DC Circuit Theory

DC Circuit Theory
The fundamental relationship between voltage, current and resistance in an electrical or
electronic circuit is called Ohm’s Law.

Basic DC circuit theory looks at how an electric circuit is an interconnection of

electrical elements and that electrical current is the flow of charge, measured
in amperes (A) being pushed around a closed circuit by a potential difference
(electromotive force) known as voltage, measured in volts (V).
All materials are made up from atoms, and all atoms consist of protons,
neutrons and electrons. Protons, have a positive electrical charge. Neutrons
have no electrical charge (that is they are Neutral), while Electrons have a
negative electrical charge. Atoms are bound together by powerful forces of
attraction existing between the atoms nucleus and the electrons in its outer
shell.
When these protons, neutrons and electrons are together within the atom they
are happy and stable. But if we separate them from each other they want to
reform and start to exert a potential of attraction called a potential difference.
Now if we create a closed circuit these loose electrons will start to move and
drift back to the protons due to their attraction creating a flow of electrons.
This flow of electrons is called an electrical current. The electrons do not flow
freely through the circuit as the material they move through creates a
restriction to the electron flow. This restriction is called resistance.
Then all basic electrical or electronic circuits consist of three separate but very
much related electrical quantities called: Voltage, ( v ), Current, ( i ) and
Resistance, ( Ω ).

Electrical Voltage
In Dc circuit theory, voltage, ( V ) is the potential energy of an electrical
supply stored in the form of an electrical charge. Voltage can be thought of as
the force that pushes electrons through a conductor and the greater the
voltage the greater is its ability to “push” the electrons through a given circuit.
As energy has the ability to do work this potential energy can be described as
the work required in joules to move electrons in the form of an electrical
current around a circuit from one point or node to another.
Then the difference in voltage between any two points, connections or
junctions (called nodes) in a circuit is known as the Potential Difference,
( p.d. ) commonly called the Voltage Drop.
The Potential difference between two points is measured in Volts with the
circuit symbol V, or lowercase “v“, although Energy, E lowercase “e” is
sometimes used to indicate a generated emf (electromotive force). Then the
greater the voltage, the greater is the pressure (or pushing force) and the
greater is the capacity to do work.
A voltage source that is unchanging and constant over time is called a DC
Voltage. While a voltage source that varies periodically in amplitude over time
is called an AC voltage. Whether an AC or DC supply, voltage is measured in
volts, with one volt being defined as the electrical pressure required to force
an electrical current of one ampere through a resistance of one Ohm.
While voltages are generally expressed in Volts, prefixes are used to denote
sub-multiples of the voltage present, such as microvolts ( μV = 10-
6
 V ), millivolts ( mV = 10-3 V ) or kilovolts ( kV = 103 V ). Note that voltage
can be either positive or negative in amplitude.
Batteries, power supplies or solar cells produce a D.C. (direct current) voltage
source of a fixed value and polarity. For example, 5v, 12v, -9v, etc. A.C.
(alternating current) voltage sources on the other hand such as those
available for homes, offices and industrial applications have a value relating to
the power they supply. The voltage and frequency of mains alternating current
(AC) electricity used in homes is typically 230 volts AC (230V) in the United
kingdom and 110 volts AC (110V) in the USA.
General electronic circuits operate on low voltage DC battery supplies of
between 1.5V and 24V dc The circuit symbol for a constant voltage source
usually given as a battery symbol with a positive, + and negative, – sign
indicating the direction of the polarity. The circuit symbol for an alternating
voltage source is a circle with a sine wave inside.

Voltage Symbols

A simple relationship can be made between a tank of water and a voltage

supply. The higher the water tank above the outlet the greater the pressure of
the water as more energy is released, the higher the voltage the greater the
potential energy as more electrons are released.
Voltage is always measured as the difference between any two points in a
circuit and the voltage between these two points is generally referred to as the
“Voltage drop“. Note that voltage can exist across a circuit without current,
but current cannot exist without voltage and as such any voltage source
whether DC or AC likes an open or semi-open circuit condition but hates any
short circuit condition as this can destroy it.

Electrical Current
In DC circuit theory, electrical Current, ( I ) is the movement or flow of
electrical charge and is measured in Amperes, symbol i, for intensity). It is the
continuous and uniform flow (called a drift) of electrons (the negative particles
of an atom) around a circuit that are being “pushed” by the voltage source. In
reality, electrons flow from the negative (–ve) terminal to the positive (+ve)
terminal of the supply and for ease of circuit understanding conventional
current flow assumes that the current flows from the positive to the negative
terminal.
Generally in circuit diagrams the flow of current through the circuit usually has
an arrow associated with the symbol, I, or lowercase i to indicate the actual
direction of the current flow. However, this arrow usually indicates the
direction of conventional current flow and not necessarily the direction of the
actual flow.

Conventional Current Flow

Conventionally this is the flow of positive charge around a circuit, being

positive to negative. The diagram at the left shows the movement of the
positive charge (holes) around a closed circuit flowing from the positive
terminal of the battery, through the circuit and returns to the negative terminal
of the battery. This flow of current from positive to negative is generally known
as conventional current flow.
This was the convention chosen during the discovery of electricity in which the
direction of electric current was thought to flow in a circuit. To continue with
this line of thought, in all circuit diagrams and schematics, the arrows shown
on symbols for components such as diodes and transistors point in the
direction of conventional current flow.
Then Conventional Current Flow gives the flow of electrical current from
positive to negative and which is the opposite in direction to the actual flow of
electrons.

