FUNDAMENTALS OF DEFENCE JOURNALISM

Unit – I: INTRODUCTION - JOURNALISM

a. Meaning, relevance and scope
b. News organization, structure and functioning
c. Media: Concept, kind and characteristics
Unit – II: DEFENCE NEWS
a. Purpose and meaning
b. Kinds and sources
c. Theories of news selection
Unit – III: REPORTING DEFENCE STORIES
a. Format, Language and Grammar
b. Kinds – Eye-witness & Computer Assistant features
c. Concept of Graphic and Animation
d. Interviewing skills
Unit – IV: EDITING
a. Abbreviations and definitions of military terms
b. Proof – reading, symbols
c. Caption writing and picture editing
Unit – V: HURDLES IN DEFENCE WRITING
a. Media ethics
b. Media Laws
c. Military v/s Media debate
d. News photography

UNIT – I
INTRODUCTION:
Definition:
Webster’s International dictionary- “Journalism is the collection and editing of
material of current interest for presentation, publication or broadcasting”.
Chamber’s 20 century dictionary- “Journalism is a profession of conducting or
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writing for public journals.

M. K. Gandhi- “Journalism is a business of timely knowledge – the business of
obtaining the necessary facts, evaluation them carefully and of presenting them
fully and acting on them wisely”. – 

Meaning of Journalism:
 Journalism is the activity of gathering, assessing, creating, and presenting news
and information. 
 Journalism is derived from the word “Journal” which means a daily register or
a diary or a book containing each day’s business or transactions.
 Information regarding the events of the day are communicated through
written words, sounds or pictures.

Who is a Journalist?
Journalist includes reporters, writers and columnist who work for newspaper,
news agencies, news magazines and other magazines related to public affairs.
Television and Radio journalist communicates the views of contemporary events
by means of electronic media platforms.
Functions or Journalists:
 Reporting factually accurate news
 Offering interpretation and opinion based on the news
 Moves with the times
Qualities of the reporter:
 Interest 
 Great capacity for infinite work
 Highly organized communication, language (clean and concise)
 Analytical
 Gift of imagination
 Patience and endurance
  Arouse interest in a leader

Significance and importance of Press:

 The press is one of the most vital organs of every country which cannot be
undermined. It makes available the details of what is going on in every system
and keeps the general public updated
 The press is known as the “fourth estate” and plays an important place in the
society and in the democracy.
 Protects the ordinary person’s against injustice, tyranny of the rulers.
Upholders of rights and freedom of citizens. Voice of people and guardian of
their interest. Embodies the freedom of speech and expression to citizens.
 Caters to the needs of different readers, both education & entertainment.
Journalist is one who contributes in some way to gathering selection and
processing of news and current affairs for press, radio, TV, cables and internet.
 Editor’s, correspondents, Asst. Editor, sub-editors, reporters, proof readers,
cartoonist, photo-journalist, camera-crew, AV editors, news readers, produces,
directors, magazine editors.
 Stingers are part time journalist. Occasional contributors are called as
freelance journalist.

LASWELL MODEL OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS:

Who? Communication 
↓ ↓
What?         Message 
↓ ↓
Where?                       Medium
↓ ↓
With?           Effect
First Wave:
Invention of printing press helped to introduce the daily newspaper.
Second Wave:
Invention of telegraph, telephone, photography, movie camera, and projector
made possible store/record sound and moving pictures, SAT communication via
TV and cable now has transformed world into global village.
Third Wave:
Computers and the concept of information storage and retrieval have brought
about mind boggling changes in information communication.
Fourth Wave: Tele text, video text, bringing us the latest headlines in TV screen,
cable combined with SAT technology led to broadcasting channel direct to home
(DTH) all over the world. It is an information explosion.
History of Journalism:
 The earliest known journalistic product was a news sheet circulated in ancient
Rome: the Acta Diurna, said to date from before 59 BCE. The Acta Diurna
recorded important daily events such as public speeches. It was published
daily and hung in prominent places. 
 The history of journalism closely related to the development of printing press. 
The credit for the invention of the art of printing goes to the Chinese who
were to use the first movable types of printing press.
 In China during the Tang dynasty, a court circular called a bao, or “report,” was
issued to government officials. This gazette appeared in various forms and
under various names more or less continually to the end of the Qing dynasty in
1911. Chinese 9 and 11 century – movable printing press created. 1
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manufactured press.
 1 book printed in 868 A.D. Chinese court gazette oldest newspaper published
st

a Peking.
 The knowledge of art of printing spread to the west from china. Moving type
was introduced in Europe in 14 Century.
th

