XEE OE1

INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION
UNIT 3
SMART SENSORS AND TIMERS
IN CONTROLLERS

Dr. V. Hamsadhwani
Associate Professor/EEE
PMIST
 XEE OE1
INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION
UNIT 3 SMART SENSORS AND TIMERS
IN CONTROLLERS
2
TOPICS COVERED

Introduction to sensors- characteristics- types of sensors-

resistive - inductive-capacitive- magnetic- ultrasonic -
photoelectric- nano sensors- timers-counters-types-applications
SENSORS
• Sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and
converts it into a signal which can be read by an observer
or by an instrument.
• For example, a mercury thermometer converts the
measured temperature into expansion and contraction
of a liquid which can be read on a calibrated glass tube.
• A thermocouple converts temperature to an output voltage
which can be read by a voltmeter.
• For accuracy, all sensors need to be calibrated against
known standards.
OVERVIEW OF CONTROL ENGINEERING
• Open loop control is also called as non-feedback control.
• It’s a control system that does not have feedback loop thus is
not self correcting.

• Closed loop control is a process by which the variable to be

controlled is permanently measured and compared to the
setpoint.
• Depending on the result of this comparison, the controlled
variable is adjusted to the Feedback specified reference variable.
• The resulting effect is achieved in closed control loop.
• In contrast to open loop control, the influence of error signals can
thus be reduced.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A CONTROL CIRCUIT
Frequently measured values are:
• Temperature
• Pressure/Force
• Flow
• Humidity
• ph-value
• Revolutions per minute (speed)
• Position
ADVANTAGES OF SENSORS
• No wear and tear, hence long life
• Contact less and therefore maintenance free
• Electronic high precision
• Protected and safe switching in harsh environments
• High switching rate
• Potential-free contact, thus not prone to false pulses
PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES

• Inductive • Pressure
• Capacitive • Proximity &
• Magnetic Displacement

• Photoelectric • Infrared Range(IR)

• Ultrasonic • Biosensors
• Microwave • Nanosensors
• Temperature
• Light
 TYPES OF SENSORS

HUMIDITY SENSOR

MOTION SENSORS
TEMPERATURE SENSORS
 TYPES OF SENSORS

GAS SENSORS SMOKE SENSOR INFRARED SENSORS

TYPES OF SENSORS

INFRARED INDUCTIVE CAPACITIVE REED SWITCH

PROXIMITY PROXIMITY SENSOR
SENSOR SENSOR
 TYPES OF SENSORS

VARIOUS TYPES OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF IMAGE ULTRASONIC

ACCELEROMETER SENSORS DISTANCE SENSOR
SENSORS
 SENSORS
• One type of feedback frequently needed by
industrial-control systems is the position of one or
more components of the operation being controlled.
• Sensors are devices used to provide information on
the presence or absence of an object.
• Limit switches use a mechanical actuator input,
requiring the sensor to change its output when an
object is physically touching the switch.
• Sensors, such as photoelectric, inductive, capacitive,
and ultrasonic, change their output when an object
is present, but not touching the sensor.
TYPES OF SENSORS
ELECTRONIC SENSORS

• Inductive, Optical and Capacitive proximity switches are

electronic sensors.
• They normally have three electrical contacts
1. One contact for supply voltage
2. other for ground and
3. third for output signal.
• In these sensors, no movable contact is switched.
• Instead, the output is either electrically connected to supply
voltage or to ground.
 ELECTRONIC SENSORS
There are two types of electronic sensors with regard to the polarity of
output voltage.

1.Positive switching sensors: In this, output voltage is zero, if no

part is detected in the proximity.
The approach of a work piece or machine part leads to switch over
of the output, applying the supply voltage.
2.Negative switching sensors: In this, the supply voltage are
applied to the output, if no part is detected in the proximity.
The approach of a work piece or machine part leads to switch over
of the output, switching the output voltage to 0 volts.
PROXIMITY SENSORS

• Proximity sensors detect the presence or absence of objects using

electromagnetic fields, light, and sound.
• There are many types, each suited to specific applications and
environments.
INDUCTIVE SENSORS

