REVIEWER IN SCIENCE

• RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
❑ The respiratory system is a biological system consisting of specific organs
and structures used for gas exchange in animals and plants.

❑ Trachea - a large membranous tube reinforced by rings of cartilage,

conveys air to and from the lungs; the windpipe

❑ Bronchi - are defined as conducting airways that have cartilage(rings or

plates)

❑ Bronchioles - like the bronchi but without cartilage.

- it ensures that incoming air is supplied to each alveolus

❑ Alveoli - Any of the many tiny air sacs of the lungs which allow for rapid
gaseous exchange.

❑ Lungs - The lungs are a pair of spongy, air filled organs located on either
side of the chest.

❑ Diapghram - when inhaling, the diapghram contracts and moves

downward. when exhaling the diapghram relaxes
• RESPIRATORY SYSTEM DISEASES
❑ Asthma - is defined as a common, chronic respiratory condition that causes
difficulty breathing due to inflammation of the airways.

❑ Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) - an umbrella term that

encompasses several respiratory illnesses that cause breathlesness, or the
inability to exhale normally.

❑ Emphysema - a lung condition that causes shortness of breath. In people

with emphysema, the air sacs in the lungs are damaged. The inner walls of
the alveoli weaken and rupture creating larger air spaces instead of many
small ones.

❑ Lung Cancer - a type of cancer that begins in the lungs. Lung cancer
claims more lives each year than do colon prostate, ovarian and breast
cancers combined.

❑ Pneunomia - an infection in one or both lungs. It can be caused by

bacteria, viruses, or fungi. Pneumonia causes inflammation in the air sacs
(alveoli). The alveoli fill with fluid or pus, making it difficult to breathe

❑ Pleural Effusion - sometimes called as “water on the lungs” is the build up

of excess fluid between the layers of the pleura outside the lungs. Pleura are
thin membranes that line the lungs and the inside of the chest cavity and act
to lubricate and facilitate breathing.

• CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
❑ The blood circulatory system, also called the cardiovascular system,
consists of the heart and the blood vessels that run throughout the body. It
delivers nutrients and oxygen to all cells of the body.

❑ The oxygen we breathe gets mixed into the blood in the lungs, and the
heart pumps this blood to all parts of the body. Each heartbeat is a contraction
of the heart as it pumps blood around the body.

❑ The heart has four chambers: the left atrium, right atrium, right ventricle
and left ventricle. They are all separated by one-way valves, meaning the
blood can only flow in one direction. Blood is carried to the heart in the veins,
and back out to the rest of the body in the arteries.

❑ There are many different circulatory system diseases all of which interrupt
this complex process of distributing blood around the body.
• CIRCULATORY SYSTEM DISEASES
❑ Atherosclerosis - is a hardening of the arteries. it is typically caused by a
diet high in fat, which leaves fatty deposits on the lining of the blood vessels.

❑ Heart attack (myocardial infarction) - occurs when the blood supply is cut
off from the heart, often by a blood clot.

❑ Mitral valve prolapse - the mitral valve bulges out or prolapses because it
does not close evenly.

❑ Mitral valve regurgitation - happens when the mitral valve does not close all
the way and causes a leak, allowing some of the oxygenated blood to flow
backward.

❑ Mitral stenosis - the mitral valve is abnormally narrow which can prevent
the blood from flowing smoothly or quickly through it.

❑ Angina pectoris (pain in the chest) - occurs if the heart is not receiving

enough blood.

❑ Arrhythmia and dysrhythmia are often used interchangeably, and both refer

to abnormal heart rates and rhythms. In general, arrhythmia means “no
rhythm” and dysrhythmia means “abnormal rhythm.”

❑ Cardiac ischemia - the heart muscle is not getting enough oxygen to

function properly.

❑ High cholesterol - too much cholesterol can form a thick layer on the inside
of the vessels, blocking blood flow.

❑ Heart failure - means that the heart is not pumping blood around the body
as efficiently as it should. It can lead to fatigue, shortness of breath, and
coughing.

❑ High blood pressure (hypertension) - the force or pressure of the blood

flowing through the vessels is consistently too high.

❑ Stroke - happens when one of the vessels that lead to the brain either
becomes blocked by a blood clot or bursts.

❑ Peripheral artery disease (PAD) - refers to narrowing of the arteries that

lead to the legs, stomach, arms, and head.

❑ Venous thromboembolism (VTE) - a blood clot that gets stuck in a vein,

blocking the flow of blood.

❑ Aortic aneurysms - affects the main artery in the body. It means the artery
wall has weakened, allowing it to widen or “balloon out.”
• GENETICS
❑ Allele - a different form of a gene that controls a certain trait.

