REVIEWER IN RISK MANAGEMENT AS APPLIED TO

SAFETY, SECURITY, AND SANITATION

Chapter 1: Occupational Safety Hazards

Occupational Safety and Health (OSH)

Occupational health and safety (OHS) is a branch of public health aimed at improving workplace
health and safety standards. It studies injury and illness trends in the worker population and
offers suggestions for mitigating the risks and hazards they encounter on the job.

Every occupation has health or safety risks associated with it, and it is every employer’s
responsibility to ensure that their employees can carry out their work as safely as possible.

The field of occupational health and safety sets standards to mandate the elimination,
mitigation, or substitution of jobsite hazards. OHS programs also include processes and
procedures to minimize the consequences of workplace incidents.

Occupational health and safety is a very broad umbrella. It covers not only first aid provisions
and the safe operation of heavy machinery, but also infection prevention, ergonomic best
practices, and methods for responding to workplace violence.

Occupational Safety Hazards

An “occupational hazard” is any workplace condition that causes a risk to employee health.
Occupational safety hazard is concerned with the safety, health, and welfare of people engaged
in work or employment. Its goal is to foster a safe, healthy work environment. The term hazard
typically refers to the source of a risk.

Workplace Hazards
Hazards in the workplace occur when the working environment can cause injury, illness or
death. The hazards can result from many of the different aspects of the working world, including
equipment, dangerous materials, unsafe working practices and the behaviour of people.

Here we explore the 5 types of workplace hazards, and what you can do to mitigate them.

Physical Hazard

Physical hazards can affect those who work in extreme weather

conditions or in harmful environments. Physical Hazards include
the following:

● Radiation: including ionizing, non-ionizing (EMF’s,

microwaves, radio waves, etc.);
 ● Prolonged exposure to sunlight/ultraviolet rays;
● Temperature extremes – hot and cold; and
● Constant loud noise.

Employers, managers, and safety officials can reduce common workplace hazards by
establishing adequate safety protocols, hazard identification procedures, and conducting regular
hazard assessments.

Mechanical Hazard

Mechanical hazards arise from relative movements between parts of the human body and
objects such as work equipment or work objects, which lead to their contact. The result of this
contact can be accidents that lead to injuries. Mechanical hazards can be subdivided into:

● Hazards due to unprotected parts moving in a controlled manner.

● Hazards due to parts with dangerous surfaces such as corners, edges, tips, blades,
surfaces with high surface roughness.
● Hazards due to parts moving in an uncontrolled manner.
● Risks of falling due to slipping, tripping, twisting an ankle, and
● Electrical injuries.
● Confined spaces or having limited openings for entry and exit.
● Hazards due to persons falling from height onto a lower surface or an object.

Biological and Chemical Hazard

Biological hazards are organisms, or substances produced by

organisms, that pose a threat to human health. They are a major
concern in food processing because they cause most food borne
illness outbreaks. Chemical hazards include water, food contact
materials, cleaning agents, pest control substances, contaminants
(environmental, agricultural and process e.g. acrylamide), pesticides,
biocides and food additives.

● Bacteria
● Virus
● Fungi - Mold
● Blood-borne pathogens
● Tuberculosis
● Heavy Metals
● Solvents
● Petroleum
● Fumes
 ● Highly-reactive chemicals
● Fire, conflagration and explosion hazards

The major sources of biological contaminants in food

are:
● soil and water contaminated by non-treated manure
● cross contamination:
– human contamination due to poor personal hygiene, faecal contamination, failure in infection
control (illness not reported).
– Cross-contamination of food products spread from the processing environment due to
poor/improper sanitation.

Psychosocial Hazards
Psychosocial hazards are aspects of work which have the potential to cause psychological or
physical harm. Psychosocial risks are issues such as occupational stress and workplace
violence which are recognized internationally as major challenges to occupational health and
safety.

● Bullying in the workplace

● Fatigue
● Mental stress
● Substantial and/or excessive physical, mental and emotional efforts required to do the
job.
● Long working hours.
● Unfairness, inconsistency, bias or lack of transparency in the way procedures are
implemented, decisions are made, or workers are treated.

The terminology used in OSH varies between countries, but generally speaking:
● A hazard is something that can cause harm if not controlled.
● The outcome is the harm that results from an uncontrolled hazard.
● A risk is a combination of the probability that a particular outcome will occur and the severity
of the harm involved.

―Hazard, risk, and outcome are used in other fields to describe e.g. environmental damage, or
damage to equipment. However, in the context of OSH, harm generally describes the direct or
indirect degradation, temporary or permanent, of the physical, mental, or social well-being of
workers.

Accident
The effects are well known in an accident. There is a possibility of shock on the part of the
injured, anger at the one in fault, and confusion on the thing that is supposed to be done
immediately after the accident. Accidents are reactive while risks are preventive.
Common Work-Related Injuries in the Food Service Industry

1. Burns - An injury acquired from contact with hot surfaces of an equipment (e.g., ranges,
ovens, coffee makers, deep-fat fryers, pots and steam tables), flames, hot food and
faulty microwave ovens.
2. Cuts – A skin opening from an accidental incision of sharp objects (e.g., knife) can
cause exposure to blood-borne pathogens such as Hepatitis B and HIV.
3. Slips, trips and falls – Open ranges, stoves doors, kitchen doors, trolleys, stairs,
defective ladders, foot stools, and wet, cluttered or slippery floors are the common
causes of these injuries.
4. Fires – Accidental ignition of hot oils and greases, paper materials coming into contact
with hot stoves and ovens, faulty electrical equipment (e.g., cords, switches and power
outlets), wet electrical equipment and appliances are the usual causes of fires.
5. Ergonomic risks – Injuries from repetitive motions; unchanging and/or poor posture
when sitting, kneeling, and standing; incorrect lifting techniques; and forceful motions or
grips on objects cause ergonomic risks.
6. Cleaning chemicals – Cleaning products such as bleaches, oven cleaners, floor
cleaners, stainless steel cleaners and ammonia solutions may require the use of rubber
gloves. If there is a risk of splashing chemicals near the eyes, a face mask or goggles
may be necessary. Skin irritation, dermatitis, or throat irritation may arise from the
frequent use of soap and detergents.
7. CO poisoning – Carbon monoxide is produced by the incomplete burning of solid, liquid
and gaseous fuels, such as charcoal and causes death if there is improper ventilation.
8. Heat stress – Heat exhaustion and heat stroke can result from prolonged exposure to
hot equipment (e.g., ovens, stoves).
9. Cold stress – Hyperthermia and similar risks can result from working in walk-in
refrigerators and freezers for prolonged periods of time, or handling frozen food without
preventive measures.