Electron Flow

The flow of electrons around the circuit is opposite to the direction of the
conventional current flow being negative to positive.The actual current flowing
in an electrical circuit is composed of electrons that flow from the negative
pole of the battery (the cathode) and return back to the positive pole (the
anode) of the battery.
This is because the charge on an electron is negative by definition and so is
attracted to the positive terminal. This flow of electrons is called Electron
Current Flow. Therefore, electrons actually flow around a circuit from the
negative terminal to the positive.
Both conventional current flow and electron flow are used by many textbooks.
In fact, it makes no difference which way the current is flowing around the
circuit as long as the direction is used consistently. The direction of current
flow does not affect what the current does within the circuit. Generally it is
much easier to understand the conventional current flow – positive to
negative.
In electronic circuits, a current source is a circuit element that provides a
specified amount of current. For example, 1A, 5A, or 10 Amps etc, with the
circuit symbol for a constant current source given as a circle with an arrow
inside indicating its direction.
Current is measured in Amps and an amp or ampere is defined as the
number of electrons or charge (Q in Coulombs) passing a certain point in the
circuit in one second, (t in Seconds).
Electrical current is generally expressed in Amps with prefixes used to
denote micro amps ( μA = 10-6A ) or milliamps ( mA = 10-3A ). Note that
electrical current can be either positive in value or negative in value
depending upon its direction of flow around the circuit.
Current that flows in a single direction is called Direct Current, or D.C. and
current that alternates back and forth through the circuit is known
as Alternating Current, or A.C.. Whether AC or DC current only flows
through a circuit when a voltage source is connected to it with its “flow” being
limited to both the resistance of the circuit and the voltage source pushing it.
Also, as alternating currents (and voltages) are periodic and vary with time the
“effective” or “RMS”, (Root Mean Squared) value given as Irms produces the
same average power loss equivalent to a DC current Iaverage . Current sources
are the opposite to voltage sources in that they like short or closed circuit
conditions but hate open circuit conditions as no current will flow.
Using the tank of water relationship, current is the equivalent of the flow of
water through the pipe with the flow being the same throughout the pipe. The
faster the flow of water the greater the current. Note that current cannot exist
without voltage so any current source whether DC or AC likes a short or semi-
short circuit condition but hates any open circuit condition as this prevents it
from flowing.
DC Circuit Theory of Resistance
Resistance, ( R ) is the capacity of a material to resist or prevent the flow of
current or, more specifically, the flow of electric charge within a circuit. The
circuit element which does this perfectly is called the “Resistor”.
Resistance is a circuit element measured in Ohms, Greek symbol ( Ω, Omega
) with prefixes used to denote Kilo-ohms ( kΩ = 103Ω ) and Mega-ohms ( MΩ
= 106Ω ). Note that resistance cannot be negative in value only positive.

DC Circuit Theory for Resistor Symbols

The amount of resistance a resistor has is determined by the relationship of

the current through it to the voltage across it which determines whether the
circuit element is a “good conductor” – low resistance, or a “bad conductor” –
high resistance. Low resistance, for example 1Ω or less implies that the circuit
is a good conductor made from materials such as copper, aluminium or
carbon while a high resistance, 1MΩ or more implies the circuit is a bad
conductor made from insulating materials such as glass, porcelain or plastic.
A “semiconductor” on the other hand such as silicon or germanium, is a
material whose resistance is half way between that of a good conductor and a
good insulator. Hence the name “semi-conductor”. Semiconductors are used
to make Diodes and Transistors etc.
Resistance can be linear or non-linear in nature, but never negative. Linear
resistance obeys Ohm’s Law as the voltage across the resistor is linearly
proportional to the current through it. Non-linear resistance, does not
obey Ohm’s Law but has a voltage drop across it that is proportional to some
power of the current.
Resistance is pure and is not affected by frequency with the AC impedance of
a resistance being equal to its DC resistance and as a result can not be
negative. Remember that a resistor is an electrical component, while
resistance is the slope of the straight line defined by Ohm’s law and as such
resistance is always positive, and never negative.
A resistor is classed as a passive circuit element and as such cannot deliver
power or store energy. Instead resistors absorb power that appears as either
heat and light. Power in a resistance is always positive regardless of voltage
polarity and current direction.
For very low values of resistance, for example milli-ohms, ( mΩ ) it is
sometimes much easier to use the reciprocal of resistance ( 1/R ) rather than
resistance ( R ) itself. The reciprocal of resistance is called Conductance,
symbol ( G ) and represents the ability of a conductor or device to conduct
electricity.
In other words the ease by which current flows and we can also present
current flow as being: i = 1/R * v = Gv. Thus high values of conductance
implies a good conductor such as copper while low values of conductance
implies a bad conductor such as wood. The standard unit of measurement
given for conductance is the Siemen, symbol (S).
The unit used for conductance is mho (ohm spelt backward), which is
symbolized by an inverted Ohm sign ℧. Power can also be expressed using
conductance as: p = i2/G = v2G.
The relationship between Voltage, ( v ) and Current, ( i ) in a circuit of
constant Resistance, ( R ) would produce a straight line i-v relationship with
slope equal to the value of the resistance as shown.
 DC Circuit Theory Summary
Hopefully by now you should have some idea about DC circuit theory and how
electrical Voltage, Current and Resistance are closely related together. The
relationship between Voltage, Current and Resistance forms the basis of
Ohm’s law. In a linear circuit of fixed resistance, if we increase the voltage, the
current goes up, and similarly, if we decrease the voltage, the current goes
down. This means that if the voltage is high the current is high, and if the
voltage is low the current is low.
Likewise, if we increase the resistance, the current goes down for a given
voltage and if we decrease the resistance the current goes up. Which means
that if resistance is high current is low and if resistance is low current is high.
Then we can see that current flow around a circuit is directly proportional ( ∝ )
to voltage, ( V↑ causes I↑ ) but inversely proportional ( 1/∝ ) to resistance as,
( R↑ causes I↓ ).
A basic summary of the three units is given below.
 Voltage or potential difference is the measure of potential energy between two
points in a circuit and is commonly referred to as its ” volt drop “.
 When a voltage source is connected to a closed loop circuit the voltage will
produce a current flowing around the circuit.
 In DC voltage sources the symbols +ve (positive) and −ve (negative) are used
to denote the polarity of the voltage supply.
 Voltage is measured in Volts and has the symbol V for voltage or E for
electrical energy.
 Current flow is a combination of electron flow and hole flow through a circuit.
 Current is the continuous and uniform flow of charge around the circuit and is
measured in Amperes or Amps and has the symbol I.
 Current is Directly Proportional to Voltage ( I ∝ V )
 The effective (rms) value of an alternating current has the same average power
loss equivalent to a direct current flowing through a resistive element.
 Resistance is the opposition to current flowing around a circuit.
 Low values of resistance implies a conductor and high values of resistance
implies an insulator.
 Current is Inversely Proportional to Resistance ( I 1/∝ R )
 Resistance is measured in Ohms and has the Greek symbol Ω or the letter R.
 Unit of
Quantity Symbol Abbreviation
Measure

