MID LESSON COVERAGE OF MEAT TECH

Meat- defined as the flesh of animals used as food.

Meat differs- structural and physicochemical

Muscle- is made of number of fiber bundles (1.0 mm thick), comprised of a group of fibers, (0.1
mm thick) held together by a structure of connective tissues or perimysium (figure 22.1)

Connective tissues- which provide edible texture, structure and flexibility to the muscles,
comprised of fibrous protein collagen, reticulin, and elastin.

Muscle fiber- a unit of muscle contraction, is a multinucleate, cylindrical cell bounded by an outer
membrane or sarcolemma and is consist of myofibrils of 1–2-micron size.

Myofibrils- separated by sarcoplasmic reticulum, a fine network of tubules.

- Each fiber is filled with sarcoplasm containing mitochondria, enzymes, glycogen, ATP,
creatine, and myoglobin

Myofibrils- are cross striated to give rise to understanding of physical structure of muscles (dark
or A and light or I/Z bands).

Sarcomere- unit of fibril which lies between adjacent two Z- bands.

Fibrils- consist of two set of filaments myosin and F-actin.

Contraction and relaxation- striated muscles takes place due to interaction between actin,
myosin and ATP.

Presence of magnesium and calcium ions- myosin liberates ATP which results in muscle
contraction.

Composition of muscle- highly variable depending upon specie, type of muscle, animal s
maturity and the treatments given to the animal before its slaughtering

Lean fish- storage fat is carried in the liver.

- Muscle of lean fish contains <1% lipid, mostly phospholipids, located in the membrane
- In fatty fish, depot fat apparently occurs as extracellular droplets in the muscle tissue.
Nature of muscle:

 Striated or voluntary muscle lean meat.

 Unsatiated or involuntary muscle- stomach wall.
 Cardiac muscle- heart wall.

White muscle- fat is apparently diffusely located among the muscle cells
Adipose tissue lean muscle- contains about 0.5-1.0% phospholipids

Polyenoic fatty acids- found in avian and mammalian muscles.

Poultry fat is more unsaturated than pork fat, beef and mutton.

SPECIES WATER (%) PROTEIN (%) LIPID (%) ASH (%)

Beef 70-73 20-22 4-8 1.0

Pork 68-70 19-20 9-11 1.4

Chicken 73.7 20-23 1.0 -

Lamb 73.0 20.0 5-6 1.6

Cod 81.2 17.6 0.3 1.2

Salmon 64.0 20-22 13-15 1.3

As much as possible blood is removed from the animal carcass to increase the edibility and
keeping qualities of the meat,

- Failure of blood circulation and its removal from the muscle tissue results in depletion of
oxygen supply
- Decrease in pH due to lactic acid formation is accompanied by various exothermic
reactions such as anaerobic glycolysis
- pH changes from physiological pH 7.2-7.4 to ultimately post-mortem pH 5.3-5.5 in 24 hrs.

Blood- is an ideal medium for the growth of spoilage microorganisms

TEMPERATURE OF ANIMAL INCREASES FROM 37.6-39.0 C.

- This is the reason why animal cools slowly during refrigeration as a result of continuous
production of heat
- This phenomenon is known as animal heat. Removal of animal heat by chilling or
refrigeration is essential to ensure longer shelf-life of meat.

CHANGE IN PROTEINS

- Due to the change in pH and high temperature, colour of meat changes and water holding
capacity (WHC) also decreases
- Sarcoplasmic proteins get denatured and attached to the surface of myofilament, which
produces change in meat color which becomes light.
 - Water holding capacity of myofibril proteins decreases resulting in exudation of fluid.
- Sarcoplasmic proteins are more liable with respect to physiological conditions prevailing in
the post- mortem muscles. These proteins are highly susceptible to disruption as compared
with myofibrillar proteins. Sarcoplasmic proteins during rigor mortis denatured below pH 6.0
and at 37 c

