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    ICS Lab Manual

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    vijay nagireddy

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    RAGHU ENGINEERING COLLEGE (Autonomous) Dakamarri (v), Bheemunipatnam (M) Visakhapatnam Dist, Andhra Pradesh, PIN-531162 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL SYSTEM LABORATORY LABORATORY MANUAL PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVE (PEOs) PEOL Developing capability to comprehend the fun amentals of Mechanical! [Engineerit icati gineering for application to engineering problems in the field of design, lmanufact lure, research and mould themselves as successful engineers. |PEO I [To produce skilled and competent graduates eapable of facing the challenges o| real life, engineering practices and command over various aspects. o! [Mechanical Engineering Education. PEO DL [Upgrade themselves personally and professionally in taking up state of the art ltechnological challenges, pursuing leadership roles and employability while| lbelieving on the ethical values. PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs) |PSO: raduates will be able to explore the technical knowledge and able to design aj ‘stem, product, or process to meet desired needs within realistic constraints veh as economic, environmental, social, political, ethical, health and safety, anufacturability, and sustainability. be able to work comfortably with various machines, equipment, and also can use proficiently various h as Auto CAD, Catia, Pro E, Ansys, Nastran| raduates will manufacturing and processing ‘AD/CAMICIE. softwares suel imulation tools like Matlab ete.. iT | VISION AND MISSION OF THE INSTITUTE VISION Envisioning to be a world class technical institution by izing quality education with ethical values. MISSION ‘To enlist the services of expert faculty. To encourage training and research in cutting- edge technologies. To develop and strengthen strategic links with the industry. To kindle the zeal among the students and promote their quest for academic excellence. To | encourage extra-curricular activities along with good communication skills. VISION AND MISSION OF THE DEPARTMENT VISION To become a global knowledge hub, striving continuously in pursuit of excellence in the field of Mechanical Engineering education, Entrepreneurship and Innovation. MISSION M1 To impart total quality education through effective hi-tech teaching-learning techniques and department-industries collaboration. M2 To develop linkages and interaction with industry, R & D organizations and tions for excellence in research and consultancy practices. educational in: M3 To achieve National / International standards to contribute to the Government's “Make in India" industrial policy through innovation and research. PROGRAM OUTCOMES PO! | Engineering knowledge: Apply the know , science, engineering | fundamentals, and an engincering specialization to the solution of complex engineering | problems PO2 | Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review revearch literature, and analyze eomplex | engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of | mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences. PO3 | Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and | design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and | environmental considerations. | PO4 | Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, | and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions. POS | Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and | modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex | engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations. PO6 | The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to | assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice. | PO7 | Environment and sustainal Inderstand the impact of the professional engineering | solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and | need for sustainable development. P08 | Ethies: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities | and norms of the engineering practice. PO9 | Individual and team work: Function effectively as an ind jual, and as a member or | +f] | | teader in diverse teams, and in multidiseiplinary settings. : | engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and | write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions. | POIT | Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the | | engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member | and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments. | POI2 | Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technologi | | change. COURSE OUTCOM At the end of the course, the student will be able to: Cor Students will learn calibration process of various instruments. Coz ‘Students will be able to identify the errors. ‘C03 ‘Students will be able to select proper measuring instrument COs Students can perform accurate measurements. Cos | por | Po: : coil v |v — ‘iv corl v |v Tw Dw cos] ¥ |v cya 7 cos 7 ears eae RAGHU ENGINEERING COLLEGE (Autonomous) (Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTU Kakinada, A Dakamarri, Bheemunipatnam Mandal, V (A.P.) Ph:+91-8922-248001 ,248002 Fax: + 91-8922-242011 ¢-mail: principal@raghuenggcollege.com webs www.raghuengycollege.com DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERD hapatnam L CERTIFICATE Branch: Mechanical Engineering Class and Semester: IV Year I Semester Prepared By Verified By (Dept. IQAC Coordinator) Name : Reetanjali Panda ae Designation: Assistant Professor Date: 1. 12.2020 Designation: Date: IQAC verification by nme [Be Kur’ vesaalds Prs yeaa Our Director-IGAC Raghu Engineering Colleae ‘Approval of (HOD) Name: Signature: Date: SCHEME OF EVALUATION INTERNAL ASSESSMENT : SEMESTER END EXAMINATION — = TOTAL INTERNAL ASSESSMENT MARKS. : CONTINUOUS EVALUATION 7 INTERNAL TEST LAB ORIENTED PROJECT TOTAL SEMESTER END EXAMINATION 60 MARKS 40 MARKS, 100 MARKS, 20 MARKS 20MARKS. 20 MARKS. 6OMARKS At the end of the course work, lab examination will be conducted as per the College examination schedules notified. The 40 marks will be allotted based on the assessment of two examiners: one external and the other internal. INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL SYSTEM LAB AR 17 IV Year- I Semester COURSE OBJECTIVE: 1. Students will be able to select proper measuring instrument. 2. Students will know requirement of calibration, errors in measurement ete. 3. Students can perform accurate measurements. LIST OF EXPERIMENTS 1. Calibration of pressure gauge. Calibration of transducer for temperature measurement. Study and calibration of LVDT transducer for displacementmeasurement. Calibration of strain gauge. Calibration of thermocouple. Calibration of capacitive transducer. Study and calibration of photo and magnetic speed pickups. er awe Calibration of resistance temperature detector. Study and calibration of a rotameter. ne 0.Study and use of a seismic pickup for the measurement of vibrationamplitude of an engine bed at various loads. 