficient solution
2. Functional fixedness- the tendency to perceive an item
only in terms of its most common use.. Thinking objects in
terms of only their typical functions.. Loose screw.. String
problem.. 8 coins.
This term refers to the tendency to view problems only in
their customary manner.3 Functional fixedness prevents
people from fully seeing all of the different options that
might be available to find a solution.
Functional fixedness is a special type of mental set that
occurs when the intended purpose of an object hinders a
person’s ability to see its potential other uses. So for
example, say you need to open a can of broth but you only
have a hammer. You might not realize that you could use the
pointy, two-pronged end of the hammer to puncture the top
of the can, since you are so accustomed to using the hammer
as simply a pounding tool.
2. Mental sets- Unconscious tendency to approach a
problem in a particular way. Computer, restart. Functional
fixedness is a kind of mental set, which is defined as the
tendency for people to persist in using problem- patterns
that have worked for them in the past. Luchins (1942)
developed mental set through practice.
A mental set is the tendency people have to only use
solutions that have worked in the past rather than looking
for alternative ideas. A mental set can often work as a
heuristic, making it a useful problem-solving tool.
However, mental sets can also lead to inflexibility, making
it more difficult to find effective solutions.
3. Unnecessary constraints- Nine dots problems
A famous example of this barrier to problem solving is the
dot problem. In this problem, there are nine dots arranged
in a 3 x 3 square. The solver is asked to draw no more than
four lines, without lifting their pen or pencil from the
paper that connect all of the dots. What often happens is
that the solver creates an assumption in their mind that
they must connect the dots without letting the lines go
outside the square of dots. The solvers are literally unable
to think outside the box. Standardized procedures of this
nature often involve mentally invented constraints of this
kind.
4. Confirmation bias- ESP
confirmation bias, the tendency to process information
by looking for, or interpreting, information that is
consistent with one’s existing beliefs.
This biased approach to decision making is largely
unintentional and often results in ignoring inconsistent
information. Existing beliefs can include one’s
expectations in a given situation and predictions about a
particular outcome. People are especially likely to process
information to support their own beliefs when the issue is
highly important or self-relevant.