CHANGE IN WATER HOLDING CAPACITY

- Water holding capacity is the function of respective proteins which binds with water
- In pre-rigor stage meat possesses a high-water holding capacity but later it decreases
during first hour following death of animals. Lowest water holding capacity is found at its
iso- electric pH 5.3-5.5. After post-rigor aging water holding capacity. is found to be
increased because of increase in osmotic.
- During post mortem movement of Na. K, Mg, and Ca in muscles takes place.
- During aging there is continuous release of Na & Ca. and uptake of K ions continued up to
6-8 days.
- Movement of cations produces an increased electrical charge on muscle protein which
facilitated the formation of hydrated ions. This is believed to be the reason of increased
water holding capacity during aging of meat.
POST MORTEM GLYCOLYSIS

- After the death of animal, blood circulation stops, thus oxygen supply to muscles tissues
decreases hence anaerobic conditions prevails in the muscle. The glycogen present in
tissues is no longer converted into CO2 and water instead, converted in to lactic acid
through anaerobic glycolysis. The conversion of glycogen takes place through two different
pathways. Amylolytic pathway hydrolytic and Phosphor lytic pathway
POST MORTEM GLYCOLYSIS

- Due to this glycolysis pH changes from physiological pH 7.2-7.4 to ultimately post- mortem
pH 5.3-5.5. This pH is attained within 24 hours and being related to ATP production, which
falls in this pathway. The net fall in ATP is responsible for onset of rigor mortis. The pH 5.3-
5.5 is ideal pH which can be obtained by well rested and well-fed animal before slaughter.

CONVERSION OF MUSCLE INTO MEAT (RIGOR MORTIS)

- The most important change that occurs in postmortem muscle is the development of rigor
mortis, means stiffness of the muscle. The primary cause of onset of rigor is post mortem
decline in the level of ATP. The process takes from 7-24 hrs depending on the species;
however, it is linked with the rate of depletion of ATP in muscle. The entire process of
conversion of muscle into meat is broadly divided into three stages:
PRE-RIGOR STAGE

- During early stages of postmortem or pre-rigor stage, the concentration of ATP more or
less remains constant as the muscle tries to maintain ATP levels by an active creatine
kinase. However, it will lead to liberation of creatine from muscle. Thus, in this state
creatine phosphate levels fall more rapidly than that of ATPs. ATPs are providing
cushioning effect for the filaments of two proteins i.e. actin and myosin. This results in a
meat which is soft and pliable. In pre-rigor stage, myosin dissociates from actin and can be
extracted in solution of high ionic strength. Water holding capacity of the muscle proteins
remains high during this stage.

RIGOR MORTIS

- This period is very important as meat becomes rigid and stiff.

- Onset of rigor mortis may be 8-10 hours postmortem and it may last in 15-20 hours in
meat.
- Onset of rigor is demonstrated by fall in ATP, loss of extensibility of muscles and
contraction of tissues. Time difference between death of an animal and onset of rigor state
is termed as delay phase. This period depends upon number of factors such as age,
health, size of carcass, the amount of fat cover, nutritional status of animal, pH and
glycogen level, temperature as well. ATP plays very important role in this stage. As ATP
level falls two muscle proteins gradually forms an associated actomyosin complex which is
inextensible and is responsible for contraction. This is the necessary criterion for
development of rigor mortis. The extent of contraction of the muscles is determined by
estimation of length of the sarcomere within the myofibril. Meat which is cooked in this state
is very tough in texture. The water holding capacity of the muscle protein remains minimum
during this stage due to drop in pH as it comes closer to their iso-electric point i.e. pH 5.3-
5.5. If the ultimate pH (5.60) falls too quickly, carcass would still be warm adversely
affecting water holding capacity and prevailing partial denaturation of protein resulting into
pale, soft and exudative (PSE) muscle ultimately leading to lower yield of the meat. This is
often encountered in pigs having sufficient reserves of glycogen. On the other hand, if
inadequately feed or fasting animal having minimum reserve of glycogen is subjected for
slaughtering; dark, firm and dry (DFD) meat conditions. DFD meat is having pH not below
6.0 and is darker in color and susceptible for microbial growth.