Employee’s Incident Report

An incident report is a form to document all workplace illnesses, injuries, near misses and
accidents. An incident report should be completed at the time an incident occurs no matter how
minor an injury is.

The reasons for establishing good occupational safety and health

standards are as follows:

● Moral – No employee nor others associated with the work environment should have to
risk injury at work.

● Economic – Many governments realize that poor occupational safety and health
performance results in extra costs for the state (e.g., social security payments to the
incapacitated, costs for medical treatment, and loss of the working capacity of the
worker). Private companies also sustain costs in the event of an incident at work (e.g.,
 legal fees, fines, compensatory damages, investigation time, lost production and lost
goodwill from the workforce, customers and the wider community).

● Legal – OSH requirements may be reinforced in the civil law and/or criminal law; it is
accepted that without extra encouragement of potential regulatory action or litigation,
many organizations would not act upon their implied moral obligations.

Chapter 2: Personal Habits of Food Service Workers

EMPLOYEE HEALTH AND PERSONAL HYGIENE

Personal hygiene practices are the overall behaviors, activities, and actions that can help food
employees from spreading viruses and bacteria to food. Policies should be designed,
implemented, and monitored to cover employees‘ illnesses, proper attire, and personal hygiene
habits. Good hygienic practices can make the difference between serving food safe for
consumption and food that can make someone ill. Nearly 70% of food-borne illness can be
traced back to poor personal hygiene, whether as a result of an employee illness or handling
foods with bare hands. Accordingly, proper hand washing is a critical step in the food
preparation process to help prevent the spread of food-borne illnesses, such as the norovirus.

Healthy Food Handler

If you’re a food handler, making sure you don’t contaminate food through illness or unclean
habits is very important to keep food safe to eat. As a food handler you need to do whatever you
can to make sure you do not make food unsafe or unsuitable. For a food handler to be
considered healthy, he/she must be free from diseases that may contaminate food, such as
intestinal disorders (typhoid fever and hepatitis), respiratory tract diseases (tuberculosis, sore
throat, and colds), and skin diseases or disorders (boils, lesions, and skin infections).

Proper Attire
1. Hair Restraint - Hairnets serve two purposes. The first is to keep hair from contacting
exposed food, clean and sanitized equipment, utensils and linens, or unwrapped
single-service articles. The second purpose is to keep worker's hands out of their hair.
● A hair restraint must be worn before hand washing and working.
● A hair restraint must be properly worn and should not let a single strand of hair
show.
2. Work Clothes - Work clothes should be exclusively for work and food handling, and
should preferably be light-coloured. They should be clean and neat, and should not be
taken out on the street or in places where it may become contaminated.
● Work clothes should always be clean. Clean uniforms are more appealing to the
customers.
● As much as possible aprons should be of light color to easily reveal dirt.
 ● Never use the apron as a hand towel.
● Change the apron when soiled.
● A food worker must wash his/her hands after touching his/tier apron.
● Remove the apron before leaving the food preparation area.
3. Footwear - As well as being comfortable and durable, the appropriate footwear should
protect the wearer as well as prevent contamination. Closed shoes should be worn at all
times to prevent slipping or falling.
4. Facial Masks - wear a mask or spit guard to prevent them from coughing or sneezing
onto and contaminating food during the food preparation and handling process. These
masks will also prevent direct contact of the hands with my nose and mouth, both of
which are sources of contamination.
5. Gloves - If gloves are required for work, they should be kept clean and unbroken. Even
if you wear gloves, you should also wash your hands.
● Proper hand washing-prior to wearing of gloves should be observed.
● Gloves must be sanitized and changed every day or whenever necessary.
● Gloves must be devoid of any tear or holes as these are possible sources of
contamination.
● Never reuse or wash disposable gloves; always throw them away after use.

Personal Habits of Food Workers

By staying healthy and keeping clean, one can help prevent an outbreak of foodborne illnesses.

1. Taking Daily Baths - Taking a bath daily is the most basic requirement among food
handlers as it ensures their cleanliness.
2. Trimming of Nails - Keep fingernails trimmed, filed, and maintained. Untrimmed nails
are not only unsightly but also potential sources of contamination.
3. Shaving and Haircuts for Males - As facial hair is a source of contamination, male food
handlers are required to shave as necessary. Short, neat haircuts must be maintained as
well.
4. Covering of Wounds - Completely cover all cuts and wounds with a wound strip or
bandage (brightly coloured waterproof bandages are recommended) to prevent the risk
of contamination.
5. Wearing of Jewelry - Wearing of jewelry must be prohibited at all times. Aside from
being a physical hazard, Jewelry may also become biological hazards as they have
crevices that can harbor microbial growth.
6. Wearing of Nail Polish or False/Artificial Fingernails - Don’t wear nail polish because
it can chip into the food.
7. Smoking and Eating - You must not smoke when handling food as ash, cigarette butts
and smoke can all contaminate food. When you smoke, harmful bacteria pass from your
mouth to your hands, and then onto food.Any unhygienic practice that could result in
cross-contamination of food, such as smoking and eating inside the kitchen, should not
be allowed.
 8. Hand Washing - Handwashing is one of the most important things you can do to
prevent food poisoning when preparing food. Washing your hands often and correctly
while you’re cooking can help prevent cross-contamination.