11.Study and calibration of Mcleod gauge for low pressure. INDEX ExperimentNo. Description ne 1 Calibration of pressure gauge. [a Hi Calibration of resistance temperature | detector. = 3 Study and calibration of LVDT for ls displacement measurement. | 4 Calibration of strain gauge. | 3 3 Calibration of thermocouple. 7 6 Calibration of capacitive transducer. [2 _ Calibration of transducer for temperature | oe measurement, | 7 Study and calibration of photo and | 7 magnetic speed pickups. 9 Study and calibration ofarotameter. | 30 Study and use of a seismic pickup for the | 10 measurement of vibration amplitude of | 32 an engine bed at various loads. | fn Study and calibration of Mcleod for low pressure. Experiment No: 1 CALIBRATION OF PRESSURE GAUGE AIM: To calibrate the given pressure gauge for pressure measurement using dead weight pressure ga Hydraulic oil, Theory: Pressure (symbol P) is the force per unit area applied in the direction perpendicular to the surface of the object. ‘The SI unit for pressure is the Pascal (Pa), equal to one Newton per square meter (dyn.cm™ . Pressure is also expressed in kg/ee (kgfec). The atmospheric pressure is equal to 1 bar (105 Pa) or approximately 1 kg’ce. Pressure Measurement Instruments used to measure pressure are called pressure gauges. Bourdon tube pi used for measuring high as well as low pressure. It consists of metal tube of gauge approximately elliptical cross-section. This tube is bent in the form of a segment of a circle and responds to pressure changes. The pressure acts equally on every square inch / em of area of the tube, When pressure is applied, the tube will straighten out until the difference in force is balanced by the clastic resistance of the material composing the tube.. When one end of the tube is attached to the gauge case, the internal pressure causes tubs to expand. These are generally made up of brass or nickel steel. The working parts are enclosed within a protective case of metal, plastic or similar material with the dial visible through a clear glass or plastic face. This converts the measured parameter directly into a visual display on dial scale, from which it can be recorded. Mechanical pressure gauges are generally used to measure moderate to high pressures in many hhanical engineering applications like boilers, compressor etc., Over a period of time the gauges are Veneraoie to 100se Sensitivity owing 10 Wear ana Tear, resulting In deviations oF BAULE pressure from the actual pressure. To enhance the effective life of gauge and also to facilitate accurate readings the pressure gauges are required to be calibrated at regular intervals. The dead- ‘weight tester is a device used for balancing a fluid pressure with a known weight. Typically, itis a device, which is used for static calibration of pressure gauges and is seldom employed for an actual pressure measurement. The accuracies of dead-weight testers are limited by two factors. 1. The friction between the cylinder and piston. 2. The uncertainty in the area of the piston. The friction is reduced by rotation of the piston to ensure negligible flow of oil through the annular space between the piston and cylinder, The arca upon which the weight force acts is not the area of the piston nor the cylinder. It is some effective area between these two, which depends on the clearance spacing, and the viscosity of the oil. The smaller the clearance, the more closely, the effective area will epproximate the cross-sectional area of the piston. Description of the apparatus: Dead weight tester primarily consists of an oil reservoir (E), screw capstan (G), plunger and inder (A and B) arrangement for loading gauge holder and a main block (M) to house the fluid circuit. To control the flow of oil between reservoir and the main block a control valve (F) is situated. The entire arrangement is located on a table with levelling screws. Apanager (9- Screw capsten Givertcal cyinder He Leveing Screws i. Saupe post Fig: Schematic diagram of Pressure gauge Working principle “The fluid pressure, by using a plunger on one end of the piston is rotated until the sufficient pressure is reached, (ic.,) piston-weight combination (Applied force) freely floats. When constrained to float freely within limit, the fluid pressure as indicated on the gauge must be equal to the weight of the weight-piston combination divided by the effective area of the piston, It is common practice that standard weights used with a given dead weight tester are the actual weieht divided bv the effective already sealed in corresnondine nressure units area of the piston). Fig: working of Pressure gauge ie, Pow= FoAg Where, Pow =dead weight pressure, Ax. effective arca of the piston-eylinder combination. Fe =cquivalent force of piston-mass combination given Dead weight tester the Tare pressure is 0.25 kgf//em?. Procedure: Since the piston assembly itself has weight, conventional deadweight gauges are not capable of measuring pressures lower than the piston weight /area ratio known as “Tare pressure”. For the 1. Level the instrument by adjusting leveling screws with the help of spirit level 2. Open oil reservoir valve (F) and wined capstan handle of screw pump fully in. Fill the off reservoir with hydraulic oil. 3. To eliminate the pressure of air from the instrument, rotate screw capstan in and out to remove air bubbles. ‘Note down the pressure gauge value. Release the screw capstan filly out. 10. Repeat the above procedure for various standard loads een ays Rotate the screw capstan fully out and then close the reservoir valve. Fit the gauge under test on gauge post after priming operation is over.” Select the range of loads and put the first load on weight table. Apply pressure with screw pump until the weight begins to rise up to the green band. Observations: Out Put Input Pressure gauge reading (Dead Weight) (Kefem?) (Kgffem’) S.NO . Up Seale | Down Scate | AY™8® B Error (Kgfiem*) ( % of Error B-A ) 100 Actual reading(True value) Vs Pressure gauge reading ‘Actual reading Vs Error Actual reading Vs % Error Precautions: 1) For minimization of frictional resistance, spin weight table by hand and adjust capstan until weight floats within indicator green band. 2) Due to possible friction in the mechanical linkage inside the device, the gauge's pointer may indicate a value a little off what the device is actually sensing. Gently tap the gauge before taking a reading from it. 3) Never take off weights without removing all pressure in the system by unscrewing the The given pressure gauge has been calibrated using a Dead Weight Tester. The pressure gauge reading at, ~ the actual pressure is ‘The corresponding percentage of error is Viva questior 1. Explain the working principle of Bourdon pressure gauge? 2, What are the applications of Dead Weight Tester? 3. What are the applications of Bourdon pressure gauge? 