UNIT : IIIa

NUCLEAR
POWER PLANT
 INTRODUCTION
• All matter is composed of unit particles called atoms.
• An atom consists of positively charged nucleus & much lighter
negatively charged electrons orbit around it.
• A nucleus is represented by the symbol : zXA
Where X= symbol of element (Cl, Br, H etc.)
A= mass number.
Z= atomic number.
•
Particle Charge Mass (g)
Proton +1 1.6727 x 10-24 g
Neutron 0 1.6750 x 10-24 g
Electron -1 9.110 x 10-28 g
 ALPHA DECAY
• Alpha decay is a
radioactive process in
which a particle with two
neutrons and two
protons is ejected from
the nucleus of a
radioactive atom. The
particle is identical to the
nucleus of a helium
atom.

𝐀 𝐀−𝟒 𝟒
• 𝐙𝐗 → 𝐙−𝟐𝐘 + 𝟐𝛂
 BETA DECAY
• Beta decay is a radioactive decay in
which an electron is emitted.
𝐀 𝐀 𝟎
• 𝐙𝐗 → 𝐙+𝟏𝐘 + −𝟏𝐞 + 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲
Parent Daughter Beta
Nuclide Nuclide Particle

BETA MINUS DECAY

BETA MINUS DECAY

 GAMMA DECAY
• An excited nucleus can decay by the emission of an α or β particle.
The daughter nucleus that results is usually left in an excited state. It
can then decay to a lower energy state by emitting a gamma ray
photon, in a process called gamma decay.
• 𝐀𝐙𝐗 → 𝑨𝒁𝑿 + 𝟎𝟎𝜸
RADIOACTIVE DECAY
• All isotopes of heavier elements starting with Polonium are not stable
i.e. binding energy is very small.
• So a spontaneous disintegration process called radioactive decay
occurs.
Mass defect
• The sum of mass of protons & neutrons that comprise the nucleus exceeds the
mass of the nucleus.
• The difference in mass is called mass defect.
Δ E = Δm c2
• The energy associated with mass defect is called binding energy.

• Higher the binding energy per nucleon , higher is the stability of

nucleus.
• For most medium & heavy nuclei the binding energy per nucleon is 7.5
to 8.7 MeV.
• It is found experimentally that the nuclei of even no. of protons and
even no. of neutrons are very stable.
• Whereas nuclei having odd no. of nucleons are unstable and can be
fissioned by low energy neutrons.
NUCLEAR FUSION
NUCLEAR REACTOR
LAYOUT OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
 NUCLEAR REACTOR CORE
A nuclear reactor is an apparatus in
which heat is produced due to
nuclear fission chain reaction. Figure
shows the various parts of reactor :
1. Nuclear Fuel
2. Moderator
3. Control Rods
4. Reflector
5. Reactors Vessel
6. Biological Shielding
7. Coolant.
 MODERATOR
 The function of a moderator is to
reduce the energy of fast neutrons to
thermal neutrons.
 The moderator slows down the
neutrons to thermal energies by
collision with inert atoms (scattering).
 Speed of the neutrons is reduced
within a small number of collisions as
the moderator possesses a high
scattering cross section.
 Materials with low atomic mass
number make best moderators.
 e. g. Light water, heavy water, carbon,
beryllium
 CONTROL RODS
 Control rods are normally made of
cadmium, boron or hafnium.
 They have huge neutron-
absorption cross sections.
 The control rods are lowered or
raised in the reactor core.
 Reactor power is directly
proportional to neutron density
 Lowering the control rods will
remove neutron from the reactor
core and will decrease the power and
reaction rate.
 Raising the control rods will increase
the power and rate.
PRESSURE VESSESLS OR TUBES
 REFLECTOR
Function of the reflector is to minimize the neutron leakage by reflecting them back
into the reactor. The material used for reflector is same as that used for moderator.