What type of disease can good hand washing prevent?

● Through fecal oral transmission.
- Infections which may be transmitted through this route include salmonellosis, shigellosis,
hepatitis A, giardiasis, enterovirus, amoebiasis, and campylobacteriosis.
● Through indirect contact with respiratory secretions.
- Microorganisms which may be transmitted through this route include influenza, streptococcus,
respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and the common cold.

➔ Microorganisms which may be transmitted by these body substances include

cytomegalovirus, staphylococcal organisms, and the Epstein-ban virus. These germs may be
transferred from person-to-person or indirectly by the contamination of food or inanimate objects
such as toys.

Steps in Proper Hand Washing

1. Wet the hands with warm running water.
2. With soap, thoroughly wash the hands and lather up to the elbow.
3. Scrub thoroughly using a brush for the nails, then rinse
4. Resoap and rub hands for at least 20 seconds
5. Hands should be rinsed well under running water.
6. Hands should be dried with a single use towel or hot air dryer.
7. Turn off faucet using a paper towel to prevent contaminating it again
8. Use a disinfectant if available.

9. Tasting of Food - Never taste food with fingers or utensils that are then returned into the
food.
10. Storing Personal Belongings - Store personal clothing and belongings in designated
locker facilities. Food, drinks, tobacco materials and personal medicine are not allowed
to be stored in this locker facility.
11. Other Personal Habits - Blowing air into the plastic bags or using the teeth for opening
packages are prohibited in food production.
● Do not lick the fingers, or touch themnose, mouth, or hair while in the production
area.
● Never spit in the food handling area.
● Never apply makeup or spritz perfume in food preparation areas.
● Do not sit or lean on work tables or equipment.
● Do not allow unauthorized personnel in the production area.
Cuts and Abrasions
All cuts and abrasions, such as burns and boils, should be covered with waterproof bandages or
dressings. Cuts on hands should be covered with a waterproof bandage and a watertight
disposable glove.

Employee Illnesses
Employees with symptoms of vomiting, diarrhea, fever, respiratory infection, or sore throat
should not report to work.

Education and Training

Appropriate orientation on the hazards of the food industry, and adequate, periodic training must
be implemented for the food production personnel to fully understand their responsibilities
toward food safety.

Traits and Qualities of Food Service Personnel

● Excellent health and physical fitness.
● .Interest in people and food.
● Alertness, pleasant disposition, courtesy, neatness, and good grooming.
● Ability and willingness to comprehend and follow directions.
● Honesty, loyalty, dependability, promptness, and being easy to get along with.
● Wholesome lifestyle.

Human skill - work harmoniously with others in the group so as to accomplish work efficiently.
Technical skills - knowledge of the methods, procedures and techniques needed in the
performance of a particular activity.
Conceptual skill - means having an overall understanding of the foodservice operation. -
(Perdigon, 2009)

MANAGEMENT AND SUPERVISORY RESPONSIBILITIES OF FOOD MANAGER

Food managers
● Have an important responsibility in the prevention of foodborne illness.
● Must educate and instill a sense of urgency to food service employees on the realities of
foodborne diseases.
● Well educated on food safety and related topics such as microbiology, epidemiology, food
science, and standard operating procedures.

A food manager is a person who:

1. Identifies hazards in the day-to-day operation of a food establishment that prepares, serves.
2. Develops or implements specific policies, procedures, or standards aimed at preventing
foodborne illnesses.
3. Coordinates training, supervises, or directs food preparation activities, and takes corrective
action as needed to protect the health of the customers; and
4. Conducts in-house self-inspection of daily operations on a periodic basis to see that policies
and procedures concerning food safety are being followed.
Certified food protection manager
A certified food protection manager will have to be able to demonstrate knowledge and skills in
food protection management. Should be able to;

1. Identify foodborne illnesses;

2. Describe the relationship between time and temperature and the growth of
microorganisms that cause foodborne illnesses;
3. Describe the relationship between personal hygiene and food safety;
4. Describe methods on how to prevent food contamination when purchasing and
receiving;
5. Recognize problems and potential solutions associated with the facility, equipment,
and layout of a food establishment;
6. Recognize problems and solutions

Chapter 3: An Overview of Potential Hazards in Food Service Operations

The Food Industry

- A complex, concentrated, and dynamic chain of activities that begins with the production of
raw agricultural commodities on farms and ranches and moves to value- added processed and
manufactured products and then to retail food stores,and sold.

➔ The people working in the kitchen or the dining are must be well- trained in performing their
duties. ―Clean as you go policy should be strictly implemented. Warning signs like ―wet floor
should be used every time the floor is newly mopped.

Food Safety Hazard

A food safety hazard is a biological, chemical, or physical agent or condition in food that could
potentially cause an adverse human health effect. Food safety hazards can also be found in
animal feed and feed ingredients.

Foodborne illnesses
● Diseases, either infectious or toxic in nature, caused by agents that enter the body through the
ingestion of food.
● Myriad microbes and toxic substances can contaminate foods.
● There are more than 250 known foodborne diseases.
● Majority are infectious and caused by bacteria, viruses and parasites.
● Other foodborne diseases are poisonings caused by toxins and chemicals contaminating the
food.
● All foodborne microbes and toxins enter the body through the gastrointestinal tract and often
cause nausea and vomiting.

Biological Chemical Physical

● Bacteria ● Agricultural chemicals ● Foreign objects in food

● Parasites and (pesticides) such as:
helminths ● Natural plant toxins -Hair
● Virus ● Animal toxins -Pebbles
● Fungi ● Food additives -Glass shards
● Prion ● Medications -Toothpick
● Radioactive substances -Plastic
● Alcohol -Metal fragments
-Fabrics

SOURCES OF FOOD SAFETY HAZARDS

Contamination - unintended-presence of a harmful substance in food while
cross-contamination is the transfer of such harmful substances from one food to another
through a non-food surface, such as cooking wares, equipment, and food workers.