Voltage V or E Volt V

Current I Ampere A

Resistance R Ohms Ω

In the next tutorial about DC Circuit Theory we will look at Ohms Law which is
a mathematical equation explaining the relationship between Voltage, Current,
and Resistance within electrical circuits and is the foundation of electronics
and electrical engineering. Ohm’s Law is defined as: V = I*R.
Electrical Units of Measure
Electrical Units of Measurement are used to express standard electrical units along with
their prefixes when the units are too small or too large to express as a base unit

The standard electrical units of measure used for the expression of voltage,
current and resistance are the Volt [ V ], Ampere [ A ] and Ohm [ Ω ]
respectively.
These electrical units of measurement are based on the International (metric)
System, also known as the SI System with other commonly used electrical
units being derived from SI base units.
Sometimes in electrical or electronic circuits and systems it is necessary to
use multiples or sub-multiples (fractions) of these standard electrical
measuring units when the quantities being measured are very large or very
small.
The following table gives a list of some of the standard electrical units of
measure used in electrical formulas and component values.

Standard Electrical Units of Measure

Electrical Measuring
Symbol Description
Parameter Unit

Unit of Electrical Potential

Voltage Volt V or E
V = I × R

Unit of Electrical Current

Current Ampere I or i
I = V ÷ R

Unit of DC Resistance
Resistance Ohm R or Ω
R = V ÷ I
 Reciprocal of Resistance
Conductance Siemen G or ℧
G = 1 ÷ R

Unit of Capacitance
Capacitance Farad C
C = Q ÷ V

Unit of Electrical Charge

Charge Coulomb Q
Q = C × V

Unit of Inductance
Inductance Henry L or H
VL = -L(di/dt)

Unit of Power
Power Watts W
P = V × I  or  I2 × R

Unit of AC Resistance
Impedance Ohm Z
Z2 = R2 + X2

Unit of Frequency
Frequency Hertz Hz
ƒ = 1 ÷ T

Multiples and Sub-multiples

There is a huge range of values encountered in electrical and electronic engineering
between a maximum value and a minimum value of a standard electrical unit. For
example, resistance can be lower than 0.01Ω or higher than 1,000,000Ω.
By using multiples and submultiple’s of the standard unit we can avoid having to write
too many zero’s to define the position of the decimal point. The table below gives their
names and abbreviations.
Prefix Symbol Multiplier Power of Ten
 Tera T 1,000,000,000,000 1012