4, Why should we spin the weight table? 5. Why weights should not be taken out without opening the reservoir valve (or) by releasing the piston? 6. What are the different operating mediums that can be used in Dead Weight Tester? 7. What are the advantages of using water as the operating medium? 8. What is Static error, Relative static error and Percentage static error? 9. What is Calibration? 10. What is the importance of calibrating the Pressure Gauges? 11. What is accuracy? Experiment No: 2 © calibrate the given Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) Apparatus: 1. Temperature sensor (RTD) 2. Heating coil to heat water in water bath 3. Digital temperature Indicator and 4, Thermometer. ) by using Thermometer. Theory: Resistance thermometers, also called resistance temperature detectors or resistive thermal devices (RTD), are temperature sensors that exploit the predictable change in electrical resistance of some materials with changing temperature. As they are almost invariably made of platinum, they are often called platinum resistance thermometers (PTR). They are slowly replacing the use of thermocouples in many_ industrial applications below 6000C, due to higher accuracy and repeatability. There are many categories like carbon resistors, film and wire wound types are the most widely used. Carhon resistors ase widely available and are very inexpensive. They have very reproducible results at low temperatures. They are the most reliable from at extremely low temperatures. They generally do not suffer from significant hysteresis or strain gauge effects. Film thermometer have a layer of platinum on a substrate, the layer may be extremely thin, perhaps one micrometer. Advantages of this type are relatively low cost and fast response. Such devices have improved performance although the different expansion rates of the substrate and platinum give “strain gauge” effects and stability problems Wire — wound thermometers can have greater accuracy, especially for wide temperature fre coil which can expand freely over temperature, held in place by some mechanical support which lets the coil keep its shape. Advantage: > High accuracy > Low drift > Wide operating range > Suitable for precision applications. Panal details: TOWER ON: Rocker switch which switches on the supply of the instrument, with red light indication MIN: Single tum potentiometer. ‘1 When no voltage output from the son MAX: Single tum potentiometer. The output o display reads same as in the given reference ten SELECTOR: Two-position selector switches TERMINALS: Screw. he display can be adjusted to read minimum temperature, sor is measured. the amplifier is adjusted by this pot such that the mperature. ic, Thermometer temperature reading to sclect thermistor or RTD sensor, ‘ype terminals are provided to connect the given Thermister & RTD sensor, MAINS SUPPLY: Power cable, Power cable to be connected to the mains supply of 230V, S0Hz. FUSE: 500 mA cartridge fuse with h the instrument from internal electrical CAUTION: ‘older located on the rear side of the i shorting, Do not remove the fuse cap with power cable plugged to the mains instrument to protect 1, Tum the selector switch to the desire Position according to the given sensor probe (RTD). 2. Connect the given sensor to the temperature display unit, 3. Place the sensor probe and the thermometer into a beaker containing water at room temperature, 4. Connect the power supply to the temperature indicator. 5. Record the room temperature from the thermometer. 6. Adjust the MIN setting knob of the temperature indicator until the display shows the room temperature, 7. Connect the power supply to hearting coil and heat the water in the bath. 8. Set the temperature of thermocouple to the thermometer reading when the water is boiling, using MAX knob. 9 . Now the given thermocouple is calibrated with reference to thermometer. Record the ‘thermometer reading and the temperature indicator reading simultancously at regular intervals, Observations: RTD and Thermometer Input Out Put (Thermo Meter RID Reading in °C ‘% of Error Reading) in °C ‘Average ‘BA A Up Seale | Down Sate | “YS" ( 5 ) x 100 Result: The given Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) using thermometer as a standard and the relative percentage error at ---- is found to be —--— Graphs: 1. Tm w/s Ta (Thermometer Reading Vs Average Temperature) 2. Correction v/s Tm (Error Vs Thermometer Reading) 3. % Error vis Tm (% Error Vs Thermometer Reading) Experiment No: 3 CALIBRATION OF LYDT FOR DISPLACEMENT MEASUREME AIM: To calibrate the linear variable differen fk ab 7 erential transformer YT) us standard for displacement measurement, ee Apparatus: LVDT, micrometer, digital display, power supply. Theory: itis an inductive type of transducer. The principle on which i is based om is that translate linear motion into electrical signal. The basic structure of LVDT is shown in F m LVDT Circuit A.C.excitation ACExcitation Primar: Primary windin} winding ee = Core J we Os eee a pisplacement Displacement Secondary windings Secondary windings ‘Working principles and S2 respectively. The two windings $1 an = Es2) as in Voltages Bs; and Esp across the two secondary i the difference output vohage (Es Voltages Es1 and Esp are combined in series to yiel shown in the figure. )) With the soft iron core in the central or mull position, the magnetic flux linking with the two secondary windings S1 and S2 are equal thereby inducing equal voltages across them. Hence the resultant output voltage is zero. As the core moves to the right of the null position, flux linkages with winding, S2, exceeds the flux linkage with windings S}. The resultant output voltage (Est - Es2) is in phase with Es2.On the other hand, the core displaced to the left of the null position, the flux linkages with winding: Si exceeds the flux linkage with winding S2 and the resultant voltage (Esi- Es2) is in phase with Es. ifference voltage Eo = (Es1 - Es2) is proportional to the movement of the core from ion, Further, the difference voltage Eo is in phase with the primary winding volas in other direction, Change in the null po: for displacement in one direction and is 180° out of phase for displacemen Thus, by noting the magnitude and phase of difference voltage (Es1 - Es2) is the magnitude and direction of displacement of the core may be determined. ‘The amount of output voltage may be measured to determine the displacement. The output signal may be applied to a recorder or to a controller that can restore the moving system to its normal position. ‘The output voltage of a LVDT is linear functions of core displacement within a limited range of tically linear for small it line. against displacement for various positions of core. The curve is pra displacement (about 5 mm). Beyond this range the curve starts to deviate from stra Description of the apparatus: LVDT consists of one primary winding P and two secondary windings S) & S2 wound side by side on the same cylinder. ‘The two secondary windings Si & Ss have equal number of turns and are symmetrically placed on either side of primary winding P. A movable soft iron core is placed along the axis of the eylinder. ‘The linear displacement under measurement is applied to an arm alta id to the core. Schematic drawing of LVDT: oupa Primary Gott Schematic iagram of LVDT inear relation between the difference output voltage and linear displacement from null position for displacement upto 4mm. igh resolution of 10° mm or better. High sensitivity of 40Volts/mm or better. ‘Small, Light weight, easy to align and rugged. Low hysteresis and hence easy repeatability. isadvantages of LVD’ 1, Sensitive to stray magnetic field, hence shielding is required. 