POST RIGOR (CONDITIONING/AGEING)

- During post rigor stage meat become tenderizes and organoleptically acceptable when it is
kept cold for some time after rigor mortis. The muscle again becomes soft and pliable with
improved flavor and juiciness. The post rigor meat provides lesser problems in toughness,
when cooked compared to with that cooked in rigor. Meat gradually reaches to an optimum
 tenderness period after an ageing period of 10-18 days stored at 0 - 5 C following the
dissolution of rigor. However, prolonged storage of meat in some species may results in
some problems viz. microbial spoilage, desiccation of proteins, and development of off
flavors. Thus, it is recommended to consume meat before it gets spoiled. The ageing which
also called as conditioning or ripening of meat is sometime accelerated by raising storage
temperature for e.g. holding meat at 15 for 3 days period in UV to control the microbial
growth at surface. While in the case of pork, ageing is not recommended rather to eat fresh
as it develops rapid onset of fat rancidity even at low temperature. On the other hand, beef
is generally aged and lamb & mutton are occasionally aged. Ageing is considered as very
important aspect of meat processing as it imparts desirable flavor, textural and other
sensory attributes to the finished product. The responsible factors for these desirable
changes are still been researchable issue, however it is now a fact that in post- rigor state
actomyosin complex does not dissociate but other subtle changes occur like, increase in
the water holding capacity due to increase osmotic pressure in the muscle fiber due to net
inside movement of cations and breakdown of proteins by liberated proteolytic enzymes,
the cathepsins may lead to tenderness. While cooking of meat tenderizing agents such as
enzyme calpain etc are added which breaks down the stiff muscle protein to yield a soft
and organoleptically acceptable meat.

Module 3 Conversion of Muscle to Meat

Meat quality- usually defined as a meiasurement of attributes or characters that determine the
suitability of meat to be eaten as fresh or stored for reasonable period without deterioration
(ElMasry et al., 2012a)
- Meat quality and consistency are important in ensuring consumer satisfaction.
- Quality of meat is affected by the genetic propensity of the animal, how the animal is
reared, and the nutritional status during production
Meat quality is usually defined as a measurement of attributes or characters that determine the
suitability of meat to be eaten as fresh or stored for reasonable period without deterioration
(ElMasry et al., 2012a). Meat quality and consistency are important in ensuring consumer
satisfaction. Quality of meat is affected by the genetic propensity of the animal, how the animal is
reared, and the nutritional status during production. These factors affect the fat, lean and
connective tissue component of meat and therefore influence meat quality. Genetic differences are
being understood as genetic markers are being developed for many major quality characteristics
within species. As the production segment selects animals to maximize quality, reduction in meat
quality can be obtained. However, these animals must be fed and reared to maximize quality.
Quality also is strongly influenced by conditions at the slaughter plant. How animals are handled
pre- slaughter affects the rate of rigor mortis. The application of stunning and exsanguination
methods that ensure reduced animal stress are important to meat quality. The application of
electrical stimulation and how the carcass is chilled influence the rate of rigor mortis and
subsequent meat quality.

Good Manufacturing Practice

 A fast growing population in developing regions and the tendency to live in densely
populated areas and mega cities increases the risk of rapid disease transmission and
large- scale outbreak of food-borne diseases due to the increasing length and complexity
of supply chains. One source of such cross contamination can be the slaughterhouse and
it is therefore mandatory to observe a stringent regime of control.
Meat inspection consists of ante-mortem inspection of slaughter animals and post-
mortem inspection of slaughtered animals. These are procedures conducted for the
purpose of judgement of safety and suitability and disposition. They play a vital role as
main control measures to assure meat safety and of course to identify and monitor animal
diseases.
The inspection is usually carried out by designated veterinarians or meat
inspectors at the abattoir. The meat inspection procedure is carried out in two phases,
ante and post mortem inspection.
During ante mortem inspection the slaughter animals are screened to assess
general behaviour, nutritional status, cleanliness, signs of diseases and abnormalities in
posture, structure, colour, discharges and odour. Suspect dirty, diseased, and injured
animals are immediately separated from the healthy animals to avoid cross contamination
and slaughtered separately.
Routine post-mortem examination is routinely carried out to ensure that the
carcasses and its organs are disease free. Results from ante and post mortem inspection
are then combined to make a final judgement on suitability of the meat or organs for
human consumption.