Giga G 1,000,000,000 109

Mega M 1,000,000 106

kilo k 1,000 103

none none 1 100

centi c 1/100 10-2

milli m 1/1,000 10-3

micro µ 1/1,000,000 10-6

nano n 1/1,000,000,000 10-9

1/1,000,000,000,00
pico p 10-12
0

So to display the units or multiples of units for either Resistance, Current or

Voltage we would use as an example:
 1kV = 1 kilo-volt  –  which is equal to 1,000 Volts.
 1mA = 1 milli-amp  –  which is equal to one thousandths (1/1000) of an
Ampere.
 47kΩ = 47 kilo-ohms  –  which is equal to 47 thousand Ohms.
 100uF = 100 micro-farads  –  which is equal to 100 millionths
(100/1,000,000) of a Farad.
 1kW = 1 kilo-watt  –  which is equal to 1,000 Watts.
 1MHz = 1 mega-hertz  –  which is equal to one million Hertz.
To convert from one prefix to another it is necessary to either multiply or
divide by the difference between the two values. For example, convert 1MHz
into kHz.
Well we know from above that 1MHz is equal to one million (1,000,000) hertz
and that 1kHz is equal to one thousand (1,000) hertz, so one 1MHz is one
thousand times bigger than 1kHz. Then to convert Mega-hertz into Kilo-hertz
we need to multiply mega-hertz by one thousand, as 1MHz is equal to 1000
kHz.
Likewise, if we needed to convert kilo-hertz into mega-hertz we would need to
divide by one thousand. A much simpler and quicker method would be to
move the decimal point either left or right depending upon whether you need
to multiply or divide.
As well as the “Standard” electrical units of measure shown above, other units
are also used in electrical engineering to denote other values and quantities
such as:
 •  Wh – The Watt-Hour, The amount of electrical energy consumed by a
circuit over a period of time. Eg, a light bulb consumes one hundred watts of
electrical power for one hour. It is commonly used in the form of: Wh (watt-
hours), kWh (Kilowatt-hour) which is 1,000 watt-hours or MWh (Megawatt-hour)
which is 1,000,000 watt-hours.
 •  dB – The Decibel, The decibel is a one tenth unit of the Bel (symbol B) and
is used to represent gain either in voltage, current or power. It is a logarithmic
unit expressed in dB and is commonly used to represent the ratio of input to
output in amplifier, audio circuits or loudspeaker systems.
 
For example, the dB ratio of an input voltage (VIN) to an output voltage (VOUT) is
expressed as 20log10 (Vout/Vin). The value in dB can be either positive (20dB)
representing gain or negative (-20dB) representing loss with unity, ie input =
output expressed as 0dB.
 •  θ – Phase Angle, The Phase Angle is the difference in degrees between the
voltage waveform and the current waveform having the same periodic time. It is
a time difference or time shift and depending upon the circuit element can have
a “leading” or “lagging” value. The phase angle of a waveform is measured in
degrees or radians.
 •  ω – Angular Frequency, Another unit which is mainly used in a.c. circuits to
represent the Phasor Relationship between two or more waveforms is called
Angular Frequency, symbol ω. This is a rotational unit of angular
frequency 2πƒ with units in radians per second, rads/s. The complete
revolution of one cycle is 360 degrees or 2π, therefore, half a revolution is given
as 180 degrees or π rad.
 •  τ – Time Constant, The Time Constant of an impedance circuit or linear
first-order system is the time it takes for the output to reach 63.7% of its
maximum or minimum output value when subjected to a Step Response input. It
is a measure of reaction time.
In the next tutorial about DC circuit theory we will look at Kirchhoff’s Circuit
Law which along with Ohms Law allows us to calculate the different voltages
and currents circulating around a complex circuit.
 Kirchhoff's Law of Circuits with Examples

Kirchhoff's's Law of Current

Kirchhoff's law of current states that the algebraic sum of all current at any node (or junction) in an electrical circuit is

equal to zero or equivalently the sum of the currents flowing into a node is equal to the sum of the currents flowing out of

that node.

∑I in=∑I out

At the node N above, we may write

i1 + i2 = i3 + i4

Use Kirchhoff's Law of Current to Solve Current Problems

Example 1

Find current i3 at the node shown below.

Solution to Example 1

Currents i1 and i2 are flowing into the node and currents i3 and i4 are flowing out of the node. Apply Kirchhoff's law of

current at the given node.

i1+i2 = i3+i4

Substitute the known quantities

2+9=i3+4

Solve for i3

i3=7 A

Example 2

Find currents i3 and i4 at the nodes N1 and N2 shown below.

Solution to Example 2

We are not given any information whether i3 and i4 flow into or out of the nodes. We assume i3 flowing out of

node N1 and i4 flowing out of node N2 as shown below (in red) and use Kirchhoff's current law.
At node N1, i1 flows into N1 and i2 and i3 flow out of N1, hence

i1 = i2 + i3

Substitute by known quantities

5 = 9 + i3

Solve for i3

i3=−4

Because i3 is negative, i3 flows into node N1

At node N2, i3 and i5 flows into N2 and i4 flows out of N2, hence

i3+i5 = i4

Substitute by known quantities

−4+10 = i4

Solve for i4

i4=6

Because i4 is positive it therefore flows out of node N2

Kirchhoff's's Law of Voltage

Kirchhoff's law of voltage states that in any closed loop in an electrical circuit, the algebraic sum of all voltages around the

loop is equal to zero.

∑ vk = 0
 Using the closed loop, we may write

e−VR1−VR2=0

Note: The voltage polarities for voltage sources and voltages across passive components such as resistor has to be

respected and the signs taken care of.

Use Kirchhoff's Law of Voltage to Solve Voltage Problems

Example 3

Use Kirchhoff's Law of Voltage and all possible closed loops to write equations involving voltages in the circuit below and

explain the signs of the voltages.

 Solution to Example 3

Step 1: Set negative and positive polarities for all voltages (sources and across passive components). See diagram above

Step 2: Set arrows from the negative to the positive polarity of each voltage. See diagram above.

Step 3: Use Kirchhoff's Law of Voltage to write the equation following the rule:

As we go around the loop, if the arrow of the voltage is in the same direction as the loop it is "counted" as a positive

voltage and if it is against it is "counted" as a negative voltage.

