MODULE 8

Unit 9
Lateral Earth Pressure

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Module 9: Lateral Earth Pressure

Retaining structures such as retaining walls, basement walls, and bulkheads
commonly are encountered in foundation engineering as they support slopes of
earth masses. Proper design and construction of these structures require a thorough
knowledge of the lateral forces that act between the retaining structures and the soil
masses being retained. These lateral forces are caused by lateral earth pressure.
In this module, we will take up the lateral earth pressure at-rest, the Rankine’s and
Coulomb theories on lateral earth pressure.

Reference:
Das, B. M., & Sobhan, K. (2014). Principles of geotechnical engineering (8th ed.).
Stamford, Connecticut: Cengage Learning.

9.1 At-rest, active, and passive pressures

Consider a mass of soil shown in Figure. 13.1a. The mass is bounded by a

frictionless wall of height AB. A soil element located at a depth z is subjected to a
vertical effective pressure, σ’o , and a horizontal effective pressure, σ’h . There are no
shear stresses on the vertical and horizontal planes of the soil element. Let us define
the ratio of
σ’h to σ’o as a nondimensional quantity K, or

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Now, three possible cases may arise concerning the retaining wall; they are
described as follows:
Case 1 If the wall AB is static—that is, if it does not move either to the right or to the
left of its initial position—the soil mass will be in a state of static equilibrium. In that
case, σ’h is referred to as the at-rest earth pressure, or

where Ko = at-rest earth pressure coefficient.

Case 2 If the frictionless wall rotates sufficiently about its bottom to a position of
A’B (Figure 13.1b), then a triangular soil mass ABC’ adjacent to the wall will reach a
state of plastic equilibrium and will fail sliding down the plane BC9. At this time, the
horizontal effective stress, σ’h = σ’a, will be referred to as active pressure. Now,

where Ka = active earth pressure coefficient.

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Case 3 If the frictionless wall rotates sufficiently about its bottom to a position A’’B
(Figure 13.1c), then a triangular soil mass ABC0 will reach a state of plastic
equilibrium and will fail sliding upward along the plane BC0. The horizontal effective
stress at this time will be σ’h = σ’p, the so-called passive pressure. In this case,

where Kp = passive earth pressure coefficient.

9.1 At-rest, active, and passive pressures

For coarse-grained soils, the coefcient of earth pressure at rest can be estimated by
using the empirical relationship

Where OCR = overconsolidation ratio.

For fine-grained, normally consolidated soils, Massarsch (1979) suggested the

following equation for Ko:

For overconsolidated clays, the coefficient of earth pressure at rest can be

approximated as

Figure 13.4 shows the distribution of lateral earth pressure at rest on a wall of height
H retaining a dry soil having a unit weight of γ. The total force per unit length of the
wall, Po, is equal to the area of the pressure diagram, so

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The force per unit length of the wall for partially submerged soil, as shown in Figure
13.5, can be calculated using the following formula

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Example 1
Figure 13.6a shows a 4.5-m-high retaining wall. The wall is restrained from yielding.
Calculate the lateral force Po per unit length of the wall. Also, determine the location
of the resultant force. Assume that for sand OCR = 1.5.

Solution

Ko = (1-sin φ’) (OCR)sinφ’

= (1-sin 35) (1.5)sin35 = 0.538

At z = 0: σ’o = 0; σ’h = 0; u=0

At z = 3m: σ’o = (3)(15.7) = 47.1 kN/m2

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σ’h = Ko σ’o = (0.538)(47.1) = 25.34 kN/m2

u=0
at z = 4.5: σ’o = (3)(15.7) + (1.5)(19.2-9.81)
= 61.19 kN/m2
σ’h = Ko σ’o = (0.538)(61.19) = 39.92 kN/m 2
u = 1.5 γw = (1.5)(9.81) = 14.72 kN/m2

Lateral force Po = Area 1 + Area 2 + Area 3

+ Area 4
Or
Po = (½)(3)(25.34) + (1.5)(25.34)
+ (1/2)(1.5)(14.58) + (1/2)(1.5)(14.72)
= 38.01 + 38.01 + 10.94 + 11.04
= 98 kN/m

The location of the resultant, measured from the bottom of the wall is

Or

z=
(
( 38.01 ) 1.5+
3
3) ( )
+ ( 38.01 )
1.5
2 ( )
+ ( 10.94 )
1.5
3
+(11.04)(
1.5
3
)
=1.76 m
98

9.2 Rankine’s lateral earth pressure

Theory of Rankine’s Active Pressure

The phrase plastic equilibrium in soil refers to the condition where every point in a
soil mass is on the verge of failure. Rankine (1857) investigated the stress
conditions in soil at a state of plastic equilibrium. In this section, we deal with
Rankine’s theory of earth pressure.

