Anatomy and Physiology

MIDTERM 1: THE SKELETAL SYSTEM • Short bones – generally cube -shape.

Contains mostly spongy bone.
• Bones (skeleton)
• Joints ex. Carpals, tarsals
• Cartilages
• Ligaments (bone to bone) (tendon=
bone to muscle)

TWO DIVISIONS:
• Axial Skeleton
• Appendicular skeleton – limbs and
girdle

FUNCTIONS OF BONES
• Support of the body
• Protection of soft organs
• Movement due to attached skeletal
muscles
• Storage of minerals and fats
• Blood cell formation
BONES OF THE HUMAN BODY
• The skeleton has 206 bones.
• Two basic types of bone tissue
➢ Compact bone – homogeneous.
➢ Spongy bone – small needle-
like pieces of bone
• Many open spaces.
GROSS ANATOMY OF A LONG BONE
• Flat bones – thin and are flattened.
Usually curved, thin layers of compact
bone around a layer of spongy bone.
ex. skull, ribs, sternum
• Irregular bones – irregular shape, do not
fit into other bone classification
categories.
ex. Vertebrae and hip
• Diaphysis – Shaft and is composed of
compact bone.
• Epiphysis – Ends of the bone and is
composed mostly of spongy bone.

CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
• Long bones – typically longer than
wide. Has a shaft with heads at both
ends. Contain mostly of compact bone.

ex. Femur, Humerus

 STRUCTURE OF A LONG BONE BONE MARKINGS
• Periosteum • Surface features of the bones.
➢ Outside covering of the • Sites of attachments for muscles,
diaphysis. tendons, and ligaments.
➢ Fibrous connective tissue • Passages for nerves and blood vessels.
membrane. • Categories of bone markings:
➢ Projections and Processes –
• Sharpey’s fibers – secure periosteum to grow out from the bone surface.
underlying bone. ➢ Depressions or Cavities –
indentations.
• Arteries – supply bone cells with
nutrients. MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF BONE
• Osteon (Haversian System) –
unit of bone.
• Central (Haversian) Canal –
the opening in the center of an
osteon. It carries blood vessels
and nerves.
• Perforating (Volkman’s) Canal
– Canal perpendicular to the
central canal and carries blood
vessels and nerves.

• Articular Cartilage
➢ Covers the external surface of
the epiphyses
➢ Made of hyaline cartilage
➢ Decreases friction at joint
surfaces
• Lacunae – cavities containing
• Medullar Cavity bone cells (Osteocytes).
➢ Cavity of the shaft Arranged in concentric rings.
➢ Contains yellow marrow • Lamellae – rings around the
(mostly fat) in adults. central canal and sites of
➢ Contains red marrow (for blood lacunae.
cell formation) in infants.
 BONE FRACTURES
• Canaliculi – tiny canals that radiate • It is a break in a bone
from the central canal to lacunae. Forms • Types of bone fractures:
a transport system. ➢ Closed (simple) fracture –
break that does not penetrate
CHANGES IN THE HUMAN the skin.
SKELETON ➢ Open (compound) fracture –
broken bone penetrates through
• In embryos, the skeleton is primarily the skin.
hyaline cartilage. • Bone fractures are treated by reduction
• During development, much of this and immobilization.
cartilage is replaced by bone. • Realignment of the bone.
• Cartilage remains in isolated areas are:
➢ Bridge of the nose
➢ Parts of the ribs
➢ Joints

BONE GROWTH
Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of long bone
during childhood.

• New cartilage is continuously formed.

• Older cartilage becomes ossified.
• Cartilage is broken down
• Bone replaces cartilage.
• Bones are remodelled and lengthened
until growth stops.
• Bones change in shape somewhat
• Bones grow in width.
REPAIR OF BONE FRACTURES
• Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is
formed.
• Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to
form a Callus.
• Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a
bony callus.
• Bony callus is remodeled to form a
permanent patch.

TYPES OF BONE CELLS

Bone remodeling is a process by both osteoblasts

and osteoclasts.

• Osteocytes – mature bone cells.

• Osteoblasts – bone-forming cells.
• Osteoclasts – bone-destroying cells and
breaks down bone matrix for
remodeling and release of calcium.
 STEPS IN BONE REPAIR CRANIAL BONES
1. Formation of Hematoma – blood leaks from • 1 frontal bone
torn vessels, forms fracture hematoma 6-8 hours • 2 parietal bones
after injury and lasts up to several weeks. • 1 occipital bone
• 1 sphenoid bone
2. Fibrocartilaginous callus formation –
infiltration of new blood capillaries into the • 2 temporal bones
fracture hematoma that lasts about three weeks. • 1 ethmoid bone

3. Bony callus formation – fibrocartilage is FACIAL BONES

converted to spongy bone and lasts about 3 to 4 • 1 mandible
months.
• 2 maxillae
4. Bone remodeling – dead portion of the broken • 2 palatines
bones are resorbed by osteoclasts and compact • 2 zygomatic
bone replaces spongy bone around the periphery • 2 lacrimal
of the fracture. • 2 nasals
• 1 vomer
THE AXIAL SKELETON • 2 inferior nasal conchae
• Forms in the longitudinal part of the
body.
• Divided into three parts:
➢ Skull
➢ Vertebral column
➢ Bony thorax

THE SKULL
• Two set of bones:
➢ Cranium
➢ Facial bones
• Bones are joined by sutures
• Only the mandible is attached by a
freely movable joint
 PARANASAL SINUSES ➢ Convert to bone within 24
months after birth.
Hollow portions of bones surrounding the nasal
cavity.