 In 15 century JOHANN GUTENBURG the Goldsmith in MAIZ a city in Germany

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developed a movable press and 300 copies of Bible were printed in 1456. The
first regularly published newspapers appeared in German cities and in
Antwerp about 1609.
 Gradually, the printing press were established in many other countries of the
world. Venice in Italy became a flourishing center of printing. Printing was
patronized by churches and government.
 1476 – Caxton, England’s first printer set up a press in Westminster printed in
English soon presses were set up all over the world, particularly in trading
centers. The first English newspaper, the Weekly Newes, was published in
1622.
Origin of Press in India
 1780- The first newspaper in India is credited to James Augustus Hickey, who
launched The Bengal Gazette, also the Calcutta General Advertiser. The paper
lasted just two years before being seized by the British administration for its
outspoken criticism of the Raj.
 Several other newspapers followed such as The Bengal Journal, Calcutta
Chronicle, Madras Courier, and Bombay Herald. All of them, however, were
curtailed by censorship measures imposed by the British East India Company.
 1784- Calcutta Gazette was started. 
 1785- Richard Nikson started Madras Courier. 
 1789- Bombay Herald, the first newspaper from Mumbai 
 News item comprised parliamentary Army, English-Medium development &
Indian rules news. Later on, it also carried out newsletters & reports from
Europe, Latin America, and China etc. 
 In 1819, a paper from kolkatta Bengali Gazette in Bengal was launched by
Ganga sher Bhatta chariya and Harshendia Ray.
 Throughout 1799, 1818 and 1823, the colonial administration enacted several
Acts to regulate the press in the country. The legislative outlier during this
period was the Press Act of 1835, known as the Metcalfe Act, which
introduced a more liberal press policy.
 This lasted till the revolt of 1857, after which, a perturbed foreign
administration, shaken by the mutiny, introduced the Licensing Act in 1857. It
gave the colonial administration the powers to stop publication and circulation
of any printed material. 
 After the enactment of several acts and laws, the one that hit the Indian
papers hard was The Press Act of 1910. It empowered the local government to
 demand a security fee for any ‘offensive content’ against the government.
Nearly 1,000 papers were prosecuted under the Act.
 Amidst such acts of censorship, the All-India Newspapers Editors’ Conference
was conceived. It was aimed to be a protector of press rights in the country. It
fought with the British government to lift the restrictions and advocated for
better relations with the government

Today, the Indian press consists of 25000 newspapers, magazines/periodicals, in

20 different languages – 75 million circulation.

Oldest Newspaper in India:

1. Bombay Samachar – Gujarati – Mumbai – 1832
2. Times of India – English – Mumbai – 1838
3. Pioneer – English – Lucknow – 1864
4. Amrit Bazaz Patrika – English – Kolkata – 1868
5. The Hindu – English – Chennai – 1878
6. The Indian Express
7. The Statesman
8. The Hindustan Times
Qualities of successful Journalist:
1. Grammatical skills and correct use of language skills
2. An inquisitive mind
3. Willingness to know more and seek information
4. Diverse knowledge
5. Wide vocabulary – love for learning new words
6. Basic knowledge on banking, commerce, trade, industry and science 
7. Curiosity on places, things, and events happenings around you.
8. Fair sighted recognized desire for learning new subjects
9. Mentally prepared to work for long hours.
10.Veracious reader on all issues
11.Courage
12.Stamina to undergo all physical stains, stress and risks

Structure and functions of Journalism:

Organizational set up structure and functioning varies from newspaper to
newspaper. Depending on the size of the paper and the different services catered
for the readers. Most newspaper organizations have three department:
EDITORIAL:
 Heart of newspaper
 News, features, comments and editorial
 Editor-in-chief- head, Assistant editor, special representatives, correspondent
and reporters
 Gather news, prepare features, and articles write editorials
 Editor is assisted by team of reporters covering national and foreign news.
 Writers, columnists, cartoonist, sub-editors, Liberians etc.

Business:  
 Earns revenue
National display, classified advertisements. Dispatches copies to the cities beyond
air, road, and rail. Promotional wing to boost the dispatches / circulation.