Traceability

The Codex Alimentarius Commission defines Traceability as “the ability to follow

the movement of a food through specified stage(s) of production, processing and
distribution”. Livestock identification and meat traceability systems were introduced in
countries as a reaction to the BSE problem. A good traceability system provides accurate
information on the origin, sex, age, breed, movements and records veterinarian
treatments an animal received. Traceability systems are important tools to prevent the
spread of animal diseases and to enhance biosecurity in general.
Animal identification and livestock/meat traceability are not themselves food
safety, animal disease prevention or quality assurance programmes, but they facilitate
public health, veterinary public health and animal health interventions. FAO through its
contribution to the Codex Alimentarius commission is involved in inclusion of traceability
within international standards.

Common animal identification options include

 Paint/spray markings
 Hot/Cold branding
 Tattoo
 Collar tag (neck band)
 Plastic/metal eartags
 Microchip (RFID-Radio frequency identification device)
Within the abattoir, meat traceability requires the clear identification of the live
animals through to meat products. Possible meat identification options include
  Paper/plastic Tags
 Ink stamping
 Bar code labels (see Figure 1 below)
 Microchip (RFID)
Figure 1. Bar Code label (From FAO project in Somalia) Bar
Code label

Costs of the identification and thereby traceability systems vary hugely, depending
on the options applied and the level of detail required. Functioning traceability schemes
are often a precondition for meat producing countries to enter export markets. Hence
traceability is not only a health issue but has also become a marketing tool. The goal is to
achieve transparency in the meat chain “from farm to fork”.

Meat Quality

Meat quality is normally defined by the compositional quality (lean to fat ratio) and
the palatability factors such as visual appearance, smell, firmness, juiciness, tenderness,
and flavour. The nutritional quality of meat is objective yet "eating" quality, as perceived
by the consumer, is highly subjective.
Visual Identification
The visual identification of quality meat is based on colour, marbling and waterholding
capacity. Marbling is small streaks of fat that are found within the muscle and can be seen
in the meat cut. Marbling has a beneficial effect on juiciness and flavour of meat. Meat
should have a normal colour that is uniform throughout the entire cut. Beef, lamb, and
pork should also have marbling throughout the meat.

Smell

Another quality factor is smell. The product should have a normal smell. This will
be different for each of the species (i.e. beef, pork, chicken), but should vary only slightly
 within the species. Any rancid or strange smelling meat should be avoided.
Firmness

Meat should appear firm rather than soft. When handling the retail package, it
should be firm, but not tough. It should give under pressure, but not actually be soft.
Juiciness

Juiciness depends on the amount of water retained in a cooked meat product.

Juiciness increases flavour, helps soften meat - making it easier to chew, and stimulates
saliva production in the mouth. Water retention and lipid content determine juiciness.
Marbling and fat around edges helps hold in water. Water losses are from evaporation
and drip losses. Meat aging can increase water retention and therefore increases
juiciness.
Tenderness

Has been linked to several factors, such as the animal's age, sex or the muscle
location. One important way to tenderize meat is by aging. Carcasses are aged by holding
them at refrigeration temperatures for extended periods of time after slaughter and initial
chilling.
Flavour

Flavour and aroma are intertwined to create the sensation the consumer has
during eating. These perceptions rely on the smell through the nose and on the
sensations of salty, sweet, sour and bitter on the tongue. Meat flavour is affected by type
of species, diet, cooking method and method of preservation (e.g. smoked or cured).
Specific Parameter for Meat Quality

 Meat color,
 Water holding capacity by meat protein,
 Meat pH,
 Cooking loss,
 Tenderness and texture,
 Flavor and smell
Meat Color