Loop L1: The arrow of the voltage source e is in the same direction as the loop hence positive. The arrows of

voltages VR1 and VR2, across the resistors, are against the direction of the loop hence negative.

Kirchhoff's Law for loop L1 gives:

e − VR1 − VR2 = 0

Loop L2: The arrows of the voltage VR2 is in the same direction of the loop hence positive. The arrows of voltages VR2,

is against the direction of the loop hence negative.

Kirchhoff's Law for loop L2 gives:

VR2 − VR3 = 0

Loop L3: The arrows of the voltage source e is in the same direction as the loop hence positive. The arrows of

voltages VR1 and VR3, are against the direction of the loop hence negative.

Kirchhoff's Law for loop L3 gives:

e − VR1 − VR3 = 0

Example 4

In the circuit below e1=20 Volts, VR2=5 Volts and e2=10 Volts. Find the voltages VR2 and VR3.

Solution to Example 4

Apply Kirchhoff's law of voltage to loop L1 and write the equation

e1 − Vr1 − VR2 = 0

Substitute the known quantities

20−5−VR2=0

Solve for VR2

VR2=15 A
Apply Kirchhoff's law of voltage to loop L2 and write the equation

Vr2+e2−VR3=0

Substitute the known quantities

15+10−VR3=0

Solve for VR3

VR3=25

Important Note

What about loop L3?

Apply Kirchhoff's law of voltage to loop L3 and write the equation

e1−VR1+e2−VR3=0

Substitute the known quantities

20−5+10−25=0

The above equation is already satisfied. The mathematical meaning is that some of the equations given by Kirchhoff's law

of voltage are not independent.

 Kirchhoffs Circuit Law

Kirchhoffs Circuit Law

Kirchhoffs Circuit Laws allow us to solve complex circuit problems by defining a set of basic
network laws and theorems for the voltages and currents around a circuit

Using Kirchhoffs circuit law relating to the junction rule and his closed loop
rule, we can calculate and find the currents and voltages around any closed
circuit providing we know the values of the electrical components within it.
We saw in the Resistors tutorial that a single equivalent resistance, ( RT ) can
be found when two or more resistors are connected together in either series,
parallel or combinations of both, and that these circuits obey Ohm’s Law.
However, sometimes in complex circuits such as bridge or T networks, we can
not simply use Ohm’s Law alone to find the voltages or currents circulating
within the circuit. For these types of calculations we need certain rules which
allow us to obtain the circuit equations and for this we can use Kirchhoffs
Circuit Law.
In 1845, a German physicist, Gustav Kirchhoff developed a pair or set of
rules or laws which deal with the conservation of current and energy within
electrical circuits. These two rules are commonly known as: Kirchhoffs Circuit
Laws with one of Kirchhoffs laws dealing with the current flowing around a
closed circuit, Kirchhoffs Current Law, (KCL) while the other law deals with
the voltage sources present in a closed circuit, Kirchhoffs Voltage Law,
(KVL).
Kirchhoffs First Law – The Current Law, (KCL)
Kirchhoffs Current Law or KCL, states that the “total current or charge
entering a junction or node is exactly equal to the charge leaving the node as
it has no other place to go except to leave, as no charge is lost within the
node“. In other words the algebraic sum of ALL the currents entering and
leaving a node must be equal to zero, I(exiting) + I(entering) = 0. This idea by Kirchhoff
is commonly known as the Conservation of Charge.

Kirchhoffs Current Law

 
Here, the three currents entering the node, I1, I2, I3 are all positive in value and
the two currents leaving the node, I4 and I5 are negative in value. Then this
means we can also rewrite the equation as;
I1 + I2 + I3 – I4 – I5 = 0
The term Node in an electrical circuit generally refers to a connection or
junction of two or more current carrying paths or elements such as cables and
components. Also for current to flow either in or out of a node a closed circuit
path must exist. We can use Kirchhoff’s current law when analysing parallel
circuits.

Kirchhoffs Second Law – The Voltage Law, (KVL)

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law or KVL, states that “in any closed loop network, the
total voltage around the loop is equal to the sum of all the voltage drops within
the same loop” which is also equal to zero. In other words the algebraic sum
of all voltages within the loop must be equal to zero. This idea by Kirchhoff is
known as the Conservation of Energy.
 Kirchhoffs Voltage Law

 
Starting at any point in the loop continue in the same direction noting the
direction of all the voltage drops, either positive or negative, and returning
back to the same starting point. It is important to maintain the same direction
either clockwise or anti-clockwise or the final voltage sum will not be equal to
zero. We can use Kirchhoff’s voltage law when analysing series circuits.
When analysing either DC circuits or AC circuits using Kirchhoffs Circuit
Laws a number of definitions and terminologies are used to describe the parts
of the circuit being analysed such as: node, paths, branches, loops and
meshes. These terms are used frequently in circuit analysis so it is important
to understand them.

Common DC Circuit Theory Terms:

 • Circuit – a circuit is a closed loop conducting path in which an electrical
current flows.
 • Path – a single line of connecting elements or sources.
 • Node – a node is a junction, connection or terminal within a circuit were two
or more circuit elements are connected or joined together giving a connection
point between two or more branches. A node is indicated by a dot.
 • Branch – a branch is a single or group of components such as resistors or a
source which are connected between two nodes.
 • Loop – a loop is a simple closed path in a circuit in which no circuit element
or node is encountered more than once.
 • Mesh – a mesh is a single closed loop series path that does not contain any
other paths. There are no loops inside a mesh.