• Inductive sensor use currents induced by

magnetic field to detect the nearby metal
objects.
• Inductive sensor uses a coil or inductor to
generate a high frequency magnetic field as
shown in Fig.
• If there is a metal object near the changing
magnetic field, current will flow in the object.
•
INDUCTIVE SENSORS
• This resulting current flow sets up a new magnetic field that opposes
the original magnetic field.
• The net effect is that it changes the inductance of the coil in the
inductive sensor.
• By measuring the inductance the sensor can determine when a
metal has been brought nearby..
INDUCTIVE SENSORS

• These non-contact proximity sensors

detect ferrous targets, ideally mild
steel thicker than one millimeter.
• They consist of four major
components:
1. a ferrite core with coils
2. an oscillator
3. a Schmitt trigger
4. an output amplifier.
 INDUCTIVE SENSORS
• Oscillator creates a symmetrical, oscillating magnetic field that radiates from the
ferrite core and coil array at the sensing face.
• When a ferrous target enters this magnetic field, small independent electrical
currents called eddy currents are induced on the metal’s surface.
• This changes the reluctance (natural frequency) of the magnetic circuit, which in turn
reduces the oscillation amplitude.
• As more metal enters the sensing field the oscillation amplitude shrinks, and
eventually collapses. (This is the “Eddy Current Killed Oscillator” or ECKO principle.)
• Schmitt trigger responds to these amplitude changes, and adjusts sensor output.
• When the target finally moves from the sensor’s range, the circuit begins to oscillate
again, and the Schmitt trigger returns the sensor to its previous output.
INDUCTIVE SENSING
INDUCTIVE SENSORS
• If the sensor has a normally open configuration, its output is an on signal when the
target enters the sensing zone.
• With normally closed, its output is an off signal with the target present.
• Output is then read by an external control unit (e.g. PLC, motion controller, smart
drive) that converts the sensor on and off states into useable information.
• Inductive sensors are typically rated by frequency, or on/off cycles per second.
• Their speeds range from 10 to 20 Hz in AC, or 500 Hz to 5 kHz in DC.
• Because of magnetic field limitations, inductive sensors have a relatively narrow
sensing range — from fractions of millimeters to 60 mm on average — though
longer-range specialty products are available.
• To accommodate close ranges in the tight confines of industrial machinery,
geometric and mounting styles available include shielded (flush), unshielded (non-
flush), tubular, and rectangular “flat-pack”. Tubular sensors, by far the most popular,
are available with diameters from 3 to 40 mm.
 INDUCTIVE SENSORS
• These sensors will detect any metals.
• When detecting multiple types of metal, multiple sensors are
used.
• In addition to metals, graphite also can be sensed. (Graphite is a
non-metal and it is the only non-metal that can conduct electricity.)
• It is important to note that these work by setting up a high frequency
field. If a target nears the field will induce eddy currents.
• These currents consume power because of resistance, so energy
is in the field is lost, and the signal amplitude decreases .
 SHIELDED VERSUS UNSHIELDED INDUCTIVE SENSORS
INDUCTIVE SENSORS

• Sensors can detect objects a few centimetres Shielded versus unshielded Inductive sensors
away from the end.
• But, the direction to the object can be arbitrary
• Magnetic field of the unshielded sensors covers a
large volume around the head of the coil.
• By adding a shield (a metal jacket around the sides
of the coil) the magnetic field becomes
smaller, but also more directed.
• Shields will often be available for inductive
sensors to improve their directionality and
accuracy.
INDUCTIVE SENSORS – FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
• Inductive sensors in the form of inductive proximity switches, also
known as initiators, are widely used in automation and the process
industry.
• They work without physical contact industry and feedback.
• Due to their enclosed design they are very resistant to environmental
influences and distinguish themselves by high reliability.
• These sensors are contactless and thus allow for high switching
frequencies with high life cycle.
CHARACTERISTICS OF INDUCTIVE SENSORS
• detects only conductive materials
• operation distance up to 50 mm
• switching frequency up to 5 kHz
• max. ambient temperature 200 °C
• max. protection class IP 68
• high noise immunity
 BASIC CONSTRUCTION

• Active elements of an inductive sensor are

coil and ferrite core.
• An alternating current is passed through the
coil producing a magnetic field which passes
through the core in such a way that the field
only leaves the core on one side.
• This is the active face of the proximity switch.
• When a metallic or magnetic object is near
to the active face, the magnetic field is
deformed.
BLOCK DIAGRAM
• Effect on the magnetic field of a conducting

material can be seen, in this case a steel

plate.

• Change in the magnetic field due to the steel

plate also produces a change in the coil so

that its impedance changes.