The factors affecting meat color are: feeding, species, breeds, age, sex, muscle
activity, pH, and oxygen. Meat pigment consists of myoglobin, chromoprotein, and
hemoglobin
Different meat colors are caused by different concentrations of myoglobin,
chemical state of myoglobin (myoglobin, oxymyoglobin, metmyoglobin), and chemical and
physical state of other components in meat.
Meat Color
Myoglobin is sarcoplasmic protein of single polypeptide chains bound in the
surrounding of heme group which bring oxygen.The amount of myoglobin in veal is 1 -3
mg/g, in beef 4-10 mg/g, and in older beef mg/g.
Myoglobin undergoes changes in PSE meat, caused by a very rapid decrease in
postmortem pH.The concentration of myoglobin increases with age so that older animals.
Muscle differences cause meat color differences because each muscle has
different activities, resulting in different supply of O2.
Different colors of meat surface are caused by chemical state of myoglobin, i.e.
bright red (oxymyoglobin), brown (metmyoglobin).
Temperature affects cooked-meat color, i.e. meat which is cooked at the
temperature of 60oC has bright red color, and at 70-80oC has grayish brown color.
Myoglobin undergoes denaturation at the heating temperature of 80-85oC.have
darker color.

Assessment of Meat Color

Water Holding Capacity

 Water-holding capacity (WHC) is the ability of meat protein to hold its water or
added water due to external pressure effect such as centrifugation.
 There are three compartments (forms) of water bound in meat, namely: water
bound chemically by protein (4-5%), water bound weakly by protein (4%) and bulk
(free) water among protein molecules (10%).
 A decrease in WHC can be seen through fluid exudation called weep in unfrozen
raw meat; or drip in frozen meat which is thawed, folds in cooked meat.
 WHC is affected by pH. It decreases from pH 7-10 until the isoelectric pH of meat
protein 5,0-5,1, then increases until below the isoelectric point of meat protein.
 Aging increases WHC due to the change in water-protein relation.
 Cooking can result in a change in WHC due to the presence of meat protein
solubility and denaturation.
 Heating can decrease WHC due to a decrease in acidic group that results in
an increased pH leading to a change in the isoelectric point of meat protein.
 Different WHC is also found among muscles and muscle locations of the same
muscle due to different amount of lactic acids which affect pH.
 WHC is also related to marbling, i.e. marbling will loosen the microstructure
of meat and give more opportunity for meat protein to bind water.
 Meat pH
 Ultimate pH of meat is meat pH after undergoing postmortem glycolysis.
 Meat pH is related to water holding capacity, cooking loss, and tenderness.
 Meat pH decreases after the slaughter of animals.
 Decrease in pH is caused by the occurrence of anaerobic postmortem glycolysis
which produces lactic acids.
 The more glycogen supply stored during slaughter, the lower ultimate pH of meat.
 Meat pH is related to WHC, meat juice, tenderness, cooking loss, i.e. an increase
in pH will increase meat juice and WHC, but decrease cooking loss.

Factors affecting ultimate meat pH

 Pre-slaughter factors: age, species, breeds, types of animals, resting, slaughter
method, type of muscle, muscle location, muscle glycogen supply.
 Post-slaughter factors: electrical stimulation, chilling, aging, storage, and cooking.

Measurement of meat pH Meat pH is measured with pH meter electrode.

Meat is finely ground, then added with H2O with a ratio of 1:9. The meat is
homogenized, then its pH is measured with pH meter which has been calibrated with pH 7
and 4 buffer.

Cooking and meat pH

Cooking can increase the value of meat pH because it leads to acidic group loss
(amino acids).

Cooking Loss
Cooking loss is the loss of meat weight or mass due to cooking process. Cooking
loss is a function of temperature and duration of cooking.
 The loss of mass consists of water and other water-soluble components namely:
protein, vitamin, and mineral. Meat with lower cooking loss has better quality compared to
that with higher cooking loss because the loss of nutrients during cooking is higher. The
value of meat cooking loss is around 1,5 – 54%, with the average of %.

Factors affecting cooking loss

 Intrinsic: age, species, breed, sex, type of animal, type of muscle, muscle
location, length of sarcomere, marbling fats.
 Extrinsic: temperature, duration of cooking,
 Cooking loss increases due to an increase in the temperature and duration of
cooking.
 Cooking loss decreases, linearly, as the animal age increases.
 Marbling fats will inhibit the release of meat juice during cooking, although meat
with more marbling will lose more fats.
Measurement of Cooking Loss

 Meat is cut in cuboid shape with the size of length x width x thickness (5x3x2) cm
and measured in scale.
 Sample is put in a plastic and vacuumed.
 Sample is heated at the temperature of 80oC for 60 minutes.
 Sample is chilled and measured in scale.
Tenderness and Texture

 Myofibril structure and contraction status.