2. Performance occasionally effected by variations 3. Output unit is required to operate on a.c. signal. For d.c. output a modulator is required. 4, Low power output. 5. Performance is temperature sensitive, Further, temperature variations causes phase shift. Putting a capacitor may reduce this. Procedure: 1. Connect the terminals marked “PRIMARY” on the front panel of the instrument to the terminals marked “PRIMARY” on the transducer itself with the help of the flexible wires provided along with it. Observe the color code for the wires provided and the color of the Identically establish connections from terminals marked “SECONDARY”. Observe the color code of the wires provided and the color of the binding posts. Keep pot marked “MAX” in most anticlockwise position. The magnetic core may be displaced and the pointer may be brought to zero position. If the DPM is not indicating zero, use potentiometer marked “MIN” to get a zero on DPM at zero mechanical position. If the core is displaced in both the directions, the meter must show indications with appropriate polarity, Now displace the core to 19mm positions in one of the directions. Adjust the “MAX” pot to get an indication of 19.00 on the DPM 10 SSS under these conditions. Now the setup is ready for experimentation, You may gain check for zero position also. 5. Now the core can be displaced by a known amount in the range of +19 and -19mm and the meter readings can be entered in the table given below. It may noted that by inter changing the secondary terminals or the primary, the polarity of the meter indication can be reversed for a given direction of input displacement, 6. For LVDT provided with dial gauge (range 0 to 10 mm), adjust the magnetic core carefully by rotating the control knob in the clockwise direction. Note that for this type (Dial gauge type) arrangement, displacement in only one direction i.e. positive direction is possible. OPERATE THE CONTRON KNOB VERY CAREFULLY. 7. Plot the graph of input displacement and output indication on the X-axis and Y-axis respectively. Observations: Input (Micro Meter Error % of Error reading) in mm mm a A Up Seale | Down Seate | “Y78" | B-A C =) 100 Precautions: While connecting lead wire from panel to transducer, make proper connections following color code. Avoid shorting of the excitation source terminals 2. Move the core with a gentle fashion by operating the knob for core movement very tay W) cHELE WHE LUTE HHUYEUIEIE UeyUN IY MUTE a> PoE Me BHNEH karcnny. vo Hue range. ; Result; The given LVDT has been calibrated using Micrometer as a standard and the relative =» at the micrometer reading of —~ mm. percentage error is found to be Viva questions: 7 1. What is a Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDTY 2. What is an inductive transducer? 3. What is inductance or self induetance? 10. ul. What is mutual inductance? Write about the movable soft iron core. ‘What is the relationship between the core displacement and out put voltage? How many windings are there in LVDT and why the two secondary windings are connected in series? How the output voltage and the voltages developed in two secondary windings is related? In actual practice why there exists a small voltage at the null position which actually should not be there? What are the advantages of the LVDT? What are the limitations of the LVDT? aS Ty Experiment No: 4 CALIBRATION OF STRAIN GAUGE AIM: Calibration of strain gauge transducer for force measurement. Apparatus: Strain gauge transducer set-up, weights. Theory: Resistance of an electrical conductor varies according to the following relation. pl Rak a WHERE —_ R=RESISTANCE IN OHMS (Q) L= LENGTH OF CONDUCTOR IN CM A= CROSS SEMCTIONAL AREA OF CONDUCTOR p= RESISTIVITY OF MATERIAL IN “Q” CM Strain Gauge Transducer For Foree Measurement Strain may be measured either directly or indirectly, modern strain gauge are inherent type sensitive to strain ie the unit output is directly proportional to the unit dimensional change. Experiment has shown that each term is simultaneously effected by the input strain in a resistance strain gauge. The resistance clement is cemented to the surface of the member to be strained and as it elongates with application of strain, its cross sectional area reduces and a longer length of smaller element reduces. Simply accounting for these dimensional cha the gauge ie also a change in resistivity with mechanical measurements, Resistance wire strain gauges are transducers it applied to the surface members uncer test in order to sense the elongation oF strain due to applied loads, The wire stnin gauges depend upon the fact the when the wire is stretched elastically, its length and diameter are Hered, ‘This result in overall changes of resistance due to both the dimensional change of resistance, In addition to single bounded, wore strain gauges, we can bare metal foil gauges, rosette ad semiconductor gauges. Naturally strain gauges with nominal values of 120 (2, 350 2 are available strai transducer find applications in the measurement of such variables as load, force, torque; r iges does not completely explain the behavior of strain. This devi is of sufficient importance in auge thrust, pressure, ‘ance wire strain gauge is extremely small change in resistance as a result of applicd load. This makes the circuit operation and strain gauge installation very criti The present experimental unit consists of a cantilever beam with the following Beam width: Beam length: Beam thickness of material: Mild steel On a mild steel bar, a strain gauge with nominal resistance of 12002 is mounted adhesive tape. The leads of the gauge are connected to the instrument using a 9 pin D connector, ‘The instrument contains a bridge circuit consisting of high precision metal film resistors and trim pots. The strain gauge forms one arm of the bridge and the bridge is fed with a stable SV. de for excitation. The output of the bridge id fed to a non inverting amplifier iensions, TYPE FOIL ~ | Gauge Resistance Gauge Length Backing Material Gauge Factor Max.Excitation Voltage Temperature Resistance Max.Kepeatable Strain Fatigue Life (120405) 2 3mm Epoxy 19-00 Volts 70% Luv mega 4a 1500 micro st E million A muhitum heliport is used to adjust to drift voltage and ind! When a load is applied to