Mechanical: 
Composing
↓
Engraving
↓
Stereotyping
↓
Press

What is News?
It is said that the letters in the word “NEWS” is derived from the four directions of
North, East, West, and South.
A news is a report of current events on an information published on a newspaper
or other periodicals. It may be defined as an accurate fact or idea that will
intensify a large number of readers. News is history in a hurry – George M.
Morris.
Deteminance of News Values:
1. Timelines
2. Proximity
3. Magnitude
4. Significance 
5. News policy of the paper – unbiased reporting 
6. Reporting 
7. Prominence
8. Consequences events that have an impact on many people. Ex: Taxation
9. Human interest – stories that ironic, uplifting or dramatic
It is generally said that if a news report provides answers to six questions, then
it is a perfect news item. These six questions include five Ws and one H.
When?       Where?       What?      Why?      Who?      How?

Important characteristics of News writing:

 The objective rule
 The completeness of a news story
 Write in short paragraphs
 Adherence to a particular style
 Quality of writing
 Fairness and reliability
 Accurate, unbiased presentation of facts      
 Timely reporting
 In-depth knowledge 
 Update the knowledge or facts
Rule of News writing:
 Decide what exactly the piece of news is and its importance 
 Concise 
 Avoid negative sentences, acronyms and exclamation marks
 Specific in news reporting
 Reasonably good grammar
 Use of word power and correct usage word
 Knowledge of correct spelling 
 Good language skills
Media Ethics:
Ethics are rules of behavior or moral principles that guides our action in given
situation. The word comes from the Greek “Ethos” which means customs,
traditions, character, etc. that guide a particular group or cultures.
 Fundamental cultural values
 What is justice?
 What does it mean to be good?
 Is fairness possible?
 Define basic starting powers for moral reasoning
 Normatic Ethics:
 Generalized theories, rules and principles of ethical and moral behaviors
 Media industry codes of ethics and standard of good practice 
Applied Ethics:
 Journalists must apply normatic ethics to very specific situation
 Role models in ethics, practice, follow rules or codes at any cost (no
compromise)

Common Practice:
 Truth and honesty
 Privacy, confidential
 Special  responsibilities
 Avoid fee, free travel, other gifts
 Policies for conduct of media business

Five Core Principles of ETHICAL Journalism

1. Truth and Accuracy: We should always strive for accuracy; give all the relevant
facts we have and ensure that they have been checked. We must not print
information that is not corroborated.

2. Independence: Journalists must be independent voices and should not act,

formally or informally, on behalf of special interests whether political, corporate
or cultural. 

3. Fairness and Impartiality: Stories should be balanced and add context.

Objectivity is not always possible and may not always be desirable (in the face for
example of brutality or inhumanity), but impartial reporting builds trust and
confidence.

4. Humanity: Journalists should do no harm. What is published or broadcasted

may be hurtful, but they should be aware of the impact of their words and images
on the lives of others.

5. Accountability: Responsible journalism is the ability to hold ourselves

accountable. When we commit errors we must correct them and our expressions
of regret must be sincere not cynical. We listen to the concerns of our audience. 

Types of news
I. National
 II. International
III. Regional
IV. Local
V. Hard
VI. Soft

Unit – II: DEFENCE NEWS

Source: Anything that provides news information for a period of time is said to be
a news source. In today’s world, we can see there are totally different news
sources. Such as televisions, radio, press release, press conference, newspapers,
press interviews, institutions such as hospitals, schools, colleges, police stations
etc.
Effort goes into news gathering and there is no final source which is deemed to be
proper for all kinds of stories. Hence it is necessary to determinant in each case,
the appropriate source of story.
Sources can be classified into 
a. Hard
b. Weak
c. Government
d. Non-Government

HARD: When the report comes out of the houses where they are described to the
concerned person by name. For example: 
a. PM, IAS, IPS, etc. They are real news in the capacity of their designation and
portfolio not identified by their name.
b. According to knowledgeable or informed sources, that he source is not
official information.
WEAK: In diplomatic / military matters the official spokesman discloses an
authentic piece of information, it is understood that it is released without
attribution (the press published like “it is understood” or “is understood to be”
etc.)
GOVERNMENT SOURCES: News released by the MLA, executives, judiciary or an
institution attached to them.
NON-GOVERNMENT SOURCES: News released by NGO’s, political parties,
voluntary organization and other private, non-governmental institutions,
members of the public.
SELECTION OF NEWS: The editors are bombarded with tremendous amount of
news. The newspaper could publish a very small part of total news which they
have received. The newspaper provides local news to satisfy city populus. Foreign
news services supply the foreign news. Added to it there are photographers,
cartoonist, pictures, advertisements also to be published. Therefore selecting the
news of the day is taking job\taxing for the editor not only the selection of news is
but going the proper emphasis to the news is important. 

