Typical Installation

1. PV array
2. Inverter/power-
conditioner
3. Indoor distribution panel
4. Energy meter (kWh,
connected to grid)
 Solar Thermal Energy: Solar radiation
• Solar thermal energy (STE) is a form of energy and a technology for
harnessing solar energy to generate thermal energy for use in industry, and
in the residential and commercial sectors.
• Sun’s heat energy is a diffuse energy. It is always first collected and then
concentrated.
• In solar thermal system, simple and cheap solar panels are used to collect
the solar heat energy.
• These panels for heat collection are referred to as solar collectors.
• Solar energy collectors are special kind of heat exchangers that transform
solar radiation energy into internal energy of the transport medium.
 Insolation
• It is a quantity indicating the amount of incident solar power on a unit
surface, commonly expressed in units of kW/m2.

• At the earth‟s outer atmosphere, the solar insolation on a 1m2 surface

oriented normal to the sun‟s rays is called SOLAR CONSTANT and its
value is 1.37 kW/m2.

• Due to atmospheric effects, the peak solar insolation incident on a terrestrial

surface normal to the sun at noon is around 1 kW/m2.

• A solar insolation level of 1 kW/m2 is often called PEAK SUN and denoted
by ' I „.
 Irradiance
• It is an amount of solar energy received on a unit surface expressed in
units of kWh/m2 .
• Solar irradiance is essentially the solar insolation (power) integrated with
respect to time.
• When solar irradiance data is represented on an average daily basis, the
value is often called PEAK SUN HOURS (PSH) and can be thought of
as the number of equivalent hours/day.
• The worldwide average daily value of solar irradiance on optimally
oriented surfaces is approximately 5 kWh/m2 or 5 PSH.
• Solar irradiance is denoted by ' H '.
 Radiation Measurement

• There are several factors on which this energy is dependent. They

are as follows:
 Latitude and longitude of the geographical location.
 Climatic conditions such as presence of clouds, water vapor etc.
 Time of the day.
 Season of the year.
 Angle of tilt.
 Collector design.
 Solar Collectors
• Solar collector absorbs the incident solar radiation and converts it to useful
heat which is used for heating a collector fluid such as
1. Water
2. Oil or
3. Air
• The surface of a solar collector is designed for high absorption and low
emission.
• Solar collectors can be e classified as
1. Non concentrating collector or Flat Plate Type collector
2. Concentrating or Focusing collector
 Non-concentrating

In the non-concentrating type, the collector area (i.e., the area that
intercepts the solar radiation) is the same as the absorber area (i.e., the area
absorbing the radiation). In these types the whole solar panel absorbs the
light.
Non-concentrating solar collectors can be classified as:
– Flat Plate Solar Collectors
– Evacuated Tube Solar Collector
 Flat Plate Solar Collector
• In flat-plate collectors there is no optical concentration of
sunlight, and they are generally stationary .

• In addition to this their outlet temperature capability is

below 80°C -90°C.

• Temperature much lesser to the boiling point of water can

be achieved using flat plate solar collector.

• They are also referred to as non-concentrating collectors

and have the same area for intercepting and for absorbing
solar radiation.
 Flat-Plate Collector