❑ DNA - deoxyribonucleic acid

❑ Codominance - two dominant alleles of a contrasting pair fully expressed at

the same time in the heterozygous individual.

❑ Incomplete dominance - occurs when the phenotype of the offspring is

somewhere in between the phenotypes of both parents; a completely
dominant allele does not occur.

❑ Multiple Alleles - when more than two alleles control the inheritance of a
character.

❑ Sex-influenced traits - are expressed in both sexes but more frequently in

one sex than in the other.

❑ Sex-limited traits - are expressed exclusively in one sex of the species.

❑ Sex-linked traits - traits that are controlled by genes located on the same
sex chromosome.

❑ Punnett square - the method by which one can determine the possible
genotypes and phenotypes when two parents are crossed

❑ Antigen - A substance that when introduced into the body stimulates the
production of an antibody

❑ Gamete - reproductive cells that unite during sexual reproduction to form

new cell called zygote

❑ Male chromosomes (XY), Female chromosomes (XX)

❑ A nucleotide consists of sugar, phosphate molecules, and nitrogenous

bases.

❑ Genotype - code, ex. (RR, RW)

❑ Phenotype - characteristic, ex. (Red, White)

• BIODIVERSITY
❑ Species - a group of organisms that have certain characteristics in
common and are able to interbreed.

❑ Biodiversity - refers to the variety of life in an area, where extinction is

possible
• PHOTOSYNTHESIS
❑ Photosynthesis - a process of food making done by plants and other
autotrophic organisms. The presence of chlorophyll enables these organisms
to make their own food. Converting light energy into chemical energy that is
stored in food (sugar).

❑ In plants, photosynthesis primarily takes place in the leaves and little or

none in stems depending on the presence of chlorophyll.

Two stages of photosynthesis:

1. Light-dependent reaction - happens in the thylakoid membrane of the

chloroplasts and occurs in the presence of sunlight. The sunlight is converted
to chemical energy during these reactions. The chlorophyll in the plants
absorb sunlight and transfers to the photosystem which are responsible for
photosynthesis. The energy harvested during this stage is stored in the form
of ATP and NADPH. These products will be needed in the next stage

2. Calvin Cycle (dark reaction) - is a light-independent phase that takes place

in the stroma and converts Carbon dioxide (CO ) into sugar. This stage does
not directly need light but needs the products of light reaction. This is why it
occurs immediately after the light-dependent phase.

The chemical reaction for photosynthesis is:

Carbon Dioxide + Water Glucose + Oxygen

(CO2) (H2O) (C6H12O6) (o2)

❑ The factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis are temperature, carbon
dioxide, water, and light. Providing the plant with the right amount of these
materials will ensure good quality and quantity of the harvest.

❑ Through the process of photosynthesis, plants and other chlorophyll-

bearing organisms produce food for themselves.

❑ In photosynthesis, plants capture light energy and convert it into chemical

energy stored in food.

❑ Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplast found in the leaves of plants.

Essentially.

❑ Improved farming practices enhance photosynthesis that result in good

harvest.

❑ Cellular respiration occurs in the mitochondria of the cells.

❑ Organisms release stored energy in food through the process of
respiration. energy (ATP) in the presence of oxygen.
The respiration breaks down glucose into carbon dioxide, water and summary
equation of respiration is as follows:

Glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water + ATP

❑ The breakdown of glucose involves three major steps: glycolysis, Krebs

cycle; electron transport chain

❑ Adenosine Triphospate (ATP): compound that stores energy in the cell

❑ Autotrophs: organisms that can make their own food.

❑ Cellular Respiration: catabolic process pathways of aerobic and anaerobic

respiration, which break down organic molecules for the production of ATP.

❑ Chlorophyll: green pigment in the chloroplast of photosynthetic organisms

that captures light energy

❑ Chloroplast: organelle found in photosynthetic organisms that absorb

sunlight and use it to synthesize carbon dioxide and water

❑ Cristae - inner folded membrane of the mitochondrion

❑ Guard Cell: specialized epidermal cell that controls the opening and closing
of the stomata by responding to the changes in water pressure|

❑ Heterotrophs: organisms that cannot make food

❑ Krebs Cycle: cyclical series of reaction in cellular respiration that produces

carbon dioxide, NADH, and FADH2

❑ Mitochondrial Matrix: the compartment of the mitochondrion enclosed by

the inner membrane, containing enzymes and substrates for the citric acid
cycle.

❑ Mitochondrion: organelle that serves as site for cellular respiration

❑ Photosynthesis: process done by autotrophs of converting light energy into

chemical energy that is stored in food (sugar).