the cantilever beam, the resistance pf the stra elongation of the beam. The resultant output is displayed in a pull balance of the bridge. ial meter. Principle: When a stress is applied toa body, it gets deformed and these deformations are elated to the applied stress. The evaluation of stress. distribution in the body in known as stress analysis. It includes the determination of kind, magnitude and direction of the stress. A number of methods are available for measuring strain. Some of them are:- > Mechanical Methods > Opto mechanical methods > Electrical strain gauges a) Capacitive b) Inductive c) Piezo electric 4) Resistance Grid method Moiré Fringe Technical Interferometer Photo elasticity vyvvv In the mechanical methods, the length of the gauge is about 250 mm. So, only a value of deformation average over large lengths can be obtained. Optical levers are used for magnification in the upto mechanical gauges. Because of high magnification achievable, these gauges are generally of length 50 mm Ex. Tuckerman gauge. ‘The methods which measure the change of some electrical quantities arising due to deformation in the body fall under clectrical methods. The gauges used possess the advantage of high sensitivity and ability to respond to dynamic strains. The resistance strain gauges are of two types 2) Unbounded strain gauges made of high tensile resistance wire of about 0.025 mm diameter and 25 mm in length. b) Bounded strain gauges cemented to the specimen such that they effectively form part of the surface and undergo the same strain. Procedure: 1. Connect the strain gauge to the instrument using the D-connector 2. Switch on the instrument 4. Adjust zero using the knob 5. Apply weights in steps of 200 gm and note down the reading 6 Apply weights of 500 g (total 2 kg) and note down the readings. 7. 8 ings of load indicated. . Tabulate your readings Itis also possible to plo Observations: 1 a graph of applied load versus load indicated. Input Out Put Lond applied : (Load applic’) in Gauge Reading, ror % of Error ingm | mm A Average | BA S.No t 1. Do not load more than 2 kgs on the beam. 2. Do not keep the load on the beam for more than 3 min, n Strain Gauge has been calibrated using standard weights the relative found to be — al the weight of —— gm percentage error Viva voce: 1. Define strain, What are the types of measurement of strain? 2. Explain the principle of strain gauge. 3, What is meant by RESISTIVITY OF MATERIAL? 4, Write the advantages of bounded strain gauges 16 Experiment No: 5 CALIBRATION OF THERMOCOUPLE |AIM : To calibrate “K” type thermocouple for temperature measurement using thermometer as a Apparatus: “K” type thermocouple, thermometer, water kettle, digital temperature indicator, power supply Description of the apparatus: ir consis of « Kettle with water. I has a stand which supports both the thermocouple and ime The water is heated by a kettle, connected to power supply. A digital temperature indicator displays the readings of thermocouple with the dynamic change in temperature of water. SG bigs |e ee ea Figure-1: Thermocouple for Temperature measurement Theory: Electrical methods of measurements of temperature are very convenient because they furnish signal that is easily detected, amplified or used for control purposes. In addition, they are usually quite ‘accurate when properly calibrated and compensated. Several temperature sensitive electrical elements are available as means of measurements. There are two types of elements: jun temperaiure, inere are materuis wnose resistance uements whose resistance enunges Je there are materials whose resistance decreases with increases with temperature (ex:-RTD) whi temperature (ex:-Thermistor). Combination of resistive element Thermo-electrie sensors: The most common ¢! uses the thermoelectric sensor, also known as the thermocouple, An arra js used for temperature measurement (hot junction (or) dissimilar metals whose one junction i : ” Id junction (or) reference junction) maintained at a and other junction (co couple. The construction of the thermocouple consists of «, which produce thermal emf. Ex: Thermocouple Jectrical method of temperature measurement yement of (Wo measuring junction) reference temperature is called a therm 7 of different metals twisted and brazed or welded together with each wire covered with which may be eithe Mineral (magnesium oxide) insulation for normal duty, or Ceramic insulation for heavy duty The basic principle of temperature measurement using a thermoelectric sensor was covered in 182L.when two conductors of dissimilar metals, say A and B are joined together to loop (Thermocouple) and two unequal temperatures Ti and Tz are interposed at two jes Jrend J: respectively, then an infinite resistance voltmeter detects the electromotive ly, i has been found that the magnitude of E depends upon the materials as the temperature T; and T= Now, the overall relation between emf E and temperatures Ti tasic thermoelectric measurements and is called seeback effet. Thus in practical sukzble device is incorporated to indicate the emf E or the flow of current 1. For nt and standardization, one of the two junctions is usually maintained at me known temperature. The measured emf E then indicates temperature difference relative to the reference temperature, such 2s ice point, which is very commonly used in practice. ce of measurem: thermoelectric current is allowed to flow in the circuit. Heat is generated at cold junction and is absorbed from the hot junction thereby heating the cold junction slightly and cooling the n slightly. This phenomenon is termed peltier effect. If the thermocouple voltage is measured by means of potentiometer, no current flows and peltier heating and cooling are not present. Further, these heating and cooling effects are proportional to the gible in a thermocouple circuit which is practically a millivolt ent and are fortunately creuit. In addition, the junction emf may slightly altered ifa temperature gradient exist along either or both the materials, This is known as Thomson effect. Again, the Thomson effect may be neglected in practical thermal electric circuits and potentiometer voltage measurements are not susceptible to this error 2s there is no current flow in the circuit. The actual application of thermocouples requires: consideration of the laws of thermoelectricity. ‘Thermocouple Materials: joverned by the followin factors: The choice of materials of the thermocouples is nl sat which there are used. 1. Ability to withstand the temperature 2. Immunity from contamination/oxidation, ete., which ensures mai clectric properties with continuous use. 3, Linearity characteristics. It may be noted that the relation between the thermoe! and cold junction temperature is approximately of the pi intenance of the precise thermo- Iectric emf and the difference between the hot sarabolic form. E=aT+bT? Where a, b are constants and Tis the difference in temperature between the hot and reference junctions. ‘Thermocouples can be broadly classified into two categories. 