• This change in impedance is evaluated by the

integrated sensor electronic & converted to a

switch signal
 OPERATING DISTANCE
sn = Rated operation distance
sr = Effective operating distance
su
• single proximity switch
• voltage within the operating voltage range sa

• ambient temperature 23 °C + 5 °C
su = usable operating distance
• single proximity switch
LED
• voltage between 85% and 110% of
• temperature range -25 °C ... +70 °C
sa = assured operating distance
 REDUCTION FACTOR
• Records the reduction of operating distance
from the standard target because of the deviating object characteristics
• Reduction factor is a function of
1.Conductivity
2.Permeability

• Switching distance of inductive sensors depends on the

conductivity and permeability of the metal part whose
presence or absence to be detected.
• This distance varies with the material composition of the target object,
with mild steel takes as the material for standard reference (Table 1.3.)
• Reduction factor is the factor by which the sensing range of the inductive
sensor is reduced based on material composition of the objected to be
sensed, compared to steel [FE 360] as the standard reference .
REDUCTION FACTOR

• Another factor which affects the sensing range of inductive sensors is

the diameter of sensing coil.
• A small sensor with a coil diameter 0f 18mm has a typical range of 1mm,
while a large sensor with core diameter of 75mm has a sensing range
up to 50mm or even more
 CAPACITIVE SENSORS

• Capacitive proximity sensors can detect both metallic and non-

metallic targets in powder, granulate, liquid, and solid form.
• This, along with their ability to sense through nonferrous
materials, makes them ideal for sight glass monitoring, tank liquid
level detection, and hopper powder level recognition.
• In capacitive sensors, the two conduction plates (at different
potentials) are housed in the sensing head and positioned to
operate like an open capacitor.
• Air acts as an insulator; at rest there is little capacitance between
the two plates.
 CAPACITIVE SENSORS

• Like inductive sensors, these plates are linked to an oscillator, a

Schmitt trigger, and an output amplifier.
• As a target enters the sensing zone the capacitance of the two
plates increases, causing oscillator amplitude change, in turn
changing the Schmitt trigger state, and creating an output signal.
• Note the difference between the inductive and capacitive sensors:
inductive sensors oscillate until the target is present and capacitive
sensors oscillate when the target is present.
CAPACITIVE SENSORS - FUNDAMENTAL
PRINCIPLES

• Like inductive sensors, capacitive sensors also work without

touching,
in a non-interacting and contactless way.
They add to the range of sensor applications where the inductive
operating principle is unsuitable.
• Capacitive sensors can also detect non-conducting materials.
• Capacitive sensors are mainly available as proximity switches
• Analog sensors have also become available, i.e. sensors which
give an output signal proportional to the separation.
CAPACITIVE SENSORS
Sensor Construction
 CAPACITIVE SENSOR - CONSTRUCTION
• The active component of a capacitive sensor is the arrangement of a disc shaped electrode
inside a cup-shaped screen.
• These two electrodes form a capacitor with a basic capacitance Cg.
• When a target approaches the sensor (distance s),
the capacitance changes by an amount ΔC.
• Capacitor is part of a RC oscillator.
• Output voltage of which is dependent on the effective capacitance
Ca = Cg + ΔC
between the sensor electrode and the screen potential.
• Oscillator output voltage is rectified, filtered and interference pulses are suppressed.
• This forms a switch signal which is converted into an output signal in the output stage.
INFLUENCES – TYPE 1
INFLUENCES – TYPE 2

Applications
1. Detection of pallets made of wood, printing boards and other non conductive
materials
2. Level control also through non conductive walls
 CAPACITIVE SENSORS
• Capacitive sensors are able to detect most materials at distances upto
a few centimetres.

• In the sensor, the area of the plates and distance between them is fixed.
• But, the dielectric constant of the space around them will vary as
different material is brought near the sensor.
• An illustration of a capacitive sensor is shown Figure 1.14 an oscillating
field is used to determine the capacitance of the plates.
• When this changes beyond selected sensitivity the sensor output is
activated.
CAPACITIVE SENSORS
 CAPACITIVE SENSORS