General Categories of Contamination

1. Inherent in Raw Material
Raw food materials may appear clean, but microorganisms, chemicals, even
foreign objects, may be found in the raw food as it is grown, harvested, caught or
slaughtered. (Snyder, 2004).

2. Contamination through Time Temperature Abuse

A food is said to have been time- temperature abused if it has been allowed to
stay too long at temperatures favorable to the growth of microorganisms. This
temperature is referred to as the Temperature Danger Zone.

Contamination due to time-temperature abuse includes:

● failure to hold or store food at the required cold or hot temperature;
● failure to cook and/or reheat to temperature that will kill harmful microorganisms; and
● long interval between food preparation and serving without appropriate temperature.

3. Cross-contamination
Cross—contamination occurs when microorganisms are transferred from a
contaminated food contact surface or food to a non-contaminated food contact surface
or food.

● addition of raw material to a cooked ingredient without it being heated or cooked;

● contamination from the dirty apparel of food handlers; and
● contamination of food surfaces.

4. Poor Person at Hygiene

Individuals with poor personal hygiene practices can contaminate food and food
contact surfaces The most common source of foodborne illness can be traced to food
handlers.

● failure to wash hands properly;

● failure to follow proper hygiene habits;
● working when sick
● lack of training in personal hygiene practices.

POTENTIALLY HAZARDOUS FOOD (PHF)

Ability to support the rapid, progressive growth of infections and toxin producing
microorganisms.

Characteristics of PHF:
● Foodborne illness outbreaks Salmonellosis in peanut butter from the Peanut Corporation of
America in Blakely, Georgia as one of the worst known outbreaks of foodborne diseases. Nine
are believed to have died and an estimated 22, 500 fell ill from the disease.
● Contamination occurs due to the methods used to produce and process food. Examples are
manually handled food (fresh lumpia) and those that do not undergo heating (salads and
sandwiches).
● Foods with high moisture are likely to support microbial growth. Highly perishable (fresh) food
and canned fruits, vegetables, meat, fish, and milk are examples of PHF with high moisture
content.
● High protein and carbohydrates. These kinds of food provide a rich source of bacterial food.
These foods include meat, poultry, fish, dairy products, and eggs.
● Fresh fruits, vegetables and some seafood have low acidity levels that can sustain microbial
growth.

The FDA Food Code classifies the following as PHF:

1. Animal products that are raw or heat-treated.
2. All cooked meat and poultry.
3. Cooked meat products with sauces and stocks, especially those with tomatoes.
4. Dairy products like milk, cream, cheese, ice-cream and yogurt.
5. Cooked eggs and products made from eggs, like mayonnaise.
6. Cooked shellfish and other seafood.
7. Cooked rice and beans: and baked or broiled potatoes.
8. Desserts consisting of eggs and milk.
9. Gravies and stuffing for meat and poultry.
10. Food products made with high-risk foods and exposed to more handling.
11. Chinese and Mexican dishes, some baked goods and cream fillings, French toast, meringue.
12. Foods of plant origin that are heat treated or consist of raw seed sprouts.
13. Cut melons, and garlic and oil mixtures that are not modified in a way to inhibit the growth of
microorganisms.

FOODBORNE ILLNESSES
Food poisoning - An illness caused by the consumption of food containing microbial toxins or
chemical poisons.
Food intoxication - Food poisoning caused by bacterial toxins
Chemical poisoning - Chemicals that have gotten into food
Food toxicoinfections - Foodborne illnesses caused from a combination of food intoxication
and food infection

SYMPTOMS OF FOODBORNE ILLNESSES

● abdominal cramps,
● nausea,
● vomiting,
● diarrhea. which is sometimes bloody,
● fever,
● dehydration, and
● headache.

RISK FACTORS OF FOODBORNE ILLNESSES

1. Infants and young children.
2. Pregnant women.
3. Elderly persons over 65 years old; persons with debilitating illnesses or chronic diseases like
cancer, diabetes, mellitus, and tuberculosis.
4. Persons whose immune systems are compromised as in cases of HIV/AIDS.
5. Who had organ transplants and multiple surgeries and those undergoing radiation and
chemotherapy.
6. Malnourished individuals who are anemic, emaciated, and have depleted body proteins.
7. Individuals with unhealthy lifestyles, such as poor eating habits, alcohol and drug abuse, and
smoking.
8. Prolonged use of antibiotics and antacids.

TREATMENT OF FOODBORNE ILLNESSES

In the most severe situations, hospitalization may be needed to receive supportive
nutritional and medical therapy. Maintaining adequate fluid and electrolyte balance and
controlling blood pressure.

SOCIO- ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF FOODBORNE ILLNESSES

1. Costs that may be incurred by the sick individual or caregiver/family
● Loss of income
● Loss of opportunities for advancement
● Medical expenses to cover physical
● rehabilitation and long—term care
● Cost of child and geriatric care
● Cost of special dietary needs
● Loss of productivity
● Loss leisure and travel opportunities
● Funeral expenses

2. Business and industry Costs

● Legal liability cost
● Insurance cost
● Cost of recall or discarded product
● Poor publicity and decline of stock value
● Loss of reputation
● Cost of investigation, cleaning up, and education
● Loss of customers and business

3. Costs to the nation and government

● Expenses for plant or on-site inspection
● Legislation
● Medical cost
● Prosecution cost
● Healthcare/Welfare benefits
● Losses from tourism and food export trade