Flat plate solar collector

have five important parts:
1. Absorber Plate
2. Flow Passage
3. Cover Plate
4. Insulation
5. Enclosure
 Flat Plate Solar Collector
1. Dark flat plate absorber of solar energy: The absorber consists of a thin
absorber sheet (of thermally stable polymeric materials such as aluminum,
steel, or copper to which a black or selective coating is applied) because of
the fact that the metal is a good heat conductor. Copper is more expensive
but is a better conductor and less prone to corrosion than aluminum. In
locations with average availability of solar energy, flat plate collectors are
sized approximately 0.5 to 1 square foot per gallon of daily hot water use.
2. Transparent cover: This allows solar energy to pass through, but reduces
heat losses.
3. Heat-transport fluid (air, antifreeze, or water): To remove heat from the
absorber, fluid is usually circulated through tubing to transfer heat from the
absorber to an insulated water tank.
4. Heat insulation backing: Often backed by a grid or coil of fluid tubing.
5. Insulated casing: It is made of a glass or polycarbonate cover.
Flat-Plate Collector
 Flat Plate Solar Collector
How is this Solar collector like a greenhouse?
Why should it Absorb more heat Than a typical Greenhouse (three reasons)
 Materials for flat plate collectors
The properties of Material used for collectors can be classified by
• Thermophysical properties such as thermal conductivity, heat capacity
• Physical properties like density, tensile strength, melting point
• Environmental properties like moisture penetration, corrosion resistance
and degradation due to pollutants in atmosphere
• The material for absorber plate should have high thermal conductivity,
adequate tensile strength and good corrosion resistance
• The most common material used for absorber plate is copper because of high
conductivity and resistance to corrosion.
• Other materials used for absorber plate are Aluminium, Iron Brass, Silver,
Tin, Zinc
 CONCENTRATING COLLECTORS
• Concentrating solar collector usually has concave reflecting surfaces to intercept
and focus the sun‟s beam radiation to a smaller receiving area, thereby increasing
the radiation flux.
• This reduces heat losses and increases efficiency at high temperatures.
• Another advantage is that reflectors can cost substantially less per unit area than
collectors. This class of collector is used for high-temperature applications such
as steam production for the generation of electricity. These collectors are best
suited to climates that have an abundance of clear sky days.
• Concentrating solar collector usually has concave reflecting surfaces to intercept
and focus the sun‟s beam radiation to a smaller receiving area, thereby increasing
the radiation flux.
• By using reflectors to concentrate sunlight on the absorber of a solar collector, the
size of the absorber can be dramatically reduced, which reduces heat losses and
increases efficiency at high temperatures.
 CONCENTRATING COLLECTORS
• Another advantage is
that reflectors can cost
substantially less per
unit area than
collectors.
• These collectors are
best suited to climates
that have an abundance
of clear sky days, and
therefore, they are not
so common in many
regions.
• One such collector is a
parabolic dish reflector
shown in Figure
Parabolic trough reflector
Mirror strip collector
Paraboloid dish collector
• Collectors are oriented to track the sun so that the beam radiation will
be directed onto the absorbing surface
• Collector: Receiver and the concentrator
• Receiver: Radiation is absorbed and converted to some other energy
form (e.g. heat).
• Concentrator: Collector that directs radiation onto the receiver. The
aperture of the concentrator is the opening through which the solar
radiation enters the concentrator
An example water-heater system
Active solar hot water system
 Thermosiphon Hot Water Heater
Passive Solar System
Water Collection
Tank Must be above
the solar Collector.
Why? Very popular in
the Middle East. Why
are these systems
Impractical at higher
Latitudes?
 Thermal Energy Storage
• Thermal energy storage (TES) systems heat or cool a storage medium and then
use that hot or cold medium for heat transfer at a later point in time.
• Using thermal storage can reduce the size and initial cost of heating/cooling
systems, lower energy costs, and reduce maintenance costs. If electricity costs
more during the day than at night, thermal storage systems can reduce utility
bills further.
• Two forms of TES systems are currently used. The first system used a material
that changes phase, most commonly steam, water or ice. The second type just
changes the temperature of a material, most commonly water.
• Advantages
– High utility demand costs
– Utility time-of-use rates (some utilities charge more for energy use during peak
periods of day and less during off-peak periods)
– High daily load variations
– Short duration loads
– Infrequent or cyclical loads
 Methods of Thermal Energy Storage
• TES for Space Cooling: produce ice or chilled water at night for air conditioning
during the day
– Shifts cooling demands to off-peak times (less expensive in areas with real-time
energy pricing)
– May be used take advantage of “free” energy produced at night (like wind energy)
• TES with Concentrated Solar Power: store energy in thermal fluid to use when
sunlight is not available
– Gives solar concentrating power plants more control over when electricity is
produced
• Seasonal TES
– Long term energy storage
– Store heat during the summer for use in the winter
• Many other methods
 TES with Concentrated Solar Power (CSP)
CSP technologies concentrate sunlight to
heat a fluid and run a generator

By coupling CSP with TES, we

can better control when the
electricity is produced
 TES with Concentrated Solar Power (CSP)
• Two-tank direct method
– Two tanks, hot and cold
– Heat transfer fluid flows from
the cold tank and is heated by
the solar collectors.
– This hot fluid travels to the hot
tank, where it is stored.
– As needed, the hot fluid passes
through a heat exchanger to
make steam for electricity
generation.
• Other methods include two-
tank indirect (where the heat
transfer fluid is different than
the storage fluid) and single- The two-tank direct method
tank thermocline (storing heat
in a solid material)
 Seasonal Thermal Energy Storage
Drake Landing Solar Community (Okotoks, Alberta, Canada)
 Solar thermal power plant
Solar thermal power plant comprises power plants which first convert solar radiation
into heat. The resulting thermal energy is subsequently transformed into mechanical
energy by a thermal engine, and then converted into electricity.
For thermodynamic reasons high temperatures are required to achieve the utmost
efficiency. Such high temperatures are reached by increasing the energy flux density
of the solar radiation incident on a collector.

*Concentrated radiation or concentrating collectors

*Alternative, with regard to technical/economic optimization of the overall system,

also lower temperatures, resulting in considerably reduced costs may be desired in
some cases (use of large-surface cost-efficient collectors).

rise to a whole series of different solar thermal power plant concepts.

According to the type of solar radiation concentration, solar thermal power
plants are subdivided into:
*concentrating (point and line focussing systems)
*non-concentrating systems. The former
Classification can be further made according to:
*type of receiver of the solar radiation
*the heat transfer media and the heat storage system
*additional firing based on fossil fuel energy

Concentrating systems concepts:

-solar tower power plants (i.e. central receiver systems) as point focussing
power plants,
- dish/Stirling systems as point focussing power plants
- parabolic trough and Fresnel trough power plants as line focussing power plants.