1.Base-metal thermocouple 2.Rare-metal thermocouple Base-metal thermocouple use the combination of pure metals and alloys of iron, copper and nickel and are used for temperature up to 1450K. These are most commonly used in practice as they are more sensitive, cheaper and have nearly linear characteristics. Their chief limitation is the lower operating range because of their low melting point and vulnerability to oxidat n. On the other hand, rare-metal thermocouple uses a combination of pure metals and alloys of platinum for temperature up to 2000K and tungsten, rhodium and molybdenum for temperature up to 2900K. needed, thermocouples may be attached in series. The For special purposes where high sensitivity is ingle couples. This is output is then the numerical sum of the voltages expected from each of the commonly known as thermopile, When connected in parallel, a group of thermocouples will give = reading that is the numerical average of the individual ones provided, the resistance of each individual thermocouple being the same. Procedure: 1. Connect the thermocouple to input terminal, Chromel is connected to positive input terminal and Alumel is connected to negative input terminal terminal (RED) and constantan wire is connected to negative input terminal (BLACK). If ‘connected to positive terminal. iron constantan thermocouple is used iron wire i lockwise direction 3. Potentiometer marked “MAX” is turned fully in anti 4. Ensure the water heater is ready and container contains sufficient amount of water and switch on the heater supply. 5, Prepare a mixture of melting ice and keep the mixture stirring 6. Immerse the thermocouple in ice bath and adjust the pot and adjust the potentiometer marked “MIN" to get to zero on digital monitor (or) when tap water is used and minimum 7. temperature is adjusted equal to the tap water as indicated by mercury in glass thermometer. 8. When water starts boiling the potentiometer marked “MAX” is adjusted to get an indication of boiling point temperature 9. Repeat steps 6 & 7 until satisfactory indication at 0o or ambient temperature of tap water and at boiling point is achieved 10. Tum off the heater so that water cools down and note the readings on digital monitor and thermometer reading, and enter in the observation. Observations: Input Out Put (Thermo Meter| thermo Ci ae le Readingin°C | Error | %of Ei Reading) in °C ee % a a : oO A Up Seale | Down Seate | “NIMES | BA 4) x 100 : a Precautions: 1. Make sure that the thermocouple or thermometer should not touch the bottom of the vessel. 2. Clean thermocouple before use to make sure that there is no scaling on its surface. Graphs: ‘Actual temperature (Thermometer reading) Vs Thermocouple reading. ‘Actial temperatuire (Thermornéter téading) Vs Error. H Antunt tamnaratuien (Tharmanvatae eandina\ We 0% Beene Result: The given K-type, thermocouple has been calibrated using thermometer as a standard and is found to be — the relative percentage error at Viva question: 1, What is a thermocouple? 2. What are the applications of thermocouple? 3. Classify the thermocouples. 4, On what factors the choice of materials for thermocouples depends on? 5, What are the advantages of thermocouples? 6, What are the limitations of thermocouples? 7. What is See beck effect? 8. What is peltier effect? 9, What is Thompson effect? 10, What are the insulation materials for thermocouple wires? 11, What is the law of intermediate temperatures? 12, What are the applications of law of intermediate temperatures? 13. What is the law of intermediate metals? 14, What are the applications of law of intermediate metals? 15. What is a thermopile? 16, What are the laws of thermoelectricity? 17. What is a thermo well? 18. Where do we use swamping resistors? 1uiod au Sunesado Xq gg] 0 souuou yj dnyoid aanoedea Jo yeys aun tm ¢ ‘od sejn3ue 0197 405 WoHeOIpUt “XVIN, PaHeuL AD 9UU! (20]9 Ut 081 1 =yeys auf Jo us (0192, uIPIg0 01 . NIN, Paseur so12uLoHTUD}od ayy ayesado paAatyre 10U St uomisod 019231 “F p ayy Uo uoIrisod 0132 WI 4994)“ -uonisod oraz 01 wuawrsseidsip seyndue induy aun d0ay4 7 yun ureus 94) wo 124908 3nd ay) 01 2/qua dn yard onryoedea eM 12UUOD “T ‘SIMpasory -uiaip avezodo 01 zamod jews asinbax Koyp axogezomp 9 [[eUts A198 sy stoonpstest aatstoudea Jo wourasmnbor o0x0j oy, “aaeas azUnbs & 5] poyesoUad sf Teyr ULLO}AGN Du “opnajdue uf yourp Kouanbayy Jo Stussy uy paxots S| wrrewusosur ayp pue fea 10u st neinO auf Jo WHOJOAEA atLL "ULL QTXT'O JO SUOISUIDLAIP 4e]NOe[OU! JO JOPIO AY} OF UALOP quoutsoejdsip yous Ajawros}x0 Jo JuauFounseaut 40F pasn oq WeD pu dALSUAS Ayq3ty st pur woysXs uorrejnpout Kouanbay st Joonpsuen axryoedeo jo djoy our yya qatwosnseout juowrsoe[dsip sejndue oy, souryoedes Suiducyo Jo shem snore, aan Bh ORS Saresces ES eounssip ut senunue, depono suid ui seSuBUS wh BERS sip edes aISOBLTS SLE edes a ———— eusonpsuesn oniyoede> /22U2!20 ‘sung s.0f99 04) UT UALOYS St paLseA 9q We 2oURUDRdED up yoy uL sem UBIaIsIP 94, WEISHOD aENoe[eIP Jo UORPLTEA Jo ajdioutid fr uO Pur totp usanjoq wontesedas ‘s1o}onpuod Jo vase aAy}99yF9 Jo uoHoUTY v sy souRyoEdeD TOTTI yun Aoydsip jeudiqy “dn-jaid aanroedeg SMpETETTY juowooe(dsip sejndue 405 dn-yord oaryoudea wos axp a4eaqyTe> 0 WAONASNVUL TALLIOVAVO JO NOLLVESITVS 9 ON juouradxg 6. Now rotate the capacitive pickup shaft in anticlockwise direction to zero position & observe the digital monitor. 7. Again rotate the shaft of capacitive pickup to 180° in clockwise direction & adjust the Potentiometer marked “MAX” to again 180°. 8. Now rotate the capacitive pickup shaft in anticlockwise direction to zero position & observe the digital monitor. 9. Repeat the steps 6, 7, 8 until the error is minimum. 10. When the error is minimum, start taking the readings. ms Out Put Input oo Capacitve Pickup Transducer AO y (Protractor) in Reading in® Error % of Error - Average| B-A - Up Scale | Down Scale — B 5 ) x 100 Precautions: 1. Operate the sensor knob very carefilly. 2. No parallax error in noting the reading of protractor. Roenhes ‘Actual value (Protractor reading) Vs Capacitive Transducer reading Actual value Vs Error Actual value Vs %Error Result: The given capacitive transducer for angular displacement measurement has been calibrated using standard range — and the relative percentage error at —— is found to be —— VIVA QUESTIONS ‘What is the principle of capacitive transducer? How the change in distance between he plates effects the chan; How the change in overlapping area between the pla What are the uses of the capacitive transducers? What is capacitance? What is static sensitivity? ‘What are the advantages of capacitive transducer? What are the limitations of capacitive transducer? Why the guard rings are used in capacitive transducers? 10, What sa transducer and what are different types of transducers? 