 The composition of connective tissues and the level of its cross-ties.
 Water holding capacity by meat protein and meat juice.
 The texture of meat is the size of muscle fiber bundles surrounded by perimysium
of connective tissues dividing muscle longitudinally.
 The texture of muscle is categorized into two groups: coarse texture (large size of
muscle fiber bundles), and soft texture (small size of muscle fiber bundles).
 Fiber bundle is determined by the amount of the fiber, size of fiber, and the
number of perimysium surrounding the muscle fiber bundles.
 Tenderness includes 3 aspects: (1) the ease of penetration of the meat by the teeth,
(2) the ease with which the meat breaks into smaller fragments, and (3) the
amount of residue remaining after chewing.
 Tenderness is affected by connective tissues in meat (epimysium, perimysium and
endomysium).
 Generally, the older the animal, the lower the tenderness because of denser and
thus stronger connective tissues.
 The types of muscle also influence the level of meat tenderness due to different
physiological functions of muscle.
 Cooking also affects tenderness; it can either increase or decrease the tenderness
level according to the duration and temperature of cooking.
 Duration of cooking affects collagen softening, while cooking temperature affects
myofibrillar toughness.
Meat Tendering Enzymes

 Enzymes from plant: papain (papaya), bromelain (nanas), and ficin (ficus).
 Meat tenderizing enzymes can be injected right before the animal is slaughtered.
  Enzyme solution can also be used on meat cuts by soaking, sprinkle, smearing,
and injection.
 Meat tenderizing can also be done by injecting sodium salt (NaCl, STPP, lactic Na).
Flavor and Smell

 Factors affecting meat flavor are: feeding, age, species, breeds, sex, fats, duration
and condition of storage after slaughter, and cooking method, duration, and
temperature.
 The smell and flavor of cooked meat are determined by water and fat-soluble
precursors, and volatile substance of meat
 The flavor and smell of meat are determined by the composition of fatty acids
composing the meat fats, especially marbling fats.
 The oxidation of fatty acids will form carbonyl compound which will cause
undesirable flavor and smell of meat .
Assessment of Flavor and Smell

Flavor and smell are tested by panel taste based on the palatability or preference
level.
Panelists

Panel is one person or a group of people having the duty of scoring the
characteristics or quality of something in a subjective method.
Food assessment by panellists is based on the subjective evaluation of the
panellists with certain sensory procedure to abide by.
Types of Panelist

 Individual expert
 Small expert panel
 Trained panel
 Untrained panel
 Semi-trained panel
 Consumer panel
Important elements in organoleptic testing laboratory

 Atmosphere: including the state of being clean, tranquil, tidy, orderly, and
aesthetic.
 Space: including a room for sample preparation/kitchen, a room for tasting,
waiting room for panel, and meeting room for panel.
 Infrastructure and facilities: including equipment for sample preparation, serving
equipment of sample and communication equipment
Requirements of organoleptic testing laboratory

 Isolation: in order to be tranquil, laboratory must be separated from other rooms

or activities, the waiting room must be made relaxing, and each panel should have
a separate tasting room
 Sound proof: tasting room should be made sound proof, laboratory should be
built far from crowd
  Level of smell: tasting room should be made free from any smell
(perfume / cigarette), far from sewage and processing room.
 Temperature and humidity: the temperature of the room should be made
constant at room temperature (20-25oC) and the humidity around 60%.
 Lighting: the lighting in the room should not be made too bright or too dim.
Methods of organoleptic testing

 Different test
 Preference test/acceptance test)
 Scalar test
 Description test
 Different test and preference test: frequently used in analysis of process
and assessment of end products (outcomes).
 Scalar and description test: frequently used in quality control.
 Variables of meat sensory
 Look (color, texture, juiciness)
 Taste (tenderness, flavor, smell)