Concentrating collectors can reach temperature levels similar to that of existing

fossil-fuel fired thermal power stations (e.g. power plants fired with coal or
natural gas)

Non-concentrating systems concepts:

*solar updraft tower power plants
*solar pond power plants
Process of solar thermal power generation:
• concentrating solar radiation by means of a collector system;
• increasing radiation flux density (i.e. concentrating of the solar radiation onto a receiver), if
applicable;
• absorption of the solar radiation (i.e. conversion of the radiation energy into thermal energy
(i.e. heat) inside the receiver);
• transfer of thermal energy to an energy conversion unit;
• conversion of thermal energy into mechanical energy using a thermal engine (e.g. steam
turbine);
• conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy using a generator.
 Solar Tower Power Station
•Main principals and components:
•Central receiver systems in the tower
•Mirrors tracking the course of the sun in two axes
(Heliostats)
•Heliostats reflect the direct solar radiation onto a
receiver, centrally positioned on a tower.
•In the receiver, radiation energy is converted
into heat and transferred to a heat transfer
medium (e.g. air, liquid salt, water/steam).
•This heat drives a conventional thermal engine.
•To ensure constant parameters and flow of the
working medium also at times of varying solar
radiation, either a heat storage can be incorporated
into the system or additional firing using
e.g. fossil fuels (like natural gas) or renewable
energy (like biofuels) can be used.
 Heliostats
• Heliostats are reflecting surfaces provided with a two-axis tracking system which
ensures that the incident sunlight is reflected towards a certain target point throughout
the day.
• heliostats commonly concentrate sunlight by means of a curved surface or an
appropriate orientation of partial areas, so that radiation flux density is increased.

Faceted glass/metal heliostat metal membrane heliostat

Heliostats consist of:
Heliostats…cont.
•the reflector surface (e.g. mirrors, mirror facets, other sunlight-reflecting surfaces)
•a sun-tracking system provided with drive motors
•foundations and control electronics.
The individual heliostat’s orientation is commonly calculated on the basis of:
•the current position of the sun
•the spatial position of the heliostats and the the target point.
The target value is communicated electronically to the respective drive motors via a
communication line. This information is updated every few seconds.
The concentrator surface size of currently available heliostats varies between 20 and 150 m2;
to date, the largest heliostat surface amounts to 200 m².
The heliostat field accounts for about half the cost of the solar components of such a power plant.
This is why tremendous efforts have been made to develop heliostats of good optical quality, high
reliability, long technical life and low specific costs.
*Due to economic considerations there is a tendency to manufacture heliostats with surfaces ranging
between 100 and 200 m2 and possibly beyond. *However, there are also approaches to manufacture
smaller heliostats to reduce costs by efficient mass-production
9
 Heliostat fields
The layout of a heliostat field is determined by technical and economic optimization
optimization:
•Heliostats located closest to the tower present the lowest shading,
•Heliostats placed north on the northern hemisphere
(or south on the southern hemisphere) show the lowest cosine losses.
•Heliostats placed far off the tower, by contrast, require highly precise tracking and, depending
on the geographic location, have to be placed farer from the neighboring heliostats.

Notes:
Cosine losses: representing the difference between the amount of energy falling
on a surface pointing at the sun, and a surface parallel to the surface of the earth

The cost of the land, the tracking and the orientation precision thus determine the economic
size of the field.
 Tower
•The height of the tower, on which the receiver is mounted, is also
determined by technical and economic optimization.
Higher towers are generally more favorable, since bigger and denser heliostat fields
presenting lower shading losses may be applied.
However, this advantage is counteracted by the high requirements in terms of tracking
precision placed on the individual heliostats, tower and piping costs as well as pumping
and heat losses.
•Common towers have a height of 80 to 100 m.
•Lattice as well as concrete towers are applied.
 Receiver
Receivers of solar tower power stations serve to transform the radiation energy,
diverted and concentrated by the heliostat field, into technical useful energy.
Nowadays, common radiation flux densities vary between 600 and 1,000
kW/m2. Receivers classification according to:
• the applied heat transfer medium (e.g. air, molten salt, water/steam, liquid metal)
• the receiver geometry (e.g. even, cavity, cylindrical or cone-shaped receivers)
According to heat transfer medium:
• Water/steam receiver
• Salt receiver
• Open volumetric air receiver
• Closed (pressurised) air receivers
 Water/steam receiver
first solar tower power stations (e.g. Solar One in California, CESA-I in Spain)
• Similar to conventional steam
processes, water is vaporized
and partly superheated in
such a heat exchanger (i.e.
tube receiver).
• Since superheating is prone to
unfavorable heat transmission,
and due to the fact that start-
up operation or part-load
operation require complicated
controls, this approach is
currently not developed
further.