• For capacitive sensor, the proximity of any material near the electrodes will
increase the capacitance.
• This will vary the magnitude of the oscillating signal and the detector will decide
when this is great enough to determine proximity.
• These sensors work well for insulators (such as plastics) that tend to have high
dielectric coefficients, thus increasing the capacitance.
• But, they also work well for metals because the conductive materials in the target
appear as larger electrodes, thus increasing the capacitance as shown in Figure 1.15.
• In total, the capacitance changes are normally in the order of pF (picoFarads).
CAPACITIVE SENSORS FOR METALS AND
DIELECTRICS
 PROXIMITY SENSORS
Advantages of proximity sensors are
1. They are widely used because of their ability to react with wide range of
materials
2. They are suitable for detecting non metallic objects
3. They can be used to sense and monitor level in storage containers
Disadvantages of proximity sensors are
1. They are sensitive especially in humid environment
2. Without the compensator ring, the sensor would be very sensitive to dirt,
oil and other contaminants that might stick to the sensor.
APPLICATIONS OF CAPACITIVE SENSORS
Detection of Printing Boards Position Detection
APPLICATIONS OF CAPACITIVE SENSORS
Fire Works Production
 RESISTIVE SENSOR
• Is a transducer or electromechanical device that converts a
mechanical change such as displacement into an electrical signal
that can be monitored .
• Resistive sensors are among the most common in instrumentation.
RESISTIVE TRANSDUCERS

Major types of Resistive transducers

• Potentiometers
• Strain Gauges
• Resistance temperature detector (RTD)
• Thermistors
• Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
 RESISTIVITY & RESISTANCE
Resistance = (Resistivity * Length)/Area
Resistance of a material depends on four factors:
1. Composition
2. Temperature
3. Length
4. Cross Sectional Area
Changes in composition and temperature do not change the resistivity of
a material in such a simple way.
RESISTIVE POTENTIOMETER
• Is a resistance element provided with a movable contact.
• The contact motion can be
 Translation
 Rotation
 Combination of the two such as helical
MAGNETIC SENSOR
• Sensors and transducers which uses the changes in magnetic field
for their operations.
• Used to measure the
1.currents
2.speed
3.position and
4. Displacement.
• As the conventional sensors, Magnetic sensor does not give
output parameters directly.
• Signal processing is required for desired output.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CONVENTIONAL
AND MAGNETIC SENSORS
TYPES OF MAGNETIC SENSORS

On the bases of sensing the variation of magnetic fields,

magnetic sensors are of three types
1. Low field sensors
2. Earth field sensors
3. BIAS Magnetic field sensors
LOW FIELD SENSORS
Can sense very low values of magnetic fields, less then 1µG
1 Gauss = 10-4 Tesla
For Example, SQUID, Fiber-Optic , Nuclear Procession
Uses:
• In medical and nuclear application.

EARTH FIELD SENSORS

Magnetic range for the medium field sensors lends
1µGauss to 10 Gauss
Uses the Earth’s magnetic field in many of applications
For Example, Navigation and Vehicle Detection
BIAS MAGNET FIELD SENSORS
• Can Sense the large magnetic fields more than 10 Gauss.

• Most industrial sensors use permanent magnets as a source of the detected magnetic field.

• These permanent magnets magnetize, or bias, ferromagnetic objects close to the sensor.

• Sensors in this category include reed switches, Hall devices, and GMR sensors….
PHOTOELECTRIC SENSOR
• Photoelectric sensors are so versatile that they solve the bulk of problems of
industrial sensing.

• Because photoelectric technology has so rapidly advanced, they now commonly

detect targets less than 1 mm in diameter, or from 60 m away.

• Classified by the method in which light is emitted and delivered to the receiver,
many photoelectric configurations are available.

• All photoelectric sensors consist of a few of basic components: each has an emitter
light source (Light Emitting Diode, laser diode), a photodiode or

phototransistor receiver to detect emitted light, and supporting electronics

designed to amplify the receiver signal.

 PHOTOELECTRIC SENSOR
• The emitter, sometimes called the sender, transmits a beam
of either visible or infrared light to the detecting receiver.
• A photoelectric sensor, or photo eye, is a device used to
detect the distance, absence or presence of an object by
using a light transmitter, often infrared, and a photoelectric
receiver
• Output signal can be analog or digital and is often
internally modified with
1. timing logic,
2. scaling, or
3. other signal processing prior to output
 Emitter
PHOTOELECTRIC SENSOR
Receiver

• Photoelectric sensor emits a light beam (visible or infrared) from its

light-emitting element.

• Reflective-type photoelectric sensor is used to detect the light

beam reflected from the target.

• Through beam type sensor is used to measure the change in light

quantity caused by the target crossing the optical axis.