Note that:
    Components are said to be connected together in Series if the same
current value flows through all the components.
    Components are said to be connected together in Parallel if they have the
same voltage applied across them.

A Typical DC Circuit
Kirchhoffs Circuit Law Example No1
Find the current flowing in the 40Ω Resistor, R3
 

 
The circuit has 3 branches, 2 nodes (A and B) and 2 independent loops.
Using Kirchhoffs Current Law, KCL the equations are given as:
At node A :    I1 + I2 = I3
At node B :    I3 = I1 + I2
Using Kirchhoffs Voltage Law, KVL the equations are given as:
Loop 1 is given as :    10 = R1 I1 + R3 I3 = 10I1 + 40I3
Loop 2 is given as :    20 = R2 I2 + R3 I3 = 20I2 + 40I3
Loop 3 is given as :    10 – 20 = 10I1 – 20I2
As I3 is the sum of I1 + I2 we can rewrite the equations as;
Eq. No 1 :    10 = 10I1 + 40(I1 + I2)  =  50I1 + 40I2
Eq. No 2 :    20 = 20I2 + 40(I1 + I2)  =  40I1 + 60I2
We now have two “Simultaneous Equations” that can be reduced by
subtraction to give us the values of I1 and I2 
Substitution of I1 in terms of I2 gives us the value of I1 as -0.143 Amps
Substitution of I2 in terms of I1 gives us the value of I2 as +0.429 Amps
 As :    I3 = I1 + I2
The current flowing in resistor R3 is given as :    -
0.143 + 0.429 = 0.286 Amps
and the voltage across the resistor R3 is given
as :    0.286 x 40 = 11.44 volts
The negative sign for I1 means that the direction of current flow initially chosen
was wrong, but never the less still valid. In fact, the 20v battery is charging the
10v battery.

Application of Kirchhoffs Circuit Laws

These two laws enable the Currents and Voltages in a circuit to be found, ie,
the circuit is said to be “Analysed”, and the basic procedure for
using Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws is as follows:
 1. Assume all voltages and resistances are given. ( If not label them V1, V2,…
R1, R2, etc. )
 2. Assigns a current to each branch or mesh (clockwise or
anticlockwise)
 3. Label each branch with a branch current. ( I1, I2, I3 etc. )
 4. Find Kirchhoff’s first law equations for each node.
 5. Find Kirchhoff’s second law equations for each of the independent loops of
the circuit.
 6. Use Linear simultaneous equations as required to find the unknown currents.

As well as using Kirchhoffs Circuit Law to calculate the various voltages and

currents circulating around a linear circuit, we can also use loop analysis to
calculate the currents in each independent loop which helps to reduce the
amount of mathematics required by using just Kirchhoff’s laws. In the next
tutorial about DC circuits, we will look at Mesh Current Analysis to do just that.
Mesh Current Analysis

Mesh Current Analysis

Mesh Current Analysis is a technique used to find the currents circulating around a loop or mesh
with in any closed path of a circuit.

While Kirchhoff´s Laws give us the basic method for analysing any complex
electrical circuit, there are different ways of improving upon this method by
using Mesh Current Analysis or Nodal Voltage Analysis that results in a
lessening of the math’s involved and when large networks are involved this
reduction in maths can be a big advantage.
For example, consider the electrical circuit example from the previous section.

Mesh Current Analysis Circuit

 
 One simple method of reducing the amount of math’s involved is to analyse
the circuit using Kirchhoff’s Current Law equations to determine the
currents, I1 and I2 flowing in the two resistors. Then there is no need to
calculate the current I3 as its just the sum of I1 and I2. So Kirchhoff’s second
voltage law simply becomes:
 Equation No 1 :    10 =  50I1 + 40I2
 Equation No 2 :    20 =  40I1 + 60I2
therefore, one line of math’s calculation have been saved.

Mesh Current Analysis

An easier method of solving the above circuit is by using Mesh Current
Analysis or Loop Analysis which is also sometimes called Maxwell´s Circulating
Currents method. Instead of labelling the branch currents we need to label
each “closed loop” with a circulating current.
As a general rule of thumb, only label inside loops in a clockwise direction with
circulating currents as the aim is to cover all the elements of the circuit at least
once. Any required branch current may be found from the appropriate loop or
mesh currents as before using Kirchhoff´s method.
For example: :    i1 = I1 , i2 = -I2  and  I3 = I1 – I2
We now write Kirchhoff’s voltage law equation in the same way as before to
solve them but the advantage of this method is that it ensures that the
information obtained from the circuit equations is the minimum required to
solve the circuit as the information is more general and can easily be put into
a matrix form.

For example, consider the circuit from the previous section.

 
These equations can be solved quite quickly by using a single mesh
impedance matrix Z. Each element ON the principal diagonal will be “positive”
and is the total impedance of each mesh. Where as, each element OFF the
principal diagonal will either be “zero” or “negative” and represents the circuit
element connecting all the appropriate meshes.
First we need to understand that when dealing with matrices, for the division
of two matrices it is the same as multiplying one matrix by the inverse of the
other as shown.

 
 having found the inverse of R, as V/R is the same as V x R-1, we can now use
it to find the two circulating currents.