11. What are the main advantages of getting an electrical signal as output in transducers? in capacitance’? change in capacitance? Yen awayne Experiment No 7. CALIBRATION OF TRANSDUCER FOR TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT AIM : To calibrate the temperature using strain gauge and compare with actual temperature. Learning Objective 1, To understand the use of instruments and to learn the measurements with and calibration of struments, 2. To understand the concept of how to use the instruments and take the measurements. THEORY : The primary object of the electronic instrumentation systems is to know about the transducers and their applications to measure mechanical and terminal quant The mechanical quantities include temperature and heat flux. Transducer: The transducer is a device that convert a change in the mechanical or thermal quantity being measured into a change of an electrical quantity Signals Conditioners: These conditioners are electronic circuit that convert, compensate or manipulate output form into a more usable electronic quantity. Example the Wheatstone bridge used in the strain transducer convert the changes in resistance. DESCRIPTION : The Electronic Instrumentation System ‘The complete instrumentation system usually contains six sub systems or elements. The transducer is a device that convert a change in the mechanical or thermal quantity being ‘measured into a change of an electrical quantity. Example in to a specimen, gives out electrical output by changing its resistance when material is strained, ‘The power supply provides the energy to drive the transducer. Example differential transformer, which is a transducer used to measure the displacement requires an AC voltage supply tovexcite the coi Switch on the panel. Keep the input angular displacement to zero position, Check from zero position on the digital monitor. not achieved operate the potentiometer marked “MIN” to obtain zero Ree If zero position indication for zero angular position of the shaft. 5. ‘Turn the shaft of capacitive pickup fully to 180° in clockwise direction & adjust the digital 10 180° by operating the potentiometer marked “MAX”, monitor Now rotate the capacitive pickup shall in anticlockwise direction to zero position & observe the digital monitor. 7. Again rotate the shaft of capacitive pickup to 180° in clockwise direction & adjust the potentiometer marked "MAX" to again 180". Now rotate the capacitive pickup shaft in anticlockwise direction to zero position & observe the digital monitor. 9. Repeat the steps 6, 7, 8 until the error is minimum, 10. When the error is minimum, start taking the readings. OBSERVATIONS: S.No J Actual temperature | Indicated Capacitive transducer | Error ‘Error (a) °C temperature readings (B)°C_ | (A-B) (A-BY/A)*100 1 50 8 2 4.0% 2 34 50 4 74% 3 35 30 5 91% 4 60 31 9 15.0% 5 6 52 3 20.0% GRAPHS: 1. Actual value (Protractor reading) Vs Capacitive Transducer reading 2. Actual value Vs Error 3. Actual value Vs %Error PRECAUTIONS: 1. Operate the sensor knob very carefully. 2. No parallax error in noting the reading of protractor. RESULT: ae ‘The given capacitive transducer for angular displacement measurement has been calibrated using standard range and the relative percentage is found to be 7.4 % at an actual temperature of S4 VIVA QUESTIOI i 1, What is the principle of capacitive transducer? 2, How the change in distance hetween he plates effee 3. How the change in overlapping area hetween the ph 4, What are the uses of the capacitive transducers? 5. What is capacitance? 6. What is static sensitivity? 7. What are the advantages of capacitive transducer? 8. What are the limitations of capacitive transducer? 9. Why the guard rings are used in capacitive transducers? 10, What is a transducer and what are different types of transducers? 11. What are the main advantages of getting an electrical signal as output in transduce the change in cap: citance es causes change in ca Exepriment No. & CALIBRATION OF PHOTO AND MAGNETIC SPEED PICKUPS AIM : To measure the speed of the motor by using photo sensor / magnetic sensor. Learning Objectives: 1. To understand the use of instruments and to learn the measurements with and calibration of instruments. 2. To understand the concept of how to use the instruments and take the measurements. APPARATUS : Digital speed indicator, photo sensor, magnetic sensor, motor. PRINCIPLE : The magnetic pickup type sensor is a speed measurement sensor, which is working under the principle produces AC frequency voltage which is further amplified to the required level and is mixed with known frequency. The resultant output is then multiplexed and then fed to the counter. WORKING : The magnetic speed pickup measurement sensor, having thin tube like magnet , is wound with coil. Both the ends of the coil are connected with the output. When the toner wheel rotates between light source and a photo diode, pulse will be produced at some frequency due to the interruption of light. A small emf will be produced around the coil. This provides the pulse train to amplifier section accordingly. This frequency is amplified to the required level and then fed to the mixer. Measurement of speed by this method is non-contact type, where there will be no control between the rotating shaft and the sensor. Hence there will be no frictional losses and the shaft will not be loaded. Once the system is fixed, continuous monitoring can be done easily. PROCEDURE : 1. Before switching on the instrument by pushing down the toggle switch provided at the rear side of the box, the LED display glows to indicate that the instrument is on. 2. Allow the instrument in one position for ten minutes for initial warm-up. 3, Select the sensor with the help of the toggle switch. 4, Switch on the electronic regulator. The fan rotates and in turn rotates the tone wheels. The display will start indicating exact RPM of the motor. 5. Readings can be tabulated for both the sensors. Comparison can be made between the two sensors. Observations: S.No | Magnetic Pickup | Photo Reflective [ Error (A-B) | %Enror @ . (A-BY/A)*100 i 209 196 13 6.22% 2 462 460 2 0.43% 3 SOT 302 7 0.19% 4 652 647 3 0.76% 5 925 910 15 1.62% RESULT : Thus the speed was measured by speed measurement trainer with the help of the magnetic pickup and photo reflective pickup sensor and tabulated. 29 Experiment No.9 CALIBRATION OF ROTOMETER AIM 2 To cal n Rotometer for flow rate measurement. Learning Objectives: id the use of rotometer and to Jearn to take measurements with and calibration of the concept of flow rate and calibrate the rotometer. APPARATUS: Rotometer, Stopwatch and Rotometer Test Rig DESCRIPTION: St consists of a vertical transparent conical tube in which there is a rotor or g 2 sharp circular edge. The rotor has grooves on its head, which ensures that Slows pest, i causes the rotor to rotate about its axis. The rotor is heavier than the liquid and hence: it will sink to the bottom of the tube when liquid is at rest but the liquid begins to flow ih the meter, it lifts the rotor until it reaches a steady level corresponding to the discharge. ‘The r2te of flow of liquid is read from graduations engraved on the tube by prior calibration. The roraion motion of Sloat helps to keep steady the condition of the equilibrium. The hydrostatic 2nd dynamic thrusts of the liguid on the underside of the rotor are equal to hydrostatic thrust on the upper side plus the apparent weight of the rotor. The float or rotor of a Rotometer is shown in Sigure | and the experimental test rig is shown in the figure 2. Sheet bet Fig: Schematic diagram of rotometer OCEDURE: .w rate adjustment valve) after switching the ma 1, Open the inlet valve (flo : fo that the discharge will vary and will be measured in the 2. Vary the inlet valve s Rotometer. 