• A beam of light is emitted from the light emitting element and is

received by the light receiving element.
PHOTOELECTRIC SENSOR
 WAVELENGTH
Visible red light
- easy adjustment depending on visible red light point
Infrared light
- higher measurement range at same power consumption than red light sensor
Laser (red- or Infrared)
- smaller divergence ==> smaller light point
- detection of smaller objects possible
- higher measurement ranges (up to 100 m)
 SENSING MODES
SENSING MODES
• Direct Detection - Detection of all materials
• Through beam - Problems with materials like glass
• Retro-reflective - Problems with “mirror” objects and objects like glass
• Diffused beam Block Diagram Photoelectric Sensor
REFLECTIVE MODEL

• Both the light emitting and light receiving elements are contained in a single
housing.
• The sensor receives the light reflected from the target.
THROUGH BEAM MODEL
MODEL

The transmitter and receiver are separated.

When the target is between the transmitter and receiver, the light is interrupted.
Working:
Transmitter and Receiver are housed in different cases that are separated from each other.
Transmitter(T) transmits directly to the receiver (R).
If an object or Target interrupts the light beam, the receiver voltage drops and the
switching function is initiated
THROUGH BEAM MODEL
Advantages :
1. Most accurate.
2. Longest sensing range.
3. Very reliable.
Disadvantages:
1. Must install at two points on system: emitter and receiver.
2. Costly - must purchase both emitter and receiver.
RETROREFLECTIVE MODEL

• Both the light emitting and light receiving elements are contained in same housing.
• Light from the emitting element hits the reflector and returns to the light receiving
element.
• When a target is present, the light is interrupted.
RETROREFLECTIVE MODEL

Working:

• The retro-reflective sensor contains the emitter and receiver in a single housing.

• The light from the transmitter is beamed back from a reflector to the receiver.

• If the beam of light is interrupted, the switching function is initiated

RETRO - REFLECTIVE MODEL

Advantages:
1. Cost less
2. Sensing range better and Very reliable
Disadvantages:
1. Must install at two points on system: sensor and reflector
2. Slightly more costly than diffused beam
3. Sensing range less than through-beam
DIFFUSED-BEAM MODEL

Transmitter

Receiver

Working:
• Structure of the diffuse mode sensor is based on the same principle as a retro-
reflective sensor.
• It does not have a reflector, however.
• Instead, the light reflected from the recorded object is evaluated by the receiver.
DIFFUSED-BEAM MODEL
Advantages:
1. Installation at one point only
2. Costs less than through-beam or reflective models
Disadvantages:
1. Less accurate than through- beam or reflective models
2. More setup time involved.
 APPLICATIONS
Piled up ice cream cups
• Through beam laser sensor detects piled up ice cream cups.
• Small spot size of laser finds slight changes in extra height.
APPLICATIONS

• Through beam laser sensors are used for water detection

• Detects whether transparent bottle is filled with clear liquid or not
APPLICATIONS
• If flowing can has fallen down, some sensors do not detect anything
and find trouble.
• With Reflective laser sensor, stable detection without influences
from designed print and glare can be available.
ULTRASONIC DETECTION – BASICS & APPLICATIONS
• Ultrasonic detection is most commonly used in
industrial applications to detect hidden cracks,
discontinuities in metals, composites, plastics,
ceramics and for water level detection.

• For this purpose the laws of physics which are

indicating the propagation of sound waves through
solid materials have been used since ultrasonic
sensors use sound instead of light for detection..
PRINCIPLE OF ULTRASONIC DETECTION
• Sound is a mechanical wave travelling through the medium, which may be a solid,
or liquid or gas.
• Sound waves can travel through the mediums with specific velocity and depends on
the medium of propagation.
• Sound waves which have high frequency reflect from boundaries and produces
distinctive echo patterns.
Laws of physics for sound waves
• Sound waves have specific frequencies or number of oscillations per second.
• Humans can detect sounds in a frequency range from about 20Hz to 20 KHz.
• However, the frequency range normally employed in ultrasonic detection is 100 KHz to
50MHz.
• Velocity of ultrasound at a particular time and temperature is constant in a medium.
 PRINCIPLE OF ULTRASONIC DETECTION
W = C/F (or) W = CT
Where W = Wave length
C = Velocity of sound in a medium
F = Frequency of wave
T =Time Period
• Most common methods of ultrasonic examination utilize either longitudinal waves or shear
waves.
• Longitudinal wave is a compression wave in which the particle motion is in the same
direction of the propagation wave.
• Shear wave is a wave motion in which the particle motion is perpendicular to the direction of
propagation.
• Ultrasonic detection introduces high frequency sound waves into a test object to obtain
information about the object without altering or damaging it in any way.
 PRINCIPLE OF ULTRASONIC DETECTION
Two values are measured in ultrasonic detection.
• Amount of time, taken for sound to travel through the medium and amplitude of the received
signal.
• Based on velocity and time thickness can be calculated.
• Thickness of material = Material sound velocity X Time of Hit
 TRANSDUCERS FOR WAVE PROPAGATION
AND PARTICLE DETECTION
• For sending sound waves and receiving echo, ultrasonic sensors, normally called
transceivers or transducers will be used.