POINTS TO REMEMBER REGARDING POTENTIAL HAZARDS IN FOOD SERVICE

OPERATIONS
1. Foodborne illnesses are acquired from eating food or drinking beverages contaminated with
bacteria, viruses, or parasites.
2. People at greater risk for foodborne illnesses include young children, pregnant women
and their unborn child, elderly, and people with lowered immunity.
3. Symptoms usually resemble intestinal flu. A doctor should immediately be consulted if more
serious problems occur or there is no improvement in the condition.
4. Treatment may range from the replacement of lost fluids and electrolytes for mild cases of
foodborne illnesses to hospitalization for severe conditions such as Hemolytic-uremic syndrome.
5. Foodborne hazards can be classified as biological, chemical, or physical.
6. Biological hazards can be caused by parasites, viruses, or bacteria.
7. Chemical contaminants in foods can come from industrial and agricultural sources, food
processing, or the food itself.
8. Toxic chemicals also come from biological sources such as molds and algae.
9. Foreign objects present in food could constitute a physical hazard to the consumer.
10. The socio- economic effects of foodborne illnesses would include cost to the victim, the
food industry and the government. (Ang & Balanon, 2010)
 Chapter 4: Biological Hazards

BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS
Biological hazards are by far the most dangerous foodborne hazard in the food service and food
retail businesses. These include harmful microorganisms seen only under the microscope
(bacteria, viruses, parasites, molds, yeast) and the biological substance prion, a protein
molecule. Food handlers who do not wash hands frequently and properly and do not practice
personal hygiene are the most common carriers.

CLASSIFICATION OF FOODBORNE ILLNESS

● Infection- ingestion of a harmful microorganism in food.
● Intoxication- ingestion of a harmful toxin produced in food.
● Toxin- Mediated Infection- ingestion of a harmful microorganism in food that produces a
toxin in the human body.

Food infection occurs when food contains living pathogens that grow in the human intestinal
tract after the food is eaten. Because the bacteria continue to multiply in the body and cause
infection, the reaction will be slower. Example: Salmonella

Food intoxication occurs when bacteria grow in food and produce a waste product called a
toxin (poison). When the food is eaten, the toxins are immediately introduced into the body,
causing a rapid reaction. Example: Staphylococcus

A toxin-mediated infection is a disease that results from eating food containing live germs.
These kinds of germs would colonize the stomach or intestine, making toxin as they live and
grow. The toxin produced inside the body causes the food borne illness symptoms. Example:
Clostridium Perfringens

TYPES OF MICROORGANISMS
1. Beneficial Microorganisms - includes all the microbes that can be processed in such a
way that it can be utilized in a healthy product. Examples of these microbes are those
used in making bread, beer, yogurt, and cheese.
2. Harmful Microorganisms - spoil food and cause diseases.

MICROBIAL FORMS
Bacteria - are single- celled organisms and can cause illnesses in two ways. Pathogenic
(infectious; disease- causing) bacteria multiply rapidly in favorable conditions provided by PHF,
while toxigenic (poisonous) bacteria produce harmful toxins.

Most bacteria exist in a vegetative state in which they can grow and reproduce. Few of them
can also exist in spore form which is unable to grow or reproduce but can help the bacteria to
survive in an environment that is unfavourable for growth such as cooking and freezing
temperatures and the destructive effects of cleaning and sanitizing solutions.
Bacteria are classified as either spoilage or pathogenic microorganisms.
a. Spoilage bacteria - cause food to deteriorate and develop unpleasant odors, tastes,
and textures. These one-celled microorganisms can cause fruits and vegetables to get
mushy or slimy, or meat to develop a bad odor.
b. Pathogenic bacteria - are bacteria that can cause disease when consumed.

Bacterial Growth
Bacteria reproduce when a bacterial cell divides to form two new cells. This process is called
binary fission. The generation time, or the time for cell numbers to double is typically 20-30
minutes but can also be quick as 15 minutes.

Phases of Bacterial Growth

1. Lag Phase. The initial period in the life of a bacterial population when cells are adjusting
to a new environment before starting exponential growth.
2. Log Phase. Microbes start multiplying exponentially, doubling in number every few
minutes.
3. Stationary Phase. When growth ceases but cells remain metabolically active.
4. Death Phase. Toxic waste products build up, food is depleted and the microorganisms
begin to die.

Bacterial Growth Requirement

The conditions that favor the growth of bacteria, yeast, and molds can be easily remembered by
the acronym FATTOM which stands for Food, Acidity, Time, Temperature, Oxygen, and
Moisture.

Food - Foods provide a perfect environment for bacterial growth, due to their provision of
nutrients, energy, and other components needed by the bacteria. Bacteria generally prefer foods
that are high in protein like meat and dairy items.
Acidity - Bacteria do not grow well in acidic conditions, which is why it is important to properly
store low-acid foods (many vegetables, fruits, grains, etc.). Bacteria grow best at acidity levels
equivalent to pH 4.6 to 7.5. The term pH is used as a symbol to designate the food‘s degree of
acidity.
Temperature - Some bacteria thrive in extreme heat or cold, while others can survive under
highly acidic or extremely salty conditions. Most bacteria that cause disease grow fastest in the
temperature range between 41 and 135 degrees F, which is known as THE DANGER ZONE.

Classification of Microorganisms According to Temperature Requirements

1. Psychrophiles - These cold-temperature loving microorganisms thrive in a temperature
range of 0°C to 21°C. They are especially troublesome because they are capable of
multiplying at both refrigerated and room temperatures.
2. Mesophiles - These middle range bacteria grow at temperatures between 21°C and
43°C, with the most rapid growth at human body temperature.
3. Thermophiles - Heat- loving microorganisms, they grow best at temperatures above
43°C. All thermophilic bacteria are spoilage organisms.
Time - A rule of thumb in the food industry is that bacteria need about four hours, inclusive of
the time food is between 5°C to 60°C, to grow to numbers high enough to cause illness. It is
very important not to give bacteria an opportunity to multiply. Proper storage and handling of
foods help prevent bacteria from multiplying.
● Temperature abuse is the term applied to food that has not been heated to or kept at the
proper temperature.
● Time and temperature are the most critical factors affecting the growth of bacteria in
foods.

Oxygen - bacteria require different amounts of oxygen to grow. Some require a lot of oxygen
(aerobic), while others cannot tolerate oxygen (anaerobic) at all. Those belonging to genus
Clostridia require the complete absence of free oxygen to grow.