4. Regulate the inlet valve st with the LPM reading. uch that the minor diameter of float in the Rotometer coincides 30 4. For the same Rotometer reading measure the actual discharge to the coll S.calculating the actual discharge first closes the outlet valve of the tank: 6.Using stopwatch note the time taken for 10 cm rise of water level in the tank in T sec. 7.Repeat steps 3 to 6 to continue the experiment. 8.Compare the discharge through Rotometer with actual discharge and note OBSERVATIONS SNo | Actual Rotomieter Error discharge (A) | Discharge(B) | A-B (Litres/min) _ | (Litresimin) (Litres‘min) 1 [130 1 [030 2 [220 2 [020 3 {3.10 3 | 0.10 4 | 420 4 [0.20 3 5.10 3 [0.10 CALCULATIONS: Actual discharge (A) = {[Area of the tank (em®)* 10 em]/T (See)} em/see = (A*60/1000) LPM 1 liter = 1000 em? ; 1 LPM= 1000/60 em'/sec GRAPHS: 1. Actual Discharge Vs Rotometer Discharge 2. Actual Discharge Vs Error. 3. Actual Discharge Vs % Error PRECAUTIONS: 1. Observe the level of the float without parallax error. 2. Switch on & off the stop watch precisely to measur c n Rotometer has been calibrated relative Experiment No. 10 CALIBRATION OF McLeod GAUGE Aim: To ibrate the given vacuum cell (Low Pressure Cell) Apparatus: Vacuum Cell, dial type Vacuum gauge, Vacum Chamber, Vacuum pump to develop a-vacuum and digital vacuum indicator, Theory In everyday usage, vacuum is a volume of space that is essentially empty of matter. such that its gaseous pressure is much less than atmospheric pressure. The word comes from the Latin for Yempty”. A perfect vacmum would be one with no particles initially, which is impo achieve in practice. Physicists often discussed results that would occur in a perfect vacuum. which they simply call “vacuum” or “free space” and use the term partial vacuum to refer to real vacuum, The Latin term in vacuum is also used to describe an object as being in what other wise would be a vacuum, Vacuum is useful in a variety of processes and devices. Its fist wide spread use was in the incandescent light bulb to protect the filament from chemical degradation. The chemical inertness produced by a vacuum is also useful for electron beam welding, cold welding. vacuum packing and vacuum frying. Ultra-high vacuum is used in the study of atomically clean substrates, as only a very good vacuum preserves atomic-scale clean surfaces for a reasonably Jong time (on the order of minutes to days).High to ultra-high vacuum removes the obstruction of air, allowing particle beams to depositor remove materials without contamination. This is the principle behind chemical vapor deposition, physical vapor deposition, and dry etching which are essential to the fabrication of semi conductors and optical coatings, and to surface science. The reduction of convection provides the thermal insulation of thermos bottles. Deep vacuum lowers the boiling point of liquids and promotes low temperature out gassing which is used in eeze drying, adhesive preparation, distillation, metallurgy, and process purging. The electrical properties of vacuum make electron microscopes and vacuum tubes possible, including cathode ray tubes, The elimination of air friction is useful for fly wheel energy storage and sible to ultracentrifuges. pilar to a mercury ‘The working principle of the McLeod gauge in vacuum is quite si column manometer. Though Mcleod gauges usually use mercury, they may be designed to use other substances. Mateos Voouum Gauge esse PA Reference Cepary _ Peterence column ie an naeston ofboth SP wer | | Poon orc [lL JE rc cena 1B Westy il for constion 4 itary elt exten 2 Digial vacuum indicator: Vacuum indicator comprises of in built power supply which provides power for strain gauge excitation, signal conditioning and amplifying circuits. Access input from the sain gauges leanearizes and amplifies the signal level. The output of the amplifier is controlled to required level and calibrated to read the vacuum in mnvin.Hg. Any stray forces on the sensor cen be balanced by balancing the strain gauge bridge through potentiometer, which is ded in the front panel. Thissystemoperatesby230vAcsupply. Panel details: POWERON: Rocker switch which switches on the supply of the instrument, with red light CAL: Single tum potentiometer. The output of the amplifier is adjusted by this potentiometer that the display gives full scale for given range of sensor. s00mA cartridge fuse with holder located on the rear side of the instrument to protect the rument from intemal electrical shorting. Observation table: Connect the vacuum cell to Connect the instrument to n Adjust the zero pot on the the vacuum indicator through given cable. ains i.e. 230V power supply and switch on the instrument \dicator, to indicate zero. Connect the vacuum pump to 230V AC mains, Close the out let valve of the vai Switch on the pump, Wai icuum chamber and open the inlet valve, it until vacuum reaches maximum level Increase pressure up to 15 PSI at this instrument is said to be calibrated. Th. Step I psi note the voltage. ( for 14, 1 indicated voltage from digital multi observation tabular form, Position adjust span pot to get -1.5V, with this the ren slowly reduce the pressure from 15 psi step by 3, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, .2, 1, PSI)observe the ‘meter for different vacuum levels and note down in ‘Vacuum in dial | Voltage in SINo | gauge Graphs: Draw the following graphs: Vacuum v/s voltage 2. What principle vacuum gauge operate? Precautions: 1, All connections should be neat and clean 2. Digital indicator reading has to be noted accurately. i i ted without parallax ervor. 3. Readings on the millimeter is not a 4. Check ra power source, it should be 230V10%, 50 Hz. to avoid over voltage hava 5. To get best perfor environment. Do not try to open the instrument or repai ee, you have fo put the instrument at dust proof and hu Result: Measured voltage using digital millimeter for different vacuum levels. Pre viva questions: What is absolute pressure? ‘What is atmospheric pressure, Gauge pressure, ‘What is the principle of McLeod gauge? Relation among Pas, Paim and Pgauge. What is principle of McLeod gauge. yaeepe Post viva questions: 1. What is low pressure? 2. What is vacuum? 3. Applications of McLeod gauge? ty free (

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