• They work on a principle similar to radar that will convert electrical energy into
mechanical energy in the form of sound, and vice versa.

• Commonly used transducers are contact transducers, angle beam transducers,

delay line transducers, immersion transducers and dual element transducers.

• Contact transducers are typically used for locating voids and cracks to the
outside surface of a part as well as measuring thickness.

• Angle beam transducers use the principle of reflection and mode conversion to
produce refracted shear or longitudinal waves in the test material.
OPERATION OF ULTRASONIC SENSORS

• When an electrical pulse of high voltage is applied to the ultrasonic

transducer it vibrates across a specific spectrum of frequencies and
generates a burst of sound waves.

• Whenever any obstacle comes ahead of the ultrasonic sensor the sound waves
will reflect back in the form of echo and generates an electric pulse.

• It calculates time taken between sending sound waves and receiving echo.

• The echo patterns will be compared with the patterns of sound waves to
determine detected objects distance.
APPLICATIONS INVOLVING ULTRASONIC
DETECTION

• The distance of obstacle or discontinuities in metals is related to

velocity of sound waves in a medium through which waves are
passed and the time taken for echo reception.
• Hence the ultrasonic detection can be used for
1. finding the distances between particles
2. detecting the discontinuities in metals
3. indicating the liquid level.
ULTRASONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
• Ultrasonic sensors are used for distance measuring applications.
• These gadgets regularly transmit a short burst of ultrasonic
sound to a target, which reflects the sound back to the sensor.
• The system then measures the time for the echo to return to the
sensor and computes the distance to the target using the speed of
sound within the medium.
• Different sorts of transducers are utilized within industrially accessible
ultrasonic cleaning devices.
• An ultrasonic transducer is affixed to a stainless steel pan which is
filled with a solvent and a square wave is applied to it, conferring
vibration energy on the liquid.
 ULTRASONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT

• Ultrasonic distance sensors measures distance

using sonar; an ultrasonic (well above human hearing)

beat is transmitted from the unit and distance-to-target

is determined by measuring the time required for the

echo return.

• Output from the ultrasonic sensor is a variable-width

beat that compares to the distance to the target.

ULTRASONIC SENSORS
Physical Basics

• The velocity of sound is dependent on

temperature and air pressure, the speed
increases with increasing pressure.

• The relative change in the velocity of sound

depending on the air pressure and with
normal changes in the atmosphere is
approximately 5%.
 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES –ULTRASONIC
SENSORS
• Ultrasonic waves denotes sound waves in the frequency range above 20
kHz; outside of the human hearing limit.
• Unlike electro-magnetic waves, sound waves can only be propagated
through matter.
• Sound wave is dependent on changes in
(i) density ɣ ,
(ii) in time and space,
(iii) the pressure P and the temperature T of the medium and
(iv) with local changes and
(v) changes in the speed of the medium particles.
• All the above values vary around a fixed average value.
• Prerequisite for sound waves in a medium is their elastic properties
BLOCK DIAGRAM
ADJUSTMENTS
 CHARACTERISTICS
• detects objects which reflect or
absorb sound
• operation distance up to 12 m
• reaction time > 35 ms
• max ambient temperature 70 °C
• max. protection class IP 67
• lower noise immunity
• not sensitive to dirt
ADVANTAGES
• detects solids, fluids
• insensitive against dust
• no reduction factor ==>switching distance is no
function of material
DISADVANTAGES / PROBLEMS
• sensitive against environmental conditions
(temperature, pressure, ...)
• blind range
• switching distance is a function of the form of the
target
NANOSENSORS
• They are tiny sensors in the size of a few nanometers about 10 to 100 nanometer
• They can detect the presence of nanomaterial or molecules
S
• In that size and even smaller!
Nano+sensor