BIOLOGICAL SHIELDING
Shielding prevents the passage of radiation to the outside of the reactor.
Internal shielding prevents the leakage of neutron and gamma radiation present in
the cooling circuits.
A low atomic weight material for neutrons and a high atomic weight material for
gamma rays are used.
Shield is frequently constructed in layers or heavy and light material such as
concrete and water.
Shields for external circuit where only gamma radiation may be present are made up
of steel, lead, polyethylene and concrete.
 FUEL
COOLANT
The function of the coolant is to
remove the heat released by
fission.
The coolant should have high
specific heat, high conductivity,
good chemical stability, good
pumping characteristics and low
neutron-absorption tendency.
Coolant can be either liquid or
gaseous. e.g. Light water, heavy
water, air, CO2, He, sodium,
bismuth, potassium.
Fuel isotope + Neutron → Fission fragments +
Neutrons + Energy
 REACTOR
FOR STARTING THE REACTOR
 REACTOR
MEANING OF K
 MAINTAINING THE REACTION

FOR SHUTTING DOWN THE REACTOR

PRESSURIZED WATER REACTOR (PWR)
DISADVANTAGES
BOILING WATER REACTOR (BWR)
GAS COOLED REACTOR
Gas cooled reactor was first developed in the UK. Uses CO2, as
coolant instead of water and graphite as moderator. It is called
gas cooled graphite moderated (GCGM) rector. It uses natural
uranium as fuel and Coolant (CO2) pressure is about 7 bar and
temp. 336 °C
Another gas cooled reactor developed in U.S.A uses helium as
coolant and graphite as moderator. It is called high temperature
gas cooled (HTGC) reactor. The fuel used in U233 as fuel. The
pressure and temperatures of the coolant (He) are 15 bar to 30 bar
and 700°C to 800°C respectively. HTGCR may be operated up to
a thermal efficiency of 40%.
The advantage of using gas as coolant compared to water is that it
is safe wrt corrosion resistance, easy to handle and it can be heated
upto any temperature without change of phase.

However, working with gas coolants in the reactors a large rate of

a gas circulation with the help of blowers is needed for affecting
the required energy transfers. Therefore, for driving the blowers, a
large amount of power is needed compared to power needed for
running the feed waler pumps in case water is used as a coolant. It
lowers the net maximum thermal efficiency of gas cooled reactors.
 ADVANTAGES
1. It has no corrosion problem
2 Gases are safe and easy to handle.
3.Graphite remains stable at high temperatures and radiation problems
are minimum.
4 Gases can be operated at high temperatures and pressurized easily.
DISADVANTAGES
1 Gases have lower heat transfer coefficient thus it requires large heat
exchangers.
2 Fuels have to be operated at high temperatures
3. Large amount of fuel loading is required.
4. If helium is used as in case of HTGC, leakage is a major problem
5.More power is needed for coolant circulation compared to liquid-
cooled reactors.
CANDU REACTOR
 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
A reactor developed and designed by Canadian is called as CANDU
(Canadian Deuterium Uranium) reactor.
It uses pressurized heavy water (PHW) (which is 99.8% deuterium
oxide, D2O) as moderator and primary coolant while the fuel used is
natural uranium
Natural uranium oxide fuel is in the form of small cylinder pallets.
These are packed in Corrosion resistant zirconium alloy tubes
form a fuel rod.
These short rods are combined and placed end to end in each
pressure tube. This type of arrangement helps in refueling the reactor
while in operation
 Reactor vessel is a steel cylinder called calandria. It is placed
horizontally. It has pressure tubes penetrating the reactor vessel.
 In the primary circuit the D20 coolant enters the array of pressure
tubes at 110 bar and 260°C. It flows through the fuel element and
leaves the pressure tubes at about 370°C after absorbing the heat
generated by fission of fuel material.
 The coolant at 110 bar. 370°C leaving the reactor enters the steam
generator, where the generated steam is used in conventional
steam power plant.
 Control rods are made up of cadmium. These are used to start and
shut down the reactor. In addition there are other absorbing rods
which are used to control power output during reactor operation.
 ADVANTAGES
1. Heavy water is used as moderator, which has low fuel consumption.
2. Enriched fuel is not required.
3. Cost and time of construction is less.
4. It has good neutron economy resulting into good breeding ratio.