Anaerobic bacteria grow well in vacuum packaged foods or canned foods where oxygen is not
available.
Anaerobic conditions also exist in the middle of cooked food masses such as stock pots and
baked potatoes, or in the middle of a roast or ham.
Some bacteria only grow within a narrow oxygen range (microaerophilic), usually three to six
percent oxygen levels, while others can grow with or without oxygen (facultative anaerobes).
Most foodborne-causing microorganisms are facultative anaerobes.

Moisture - Moisture is the final component necessary for bacterial growth. The higher the water
content of foods, the greater their chance of bacterial contamination. aw is water not bound to
the food and is available for bacterial growth. It is measured on a scale from 0-1.0. Disease-
causing bacteria can only grow in foods greater than .85.

In the Philippines, because of high relative humidity, the top layer of some exposed food can
hydrate and make it moist enough for microorganisms to grow. Good packaging and the control
of environmental relative humidity which can be achieved with air- conditioning, dehumidifier, or
even adequate ventilation, can prevent this from happening.

There are many preservation processes that can be done to reduce the aw (below .85) of foods,
including sun drying and freeze drying. The addition of salt or sugar can also be used to
reduce available water.

BACTERIAL, VIRAL, AND PARASITIC FOODBORNE HAZARDS

Classified as spore-forming bacteria, non spore-forming bacteria, viruses, and parasites. The
type of illness, symptoms and onset time, common foods, the route of transmission and ways to
control the hazards will likewise be identified. (Ang & Balanon, 2010)

Foodborne Illnesses Caused by Bacteria

Spore-Forming Foodborne Bacteria - The following group of bacteria can produce a spore
structure that allows a cell to withstand environmental stress, such as cooking, freezing,
salting, drying, and picking. Generally, bacterial spores are not harmful if ingested. However,
if conditions of the food are changed, permitting the spore to turn into a vegetative cell, the
vegetative cell can grow in the food and cause illness if eaten.

Spore-forming bacteria are generally found in ingredients grown near the soil like vegetables
and spices. They can be particularly troublesome in food retail-type environments because they
can survive on foods. When conditions are improved, for instance, adding dried spices to a beef
stew mixture, spores can become vegetative cells.

Spores are most likely to turn vegetative when:

● Heat-shocked (heating causes spores to change);
● Optimum conditions exist for growth (high protein and high moisture);
● Temperatures are in the food temperature danger zone or between 5°C to 60°C; and
● The amount of time the food is in the danger zone is four hours or more.

To keep spore-forming bacteria from changing to the dangerous vegetative state, it is critical
that hot foods be maintained at 60°Cor higher and cold foods be kept at less than 5°C.Cooking,
reheating, and cooling of foods should also be done as quickly as possible to limit bacterial
growth.

1. Bacillus cereus - Bacillus cereus is a foodborne pathogen that can produce toxins,
causing two types of gastrointestinal illness: the emetic (vomiting) syndrome and the
diarrhoeal syndrome.
2. Clostridium perfringens - Clostridium perfringens bacteria are one of the most
common causes of foodborne illness (food poisoning). These bacteria make spores,
which act like protective coatings that help the bacteria survive. Under certain conditions,
such as when food is kept at an unsafe temperature (between 40°F–140°F), C.
perfringens can grow and multiply. After someone swallows the bacteria, it can produce
a toxin (poison) that causes diarrhea.
3. Clostridium botulinum - Clostridium botulinum is an anaerobic, rod-shaped spore
forming bacterium that produces a protein with characteristic neurotoxicity. Under certain
conditions, these organisms may grow in foods producing toxin(s). Botulism, a severe
form of food poisoning results when the toxin-containing foods are ingested.

Nonspore forming Foodborne Bacteria

Compared to spore-forming bacteria in the spore state, vegetative cells are easily destroyed by
proper cooking.

1. Campylobacter jejuni - number one agent that causes foodborne illnesses.

Campylobacter jejuni is one of the most common bacterial causes of diarrhea. Most
cases of Campylobacter jejuni come from handling or ingesting raw or undercooked
poultry meat.
2. Escherichia coli - Escherichia coli (abbreviated as E. coli) are bacteria found in the
environment, foods, and intestines of people and animals. E. coli are a large and diverse
group of bacteria. Although most strains of E. coli are harmless, others can make you
 sick. Some kinds of E. coli can cause diarrhea, while others cause urinary tract
infections, respiratory illness and pneumonia, and other illnesses.
3. Listeria monocytogenes - Listeria monocytogenes (L. monocytogenes) is a species of
pathogenic (disease-causing) bacteria that can be found in moist environments, soil,
water, decaying vegetation and animals, and can survive and even grow under
refrigeration and other food preservation measures.
4. Salmonella spp. - Salmonella is a facultative anaerobic bacterium that frequently
causes a foodborne infection. Like E. coli, Salmonella can be found in the intestinal
tracts of warm-blooded animals.
5. Shigella spp. - It is frequently found in the intestines of humans and warm-blooded
animals and can cause an infection or toxic-infection. A common illness caused by
Shigella is bacillary dysentery.
6. Staphylococcus aureus - produce a very heat-stable toxin as it grows on food, an
example of an intoxication. This bacterium can grow on cooked foods that are
re-contaminated by food workers through mishandling them.
7. Vibrio spp. - There are three species within the Vibrio group of bacteria that have been
implicated in foodborne infections. They include Vibrio cholera, vibrio
parahaemolyticus, and Vibrio vulnificus, all of which are resistant to salt and are
common in seafood.

Foodborne Illnesses Caused by Viruses

Foodborne viruses differ from foodborne bacteria. Viruses require a living host (animal, plant, or
human) to grow and reproduce. Unlike bacteria, they do not reproduce or grow in foods. Viruses
are usually transferred from one food to another, e g., from a food handler to a food, or from a
water supply to a food.