 There should be importance given to proper emphasis, space plan and

accuracy of the news story. It should be balanced news. 
 Over emphasis of a particular event can blow it out on all proportion. The facts
should be stated in a highly balanced manner so that the truth is not twisted
or presented falsely.
 In the event an editor gets contradictory reports from two separate news
services, he/she must try to learn the truth & publish a balanced report. 
 An editor must trust a good reporter & should not make big changes in his
copy on the basics of his own prejudices with any bitter reason. Sometimes a
very good reporter can also be swayed by his prejudice and he may give only
one side of the report.

Credibility: 
Credibility is crucial to a journalist's career, as well as the overall success of a
publication. A journalist's credibility is both their trustworthiness and proficiency.
A responsible editor will ensure that there is utmost credibility maintained in any
news story released. In the event of a discredited piece of new, the factor of
timing is key because bad effect may be created on the minds of the people till a
correction.  It can reach them even with holding the important acts can damage
public trusts in the press, which may bad to the weakening of mass media’s ability
to keep rumor mongers at bay.

THEORIES OF NEWS SELECTION:

Authoritarian Theory:
 The mass media is brought under the direct control of the state. The press and
media are expected to respect their authority and oblige to the will and
intentions of the state.
 Therefore, there is no freedom of speech or press (no freedom in 4 estate)
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and any news piece should be such to avoid offending national, political,
economic values etc.
 Censorship is justified on the ground that the state is at war, during internal
and external emergencies. Also protected by official secret department.

Liberalization or Free Press Theory:

 Liberalization or free press theory is a theory which goes back to 17 Century.
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 The individual is considered supreme, not the state or society.

 The popular will and voice of the people powers over that of the state.
 Truth can be arrived at only through free expression.
 A free press is essential for a free person in a free society and the individual. 

Social Responsibility Theory:

 Derived from the “Hutchine” report on freedom of press, the media under this
theory has certain obligations to society to ultimately serve the society.
 Media is required for high professional standard for truth, accuracy, objectivity
and balance.
 Public interest is greater value than unregulated freedom of expression 
 News offending religious or minority groups that can lead to social violence
need to be under played. 
 State intervention in this case is considered legitimate under special
circumstances.

Soviet Media Theory:

 It is derived from Lenin’s concept of communications. Media is considered as a
means of mental protection of the ideology of the state.
 Soviet Media Theory” is also known as “The Communist Media Theory”.
 The government undertake or controls the total media and communication to
serve working classes and their interest. They put end to the private ownership
of the press and other media. 
 The government media provides positive thoughts to create a strong socialized
society as well as providing information, education, entertainment, motivation
and mobilization.  
 The theory describe the whole purpose of the mass media is to educate the
greater masses of working class or workers.

CRITICS OF SOVIET-MEDIA THEORY

 Soviet media theory looks similar like authoritarian theory but the core part is
different from each other. In authoritarian theory is a one way
communication, there is no feedback allowed from the public but in Soviet
media theory is a two way communication at the same time the whole media
is controlled or works under the leadership.
 Private ownership is not allowed which leads the press without any restriction
and it can serve people without any authoritative blockades.
 Allows some restriction based on the nation interests, but not personal
 The journalist or press should support the leadership rather than be a
watchdog.
 If the leadership is wrong the whole nation will suffer a lot.

Kinds of News:
1. Environment news 
2. Investigative news
3. Economic news
4. Labor news
5. Educational news
6. Religious news
7. Cultural news
8. Sports news
9. Defence news

Defence News:
 Defence news refers to news on the politics, business, and technology of
defence as well as the actions and movements of the 3 services of the Armed
Forces in a particular country or region. 
 Defence News serves an audience of senior military, government, and industry
decision-makers throughout the world.

DIFFICULTIES IN DEFENCE WRITING

There plenty of challenges for defence journalist: 
 To meet the deadline, the job involves unsocial hours of work. 
 A lot of legwork and travel and running around are part of this job.  
 The reward is not plenty as the pay is not at top end of salaries in India.
 The sources of new selection are far more difficult in defence writing due to
information being kept more confidential in the military and defence services.