DISADVANTAGES
1. Heavy water used is costly.
2. It has critical temperature limitations.
3. Leakage problems may occur.
4. Size of plant is large.
5. It requires high standards of design, manufacture and maintenance,
LIQUID METAL REACTOR OR SODIUM GRAPHITE REACTOR (SGR)
Sodium graphite reactor is a typical liquid metal reactor.
It uses graphite as the moderator and liquid sodium as a coolant, which
can reach a temperature of about 850°C at low pressure of only 7 bar.
In the primary circuit the heat is absorbed by liquid sodium in the reactor.
The sodium becomes radioactive, while it passes through the core and
reacts chemically with water
Therefore, the heat absorbed by sodium is transferred to secondary
coolant sodium possum (Nak) in the primary heat exchanger, which in
turn transfers the heat in the Secondary heat exchanger called steam
generator.
Water leaving the steam generator is converted into superheated steam upto
a temperature of 540°C. This steam is used for power generation in the
steam plant circuit in the usual manner
The reactor vessel. primary circuit and the primary heat exchanger have to
be shielded from radiations.
The liquid metal is required to be handled under the cover of an inert gas
like helium to prevent contact with air, while charging or draining in the
primary and secondary heat exchangers
 ADVANTAGES
1. High temperatures of steam can be obtained due to the use of liquid
sodium as coolant.
2. System need not be pressurized. Thermal efficiency is high
3. Cost of pressure vessel and piping system is reduced due to use of
low pressures sodium in the primary circuit
DISADVANTAGES
1. Sodium reacts violently with air and water
2. Intermediate heat exchanger is required to separate radioactive
sodium with water and steam
3. Primary and secondary heat exchanger are needed to be shielded with
concrete blocks against radiations
4. Any leakage of sodium coolant is highly dangerous.
LIQUID METAL FAST BREEDER REACTORS (LMFBR)
When uranium U235 is fissioned by slow neutrons, it produces heat and an
additional neutron. In case a fertile material like U238 is kept in the same
reactor surrounding the core of U235 the fast-moving additional neutron is
absorbed by U238 and converts it into plutonium (Pu239), a fissile
material. This man-made fuel Pu239 be used for further fission.
Therefore, these types of reactors are important since they not only
produce heat but produce more secondary fissile fuels like plutonium
more than fuel consumed in the reactor This is known as breeding.
Similarly, thorium (Th232) can be converted into U233, which also a
secondary fissile material.
Since India has massive reserves of thorium and limited resources of
uranium, development of these fast breeder reactors is important for our
country
The enriched uranium U235 or P239 kept without a moderator in the reactor
core surrounded by the thick blanket of depleted U238. One additional
mouton available from fission of U235 is used to convert U238 to Th232 into
U233 as secondary fuels
As in the case of sodium graphite reactor, this reactor also uses two liquid
metal coolants in which sodium is used as primary coolant and sodium
potassium as secondary coolant
In fast breeder reactors, the neutron shielding is provided by the use of
boron or graphite. In order to protect against gamma radiations a shield is
provided made of lead or concrete or of other materials.
 ADVANTAGES
1. Moderator is not required.
2. Secondary fissible materials by breeding are obtained.
3. absorption of the neutron is slow.
4. Small core is sufficient since it gives high power density compared to
other reactors.

DISADVANTAGES
1. Requires enriched uranium as fuel.
2. Thick shielding is necessary against radioactive radiations in primary
and secondary circuits as in case of sodium graphite reactors.
3. The neutron flux is high at the center of the core.
 SELECTION OF SITE FOR NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS
1. Availability of water for steam generation and cooling water for the
condenser. It should be nearer to sea, river, or reservoir.
2. Nearer to load center to reduce power transmission losses.
3. Away from populated area to safeguard the people from hazardous
radioactive radiations.
4. Availability of transport facility for transportation of people and material at
the time of its construction by road and rail.
5. Safeguard against earthquakes: Site should be away from the seismic
zone.
6. Radioactive waste disposal: The wastes of nuclear power plants being
radioactive site should have sufficient space near the plant for its disposal.
7. Soil conditions for foundation: The bearing capacity of soil should be
high so as to support heavy reactors on its foundations. The bearing
capacity must be at least 50 N/cm2.