Figure 13.10a shows a soil mass that is bounded by a frictionless wall, AB, that
extends to an infinite depth. The vertical and horizontal effective principal stresses
on a soil element at a depth z are σ’o and σ’h, respectively. If the wall AB is not
allowed to move, then σ’h = Ko σ’o. The stress condition in the soil element can be
represented by the Mohr’s circle a in Figure 13.10b. However, if the wall AB is
allowed to move away from the soil mass gradually, the horizontal principal stress
will decrease.
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Ultimately a state will be reached when the stress condition in the soil element can
be represented by the Mohr’s circle b, the state of plastic equilibrium and failure of
the soil will occur. This situation represents Rankine’s active state, and the effective
pressure σ’a on the vertical plane (which is a principal plane) is Rankine’s active
earth pressure.

The formula for σ’a is as follows:

The coefficient of Rankine’s active earth pressure is given by

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Theory of Rankine’s Active Pressure

Rankine’s passive state can be explained with the aid of Figure 13.11. AB is a
frictionless wall that extends to an innite depth (Figure 13.11a). The initial stress
condition on a soil element is represented by the Mohr’s circle a in Figure 13.11b. If
the wall gradually is pushed into the soil mass, the effective principal stress 9h will
increase. Ultimately, the wall will reach a situation where the stress condition for the
soil element can be expressed by the Mohr’s circle b. At this time, failure of the soil
will occur. This situation is referred to as Rankine’s passive state. The lateral earth
pressure σ’p, which is the major principal stress, is called Rankine’s passive earth
pressure. From Figure 13.11b, it can be shown that

Kp (the ratio of effective stresses) in the preceding equation is referred to as the

coefficient of Rankine’s passive earth pressure.

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Backfill – cohesive soil with horizontal backfill

Active case Figure 13.19a shows a frictionless retaining wall with a cohesive soil
backfill. The active pressure against the wall at any depth below the ground surface
can be expressed as

The depth zo at which the active pressure becomes equal to 0 can be found from Eq.
(13.31) as

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So, with time, tensile cracks at the soil–wall interface will develop up to a depth z o.

Passive case Figure 13.20a shows the same retaining wall with backfill similar to
that considered in Figure 13.19a. Rankine’s passive pressure against the wall at
depth z can be given by

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Example 2
An 6-m-high retaining wall is shown in Figure 13.21a. Determine:
a. Rankine active force per unit length of the wall and the location of the resultant
b. Rankine passive force per unit length of the wall and the location of the resultant

Solution
Part a
Because c’ = 0, to determine the active force
σ ' a=K a σ ' o=K a γz
1−sinφ ' 1−sin 36
Ka= = =0.26
1+ sinφ' 1+sin 36
At z = 0, σ’a = 0; at z = 6m,
σ’a = (0.26)(16)(6) = 24.96 kN/m2

The pressure-distribution diagram is shown in Figure 13.21b. The active force per
unit length of the wall
1
Pa= ( 6 )( 24.96 )=74.88 kN /m
2

Also,
z=2 m

Part b
To determine the passive force, we are given that c’ = 0. So,
σ ' p=K p σ ' o=K p γz
1+ sinφ' 1+ sin 36
K p= = =3.85
1−sinφ' 1−sin 36
At z = 0, σ’p = 0; at z = 6m,
σ’p = (3.85)(16)(6) = 369.6 kN/m2

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per unit length of the wall is

The pressure-distribution diagram is shown in Figure 13.21c. The passive force per
unit length of the wall is
1
P p= ( 6 )( 369.6 )=1108.8 kN /m
2
Also,
6
z= =2 m
3

9.3 Coulomb’s Earth Pressure Theory

Coulomb’s Active Pressure

Let AB (Figure 13.25a) be the back face of a retaining wall supporting a granular
soil, the surface of which is constantly sloping at an angle α with the horizontal. BC
is a trial failure surface. In the stability consideration of the probable failure wedge
ABC, the following forces are involved (per unit length of the wall):

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1. W—the weight of the soil wedge.