1. Hepatitis A - It causes the liver disease infectious hepatitis. The hepatitis A virus is
transmitted primarily by the fecal-oral route; that is when an uninfected person ingests
food or water that has been contaminated with the faeces of an infected person.
2. Norwalk virus group - are spread by food and water and from person to person.
3. Rotavirus - A rotaviruses cause several diseases known as rotavirus gastroenteritis.
These viruses are the leading causes of severe diarrhea among infants and children.
The Cause of rotavirus food poisoning is touching a contaminated surface. Failure to
wash the hands properly after visiting the toilet.

Foodborne Illnesses Caused by Parasites

Parasites are microscopic creatures that need to live on or inside a host to survive. Parasites
can be found in irrigation water, animal feces, muscle tissues of improperly fed cattle and swine,
and fish muscles. Humans can become infected when undercooked meat and fish are
consumed.

1. Anisakis spp. - Anisakiasis is a parasitic disease caused by anisakid nematodes

(worms) that can invade the stomach wall or intestine of humans. The transmission of
this disease occurs when infective larvae are ingested from fish or squid that humans eat
 raw or undercooked. They can be beige, ivory white, gray, brown, or pink. Other names
for this parasite are cod worm and herring worm.
2. Cryptosporidium parvum - is a single-celled microorganism called protozoa. They can
cause foodborne infections and can be found in water that has been contaminated with
cow feces.
3. Giardia lamblia - Giardia lamblia is found in the feces of wild animals, domestic pets,
and infected persons.
4. Trichinella spiralis - Trichinella spiralis is a foodborne roundworm that can cause
parasitic infection. It can be found in an infected fleshy muscle and is eaten by certain
meat-eating animals; these animals then transmit it to a new host.
5. Toxoplasma gondii - Toxoplasmosis is a parasitic infection caused by Toxoplasma
gondii. This parasite is common in warm-blooded animals including cats, rats, pigs,
cows, sheep, chicken, and birds.
6. Entamoeba histolytica - Entamoeba histolytica is an intestinal dwelling parasite in the
human gastrointestinal tract that causes diseases such as amebiasis, amebic colitis
and amebic liver abscesses. In most cases, E. histolytica colonizes the host's gut
without causing symptoms or disease.
7. Ascaris lumbricoides - Ascaris lumbricoides infections in humans occur when an
ingested infective egg releases a larval worm that penetrates the wall of the duodenum
and enters the bloodstream. It is carried to the liver and heart, enters the pulmonary
circulation, and breaks free in the alveoli, where it grows and molts. In three weeks, the
larvae pass from the respiratory system to be coughed up, swallowed, and returned to
the small intestine, where they mature to adult male and female worms.
8. Taenia saginata and Taenia solium - Taenia saginata (beef tapeworm) and Taenia
solium (pork tapeworm) are parasitic worms (helminths). Taeniasis is the intestinal
infection caused by adult-stage tapeworms. Cysticercosis, on the other hand, is the
tissue infection caused by the larval-stage of the pork tapeworm.
9. Diphyllobothrium latum - Diphyllobothrium latum and other members of the genus are
broad fish tapeworms. Humans acquire these parasitic flatworms primarily through the
consumption of raw or insufficiently cooked fish.

Foodborne Illnesses Caused by Fungi

A fungus is a eukaryotic organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi. Fungi are
heterotrophic organisms that possess a chitinous cell wall. The majority of its species grow as
multicellular filaments called hyphae forming a mycelium; some fungal species also grow
as single cells. Sexual and asexual reproduction occur commonly through spores which are
often produced on specialized structures or in fruiting bodies. Yeasts, molds, and mushrooms
are all examples of fungi.

Types of Fungi Hazardous for Consumption

1. Molds - Molds are microscopic fungi that live on plant or animal matter. Most are
filamentous (threadlike) organisms and can reproduce through spores. These spores
can be transported by air, water, or insects. Most molds bodies consist of:
● root threads that invade the food it lives on;
 ● a stalk rising above the food; and
● spores at the ends of the stalks

Spores give mold their color. When airborne, the spores spread mold from place to place like
dandelion seeds blowing across a meadow.

Some molds cause allergic reactions and respiratory problems. When in the right conditions,
molds produce "mycotoxins," poisonous substances make people sick. These poisonous
substances are produced by certain molds found primarily in grain and nut crops, as well as on
celery, grape juice, apples, and other produce contaminants of the food chain. In humans,
mycotoxins can cause vomiting, fever, and headache.

While most molds prefer warmer temperatures, they can grow at refrigerator temperatures, too.
They can also tolerate salt and sugar better than most other food invaders. Therefore, molds
can grow in refrigerated jams and jelly and on cured, salty meats like ham, bacon, salami, and
Bologna.

2. Yeast - Yeast are single-celled fungi, in contrast to molds which are multicellular. They
differ from bacteria by their larger cell size and shape, which may be oval, elongated,
elliptical, or spherical. The average cell size of yeast is from five to eight micrometers in
diameter. They grow in numbers by dividing (budding or fission). Most yeast are not
pathogenic. In fact, yeast is used as an ingredient in bread making and is responsible for
alcoholic fermentation needed in alcoholic beverages. There are many genera of yeast
and some are useful for the food industry. The harmful ones cause food spoilage and
undesirable taste. (Ang & Balanon, 2010)
3. Mushrooms - Mushrooms are actually the fruit fungus. The fungus itself is simply a net
of threadlike fibers called mycelium. They grow in soil, wood or decaying matter. The
function of a mushroom is to produce spores which are the seeds of the fungus. Spores
form on these various structures, then fall off to be blown away by the wind or be carried
by animals, water or insects. If a spore lands on a suitable spot, it germinates and grows
into a new mycelium.

Edible Mushrooms - Edible Mushrooms are rich in nutritional point of view with higher contents
of protein, vitamin, mineral, fibers, microelements and little calories. Edible mushrooms are used
extensively in cooking in many cuisines, notably Chinese, European and Japanese.