Where:
 [ V ]   gives the total battery voltage for loop 1 and then loop 2
 [ I ]     states the names of the loop currents which we are trying to find
 [ R ]   is the resistance matrix
 [ R-1 ]   is the inverse of the [ R ] matrix
and this gives I1 as -0.143 Amps and I2 as -0.429 Amps
As :    I3 = I1 – I2
The combined current of I3 is therefore given as :   -0.143 – (-
0.429) = 0.286 Amps

This is the same value of  0.286 amps current, we found previously in

the Kirchhoffs circuit law tutorial.
 Tutorial Summary
This “look-see” method of circuit analysis is probably the best of all the circuit
analysis methods with the basic procedure for solving Mesh Current
Analysis equations is as follows:
 1. Label all the internal loops with circulating currents. (I1, I2, …IL etc)
 2. Write the [ L x 1 ] column matrix [ V ] giving the sum of all voltage sources in
each loop.
 3. Write the [ L x L ] matrix, [ R ] for all the resistances in the circuit as follows:


o   R  = the total resistance in the first loop.

11

o   R  = the total resistance in the Nth loop.

nn

o   R  = the resistance which directly joins loop J to Loop K.

JK

 4. Write the matrix or vector equation [V]  =  [R] x [I] where [I] is the list of

currents to be found.
As well as using Mesh Current Analysis, we can also use node analysis to
calculate the voltages around the loops, again reducing the amount of
mathematics required using just Kirchoff’s laws. In the next tutorial relating to
DC circuit theory, we will look at Nodal Voltage Analysis to do just that.
 Ohms Law and Power

Ohms Law and Power

The relationship between Voltage, Current and Resistance in any DC electrical circuit
was firstly discovered by the German physicist Georg Ohm.

Georg Ohm found that, at a constant temperature, the electrical current flowing through
a fixed linear resistance is directly proportional to the voltage applied across it, and also
inversely proportional to the resistance. This relationship between the Voltage, Current
and Resistance forms the basis of Ohms Law and is shown below.

Ohms Law Relationship

By knowing any two values of the Voltage, Current or Resistance quantities we can
use Ohms Law to find the third missing value. Ohms Law is used extensively in
electronics formulas and calculations so it is “very important to understand and
accurately remember these formulas”.

To find the Voltage, ( V )

[ V = I x R ]      V (volts) = I (amps) x R (Ω)

To find the Current, ( I )

[ I = V ÷ R ]      I (amps) = V (volts) ÷ R (Ω)

To find the Resistance, ( R )

[ R = V ÷ I ]      R (Ω) = V (volts) ÷ I (amps)
It is sometimes easier to remember this Ohms law relationship by using
pictures. Here the three quantities of V, I and R have been superimposed into
a triangle (affectionately called the Ohms Law Triangle) giving voltage at the
top with current and resistance below. This arrangement represents the actual
position of each quantity within the Ohms law formulas.

Ohms Law Triangle

 
Transposing the standard Ohms Law equation above will give us the following
combinations of the same equation:

 
Then by using Ohms Law we can see that a voltage of 1V applied to a resistor
of 1Ω will cause a current of 1A to flow and the greater the resistance value,
the less current that will flow for a given applied voltage. Any Electrical device
or component that obeys “Ohms Law” that is, the current flowing through it is
proportional to the voltage across it ( I α V ), such as resistors or cables, are
said to be “Ohmic” in nature, and devices that do not, such as transistors or
diodes, are said to be “Non-ohmic” devices.

Electrical Power in Circuits

Electrical Power, ( P ) in a circuit is the rate at which energy is absorbed or
produced within a circuit. A source of energy such as a voltage will produce or
deliver power while the connected load absorbs it. Light bulbs and heaters for
example, absorb electrical power and convert it into either heat, or light, or
both. The higher their value or rating in watts the more electrical power they
are likely to consume.
The quantity symbol for power is P and is the product of voltage multiplied by
the current with the unit of measurement being the Watt ( W ). Prefixes are
used to denote the various multiples or sub-multiples of a watt, such
as: milliwatts (mW = 10-3W) or kilowatts (kW = 103W).
Then by using Ohm’s law and substituting for the values of V, I and R the
formula for electrical power can be found as:

To find the Power (P)

[ P = V x I ]      P (watts) = V (volts) x I (amps)
Also:
[ P = V2 ÷ R ]      P (watts) = V2 (volts) ÷ R (Ω)
Also:
[ P = I2 x R ]      P (watts) = I2 (amps) x R (Ω)
Again, the three quantities have been superimposed into a triangle this time
called a Power Triangle with power at the top and current and voltage at the
bottom. Again, this arrangement represents the actual position of each
quantity within the Ohms law power formulas.

The Power Triangle

 
and again, transposing the basic Ohms Law equation above for power gives
us the following combinations of the same equation to find the various
individual quantities:
 
So we can see that there are three possible formulas for calculating electrical
power in a circuit. If the calculated power is positive, (+P) in value for any
formula the component absorbs the power, that is it is consuming or using
power. But if the calculated power is negative, (–P) in value the component
produces or generates power, in other words it is a source of electrical power
such as batteries and generators.