2. F—the resultant of the shear and normal forces on the surface of failure, BC.
This is inclined at an angle of Ø’ to the normal drawn to the plane BC.
3. Pa —the active force per unit length of the wall. The direction of P a is inclined at an
angle δ’ to the normal drawn to the face of the wall that supports the soil. δ’ is the
angle of friction between the soil and the wall.
The force triangle for the wedge is shown in Figure 13.19b. From the law of sines,
we have

Example 3
Refer to Figure 13.25. Given: α = 10°; θ = 5°; H = 4m; unit weight of soil, γ = 15
kN/m3; soil friction angle, Ø’ = 30°; and δ’ = 15°. Estimate the active force, Pa, per
unit length of the wall. Also, state the direction and location of the resultant force, P a.

Solution:
1 2
Pa= γ H K a
2
For Ø’ = 30°; δ’ = 15° - that is, δ’/φ’ = 15/30 = ½; α = 10°; and θ = 5°, the magnitude
of Ka using the formula is 0.3872.

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2
cos (30−5)
Ka=

[ √ ]
2
2 sin ( 15+30 ) sin ( 30−10 )
cos 5 cos (15+ 5 ) 1+
cos ( 15+5 ) cos ( 5−10 )
¿
1 2
Pa= ( 15 )( 4 ) ( 0.3872 )=46.46 kN /m
2
The resultant will act at a vertical distance equal to H/3 = 4/3 = 1.33 m above the
bottom of the wall and will be inclined at an angle of 15° (= δ’) to the back face of the
wall.

Coulomb’s Passive Pressure

Figure 13.26a shows a retaining wall with a sloping cohesionless backfill similar to
that considered in Figure 13.25a. The force polygon for equilibrium of the wedge
ABC for the passive state is shown in Figure 13.26b. P p is the notation for the
passive force. Other notations used are the same as those for the active case
(Section 13.12). In a procedure similar to the one that we followed in the active case
[Eq. (13.77)], we get

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Self-assessment

1. The figure below shows a non-yielding vertical wall retaining a sandy backfill
underlain by clay. Determine the magnitude of the resultant at-rest force per unit
length on the wall, Po. Ans. 267.93 kN/m.

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2. For the retaining wall shown in Example 2, determine the force per unit length of
the wall for Rankine’s active state. Also find the location of the resultant. Ans. P o =
117.15 kN/m ; z = 1.78m.

3. A frictionless retaining wall is shown in the figure below. Determine:

a. The active force Pa after the tensile crack occurs
b. The passive force Pp.

Ans. Pa = 25.62 kN/m; 512 kN/m

Activity

1. The figure below shows a retaining wall that is restrained from yielding. Determine
the magnitude of the lateral earth force per length of the wall. Also, find the location
of the resultant, z, measured from the bottom of the wall. Given: H = 7.5m; Ø’ = 31°;
γ = 19.2 kN/m3; OCR = 2.2.

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2. Assume that the retaining wall shown in Figure 13.39 is frictionless. Determine the
Rankine passive force per unit length of the wall, the variation of active earth
pressure with depth, and the location of the resultant. Given: H = 18ft; Ø’ = 23°; γ =
99 lb/ft3.

3. Assume that the retaining wall shown in Figure 13.39 is frictionless. Determine the
Rankine active force per unit length of the wall, the variation of active earth pressure
with depth, and the location of the resultant. Given: H = 29ft; Ø’ = 34°; γ = 119 lb/ft 3.

4. Consider the retaining wall shown in Figure 13.42. The height of the wall is 8 m,
and the unit weight of the sand backll is 21.1 kN/m3. Using Coulomb’s equation,
calculate the active force, Pa, on the wall for the following values of the angle of wall
friction. Also, comment on the direction and location of the resultant. Consider the
following two cases of wall friction:
a. δ’ = 25°
b. δ’ = 19°

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