• Sensors operating on the scale of atoms and molecules

• Smaller size, lower weight, modest power requirements
• Data storage systems
NANOSENSOR TECHNOLOGY
• OPTICAL NANO SENSORS
• PHYSICAL NANO SENSORS
• CHEMICAL NANO SENSORS
• BIO NANO SENSORS
i. Bio receptors
ii. Transducers
iii. Detectors
TYPES OF NANOSENSORS
Nanosensors

Optical Biological Chemical Physical

Nanosensors Nanosensors Nanosensor Nanosensors

Proximity Antibody Chemical

Nanosensor /Antigen Composition Pressure
Interaction
Ambient Molecular
Light Sensor DNA Concentration Force
Interaction

Enzymatic Mass
Interaction

Displacement
TYPES BASED ON THEIR SRUCTURE

• CANTILEVER ARRAY SENSORS

• NANOTUBE SENSORS
• NANOWIRE SENSORS
 CANTILEVER ARRAY SENSORS

WORKING

Features
• PRECISSION CANTILEVERS: 300 Nm THICKNESS TOLERANCE
• Precision Resonance Frequency: Special Cantilever Mount
• Easy Handling: Vertical Chip Sidewalls, Optional Nonsticking
• Contamination Free Storage
 CANTILEVER ARRAY SENSORS
Specifications
• Size / Shape - Rectangular Shaped Silicon Bars
• Duosensis Sensors (2 Cantilevers Per Chip)
• Octosensis Sensors (8 Cantilevers Per Chip)

Applications

1. FOR DIAGNOSIS OF DIABETES MELLITUS

- Small amounts of acetone in a patient’s breath can be detected by cantilever array sensor
technique which may attribute to early diagnosis of diabetes mellitus.
2. FOR DETECTION OF BACTERIAS,FUNGI,VIRUSES
- antigens on cell membrane
OCTOSENSIS surface
SENSORS results in additional mass loading, ultra-sensitively
(8 CANTILEVERS
detected by the device using nanochemical oscillator
- Detection sensitivity is in the order of a single bacterium corresponding to a mass of ~1 pg
 Applications
3. FOR CANCER DIAGNOSIS

When the cancer-associated molecules bind to the

cantilevers, changes in surface tension cause the
cantilever to bend
The mass detection limitation of NEMS cantilevers is improved
to the enumeration
of a single DNA molecule consisting of ~1600 base pairs and
weighing ~1 ag
(atto = 10^18).
NANOTUBE SENSOR

SIZE / SHAPE
 OPTICAL SENSORS- PROXIMITY SENSORS
• Proximity sensors are designed for use in
detecting the presence of an Object or motion
detection in Various industrial, mobile,
Electronic appliances and retail Automations.
Examples of proximity sensor usage
• Include the detection of an out-Of-paper
condition in a printer or a
• Mobile phone screen that dims to Save battery life
when placed near a Face
 ELECTRIC COUNTERS
• An electric counter consist of a coil, associated circuits and contacts,
a reset coil, manual reset, release button and a display window.
• Press the release button of the counter and entering the
desired count valve set the pre-determining counter. The pre-determined
count valve is displayed in the window. There are two types of counters
1. Up counter
2. Down counter
ELECTRIC COUNTERS

• In digital logic and computing, a counter is a device which stores (and

sometimes displays) the number of times a particular event or
process has occurred, often in relationship to a clock signal.
• The most common type is a sequential digital logic circuit with an
input line called the clock and multiple output lines.
• The values on the output lines represent a number in the binary or
BCD number system.
• Each pulse applied to the clock input increments or decrements the
number in the counter.
 TYPES OF COUNTERS
Up counter
• An up counter counts electrical signal upwards from zero.
• For each electrical counting pulse input to an up-counter coil, the
counter value is incremented by 1.
• When the predetermined valve has been reached, the relay picks up and
the contact set is actuated.
Down counter
• An down counter counts electrical signal downwards from preset valve.
• If the count values of zero is reached the relay picks up and the contact set
is actuated.
• The counter can be reset manually by pressing the reset button or
electrically by applying a reset pulse to the reset coil.
• The pre-determined value is maintained when the counter is reset.