Electrical Power Rating

Electrical components are given a “power rating” in watts that indicates the
maximum rate at which the component converts the electrical power into other
forms of energy such as heat, light or motion. For example, a 1/4W resistor, a
100W light bulb etc.
Electrical devices convert one form of power into another. So for example, an
electrical motor will covert electrical energy into a mechanical force, while an
electrical generator converts mechanical force into electrical energy. A light
bulb converts electrical energy into both light and heat.
Also, we now know that the unit of power is the WATT, but some electrical
devices such as electric motors have a power rating in the old measurement
of “Horsepower” or hp. The relationship between horsepower and watts is
given as: 1hp = 746W. So for example, a two-horsepower motor has a rating
of 1492W, (2 x 746) or 1.5kW.

Ohms Law Pie Chart

To help us understand the the relationship between the various values a little
further, we can take all of the Ohm’s Law equations from above for
finding Voltage, Current, Resistance and of course Power and condense them
into a simple Ohms Law pie chart for use in AC and DC circuits and
calculations as shown.
Ohms Law Pie Chart

As well as using the Ohm’s Law Pie Chart shown above, we can also put the
individual Ohm’s Law equations into a simple matrix table as shown for easy
reference when calculating an unknown value.

Ohms Law Matrix Table

 Ohms Law Example No1
For the circuit shown below find the Voltage (V), the Current (I), the
Resistance (R) and the Power (P).

 
Voltage   [ V = I x R ] = 2 x 12Ω = 24V
Current   [ I = V ÷ R ] = 24 ÷ 12Ω = 2A
Resistance   [ R = V ÷ I ] = 24 ÷ 2 = 12 Ω
Power   [ P = V x I ] = 24 x 2 = 48W
 
Power within an electrical circuit is only present when BOTH voltage and
current are present. For example, in an open-circuit condition, voltage is
present but there is no current flow I = 0 (zero), therefore V*0 is 0 so the
power dissipated within the circuit must also be 0. Likewise, if we have a
short-circuit condition, current flow is present but there is no voltage V = 0,
therefore 0*I = 0 so again the power dissipated within the circuit is 0.
As electrical power is the product of V*I, the power dissipated in a circuit is the
same whether the circuit contains high voltage and low current or low voltage
and high current flow. Generally, electrical power is dissipated in the form
of Heat (heaters), Mechanical Work such as motors, Energy in the form of
radiated (Lamps) or as stored energy (Batteries).

Electrical Energy in Circuits

Electrical Energy is the capacity to do work, and the unit of work or energy is
the joule ( J ). Electrical energy is the product of power multiplied by the
length of time it was consumed. So if we know how much power, in Watts is
being consumed and the time, in seconds for which it is used, we can find the
total energy used in watt-seconds. In other words, Energy = power x time and
Power = voltage x current. Therefore electrical power is related to energy and
the unit given for electrical energy is the watt-seconds or joules.

 
Electrical power can also be defined as the rate of by which energy is
transferred. If one joule of work is either absorbed or delivered at a constant
rate of one second, then the corresponding power will be equivalent to one
watt so power can be defined as “1Joule/sec = 1Watt”. Then we can say that
one watt is equal to one joule per second and electrical power can be defined
as the rate of doing work or the transferring of energy.

Electrical Power and Energy Triangle

 
or to find the various individual quantities:

 
We said previously that electrical energy is defined as being watts per second
or joules. Although electrical energy is measured in Joules it can become a
very large value when used to calculate the energy consumed by a
component.
For example, if a 100 watt light bulb is left-“ON” for 24 hours, the energy
consumed will be 8,640,000 Joules (100W x 86,400 seconds), so prefixes
such as kilojoules (kJ = 103J) or megajoules (MJ = 106J) are used instead
and in this simple example, the energy consumed will be 8.64MJ (mega-
joules).
But dealing with joules, kilojoules or megajoules to express electrical energy,
the maths involved can end up with some big numbers and lots of zero’s, so it
is much more easier to express electrical energy consumed in Kilowatt-hours.
If the electrical power consumed (or generated) is measured in watts or
kilowatts (thousands of watts) and the time is measure in hours not seconds,
then the unit of electrical energy will be the kilowatt-hours,(kWhr). Then our
100 watt light bulb above will consume 2,400 watt hours or 2.4kWhr, which is
much easier to understand the 8,640,000 joules.
1 kWhr is the amount of electricity used by a device rated at 1000 watts in one
hour and is commonly called a “Unit of Electricity”. This is what is measured
by the utility meter and is what we as consumers purchase from our electricity
suppliers when we receive our bills.
Kilowatt-hours are the standard units of energy used by the electricity meter in
our homes to calculate the amount of electrical energy we use and therefore
how much we pay. So if you switch ON an electric fire with a heating element
rated at 1000 watts and left it on for 1 hour you will have consumed 1 kWhr of
electricity. If you switched on two electric fires each with 1000 watt elements
for half an hour the total consumption would be exactly the same amount of
electricity – 1kWhr.
So, consuming 1000 watts for one hour uses the same amount of power as
2000 watts (twice as much) for half an hour (half the time). Then for a 100
watt light bulb to use 1 kWhr or one unit of electrical energy it would need to
be switched on for a total of 10 hours (10 x 100 = 1000 = 1kWhr).
Now that we know what is the relationship between voltage, current and
resistance in a circuit, in the next tutorial relating to DC Circuits, we will look at
the Standard Electrical Units used in electrical and electronic engineering to
enable us to calculate these values and see that each value can be
represented by either multiples or sub-multiples of the standard unit