Common Edible Mushrooms

1. Puffballs (Lycoperdon spp. and Calvatia spp.)
2. Shaggy Mane (Coprinus Comatus)
3. Coral Fungi (Clavariaceae)
4. Morels
Three Common Species of Morels
● Common Morel (Morchella esculenta) - When young, this species has white
ridges and dark brown pits and is known as the white morel. As it ages, both the
 ridges and the pits turn yellowish brown, and it becomes a yellow morel. If
conditions are right, it can grow into a giant morel, which may be up to a foot tall.
● Black morel or smoky Morel (Morchella elata) - The ridges are gray or tan
when young, but darken with age until they are nearly black. The pits are brown
and elongated. These morels are best when picked young. They should be
discarded if they have already shrunk or have completely black heads.
● Half-free morel (Morchella semilibera) - This is the exception to the rule that
morels have the bottom of the cap attached directly to the stem. The cap of the
half-free morel is attached in the middle. These morels have small caps and long
bulbous stems.
5. Bearded Tooth (Hericium erinaceus)
6. Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus)
7. Chanterelles (Cantharellaceae)
8. Boletes (Boletaceae)
9. Sulfur Shelf (Laetiporus sulphureus)
10. Hen-of-the-woods (Grifola frondosa)

Poisonous Mushrooms - Poisonous mushrooms are hard to distinguish from edible ones. The
toxins involved in mushroom poisoning are produced naturally by the toxic species of this
fungus. Most of them cannot be made non toxic even with cooking, canning, freezing, or any
other means of processing. Mushroom poisoning, also known as mycetism, refers to the
deleterious effects caused by the ingestion of toxic substances present in a mushroom. These
symptoms may vary from slight gastrointestinal discomfort to death.
There are three categories of mushroom poisoning:
● Protoplasmic - This results in the generalized destruction of cells followed by
organ failure.
● Neurologic - This causes hallucinations, depression, coma and convulsion.
● Gastrointestinal - This includes spastic colon, rapid nausea and vomiting,
abdominal cramps and diarrhea.

To avoid mushroom poisoning, follow these five rules:

● Identify each and every mushroom you collect, and only eat those whose identification you are
sure of. When in doubt, throw it out.
● Strictly avoid any mushroom that looks like amanita (parasol-shaped mushrooms with white
gills), little brown mushrooms, and false morels.
● Some people are allergic to even the safest mushrooms. The first time you try a wild new
mushroom, eat only a small amount and wait for 24 hours before eating more.
● As with other foods, rotting mushrooms can make you ill. Eat only firm, fresh, undecayed
mushrooms.
● Most wild mushrooms should not be eaten raw or in large quantities, since they are difficult to
digest.
Common Poisonous Mushrooms
1. Amanitas
2. False morels (Helvella and Gyromitra spp.)
3. Little Brown Mushrooms (LBMs)
4. Jack O' Lantern (Omphalotus olearius)
5. Green-spored lepiota (chlorophyllum molybdytes)

Foodborne Illnesses Caused by Prions

The term “prions” refers to abnormal, pathogenic agents that are transmissible and are able
to induce abnormal folding of specific normal cellular proteins called prion proteins that are
found most abundantly in the brain. Prion disease, also called transmissible spongiform
encephalopathies (TSEs), create spongy form pathological changes in the brain, resulting in
encephalopathy or brain damage.

Mad Cow Disease is the best known bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE). An infected
cow is observed to be disoriented, irritable and unable to stand or walk properly. BSE is a
progressive neurologic disease of cows. Progressive means that it gets worse over time.
Neurologic means that it damages a cow’s central nervous system (brain and spinal cord).

Creutzfeldt-Jacob Disease (CJD) is a rare and fatal neurodegenerative disease in humans.

rate of about one case per million per year. The cause of sporadic CJD remains uncertain.
However, the most favored theory suggests that the normal prion protein in the brain undergoes
a spontaneous change to an abnormal form that results in disease. (Ang & Balanon, 2010)

HOW TO CONTROL MICROBIAL GROWTH

Any method to slow down the pathogenic organism, or totally kill them, based on the application
of the principles of FATTOM will prevent/ reduce the incidence of foodborne illnesses. Food
preservation techniques, whatever traditional or newer ones, are effective means of prolonging
the shelf life of foods, and improving palatability qualities in some cases because of their effects
on microbial life and growth.

Methods on How to Control Microbial Growth

a. Application of Heat
b. Application of Low Temperatures
c. Controlling pH Conditions d. Reducing Free Oxygen
e. Reducing Available Water
f. Role of Other Chemicals
g. Safe and Sanitary Food Handling
PREVENTION OF FOODBORNE ILLNESSES
Most cases of foodborne illnesses can be prevented through proper cooking or processing of
the food. In addition, because bacteria multiply rapidly between 40°F and 140°F, food must be
kept out of this temperature range. Follow these tips to prevent harmful bacteria from growing in
food:

1. Food Preparation Stage

● Refrigerate food promptly.
● Prevent cross- contamination.
● Handle food properly.
● Wash utensils and surfaces before and after use with hot, soapy water.
● Wash sponges and dish towels weekly in hot water in the washing
machine.
2. Food Processing Stage (Cooking)
● Cook food with the appropriate internal temperature.

3. Food Storage Stage

● Keep cold food cold and hot food hot.
● Maintain hot, cooked food at 140°F or higher.
● Reheat cooked food to at least 165°F.
● Refrigerate or freeze perishables, produce, prepared food, and leftovers
within two hours.
● Never defrost food on the kitchen counter. Use the refrigerator; cold,
running water; or the microwave oven.
● Never let food marinate at room temperature- refrigerate it.
● Divide large amounts of leftovers into small, shallow containers for quick
cooling in the refrigerator.
● Remove the stuffing from poultry and other meat immediately and
refrigerate it in a separate counter.
● Wash all unpackaged, and packaged and not marked “pre-washed” fruits
and vegetables under running water just before eating, cutting, or cooking.
● Do not overcrowd the refrigerator. Cool air must circulate to keep food
safe. (Ang & Balanon, 2010)

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