• Functions of the Paranasal sinuses:

➢ Lighten the skull
➢ Give resonance and
amplification to voice.

THE HYOID BONE

• The only bone that does not articulate
with another bone.
• Serves as a moveable base for tongue.

THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN

• Vertebrae separated by intervertebral
discs.
• The spine has a normal curvature
• Each vertebrae is given a name
according to its location.

THE FETAL SKULL

• The fetal skull is large compared to the
infants’ total body length.
• Fontanelles – fibrous membranes
connecting the cranial bones.
➢ Allow the brain to grow.
 CLINICAL IMPORTANCE OF
CRIBRIFORM PLATE
Separation of the nasal and cranial cavities by
the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone has
great clinical significance. If the cribriform plate
is damaged as a result of trauma to the nose, it is
possible for potentially infectious material to
pass directly from nasal cavity into the nasal
cavity into the cranial fossa.

THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON

• Limbs (appendages)
• Pectoral girdle
• Pelvic girdle

THE BONY THORAX

Forms a cage to protect major organs.

• Made up of three parts:

➢ Sternum
➢ Ribbs
➢ Thoracic Vertebrae

THE PECTORAL (Shoulder) GIRDLE

These bones allow the upper limb to have
exceptionally free movement.

• Composed of two bones:

➢ Clavicle – collarbone
➢ Scapula – shoulder blade

CLINICAL IMPORTANCE OF
MASTOID:
Mastoiditis – inflammation of the air spaces
within the mastoid portion of the temporal bone,
can produce very serious medical problems
unless treated promptly. Infectious material finds
its way into the mastoid air cells from middle ear
infections.
 BONES OF THE UPPER LIMB
• The arm is formed by a single bone: • The hand:
Humerus. ➢ Carpals – wrist
➢ Metacarpals – palm
➢ Phalanges – fingers

BONES OF THE PELVIC GIRDLE

• The forearm has two bones: • Hip bones
➢ Ulna • Composed of three pair of fused bones:
➢ Radius ➢ Ilium
➢ Ischium
➢ Pubic bone
• The total weight of the upper body rests
on the pelvis.
• Protects several organs such as:
➢ Reproductive organs
➢ Urinary bladder
➢ Part of the large intestine
 BONES OF THE LOWER LIMBS
• The thigh has one bone: • The foot:
➢ Femur – thigh bone ➢ Tarsus – ankle
➢ Metatarsals – sole
➢ Phalanges – toes

• The leg has two bones:

➢ Tibia
➢ Fibula
COMPARISON OF M AND F
SKELETONS
 SPINAL CURVATURES CARTILLAGINOUS JOINTS – MOSTLY
• Normal – convex through thoracic AMPHIARTHROSIS
region & concave through cervical and
lumbar region. • Bones are connected by cartilage.
• Lordosis “Sway back” – abnormal
lumbar curvature. ex. Pubic symphysis & intervertebral joints
• Kyphosis “hunch back” – abnormal
thoracic curvature.
• Scoliosis – abnormal side to side
curvature.

MIDTERM 2: ARTICULATIONS
• Joints – articulation of bones.
• Functions of joints:
➢ Hold bones together
➢ Allow for mobility
• Ways joint are classified:
➢ Functionally
➢ Structurally

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF
JOINTS: SYNOVIAL JOINTS
• Articulating bones are separated by a
• Synarthroses – immovable joints
joint cavity.
• Amphiarthroses – slightly moveable
• Synovial fluid is found in the joint
joints
cavity.
• Diarthroses – freely moveable joints

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF
JOINTS:
• Fibrous joints – generally immovable
• Cartilaginous joints – immovable or
slightly moveable
• Synovial joints – freely moveable

FIBROUS JOINTS
Bones are united by fibrous tissue – synarthrosis
or largely immovable.
FEATURES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS -
DIARTHROSES
• Articular cartilage (hyaline cartilage)
covers the ends of the bones.
• Joint surfaces are enclosed by a fibrous
articular capsule.
• Have a joint cavity filled with synovial
fluid.
• Ligaments reinforce the joint
STRUCTURES ASSOCIATED WITH
THE SYNOVIAL JOINT
• Bursae – flattened fibrous sacs
➢ lined with synovial membranes
➢ filled with synovial fluid
➢ not actually part of the joint
• Tendon sheath – elongated bursa that
wraps around a tendon.
INFLAMMATORY CONDITIONS
ASSOCIATED WITH JOINTS
The most widespread crippling disease in the US
with over 100 different types.
• Bursitis – inflammation of a bursa
usually caused by a blow or friction.
• Tendonitis – inflammation of tendon
sheaths.
• Arthritis – inflammatory or
degenerative diseases of joints.
CLINCIAL FORMS OF ARHTRITIS
• Osteoarthritis – most common chronic
arthritis and probably related to normal
aging processes.
• Rheumatoid Arthritis
➢ An autoimmune disease – the
immune system attacks the
joints
➢ Symptoms begin with bilateral
inflammation of certain joints
➢ Often leads to deformities.
CLINICAL FORMS OF ARTHRITIS
• Gouty Arthritis
➢ Inflammation of joints is caused
by a deposition of urate crystals
from the blood.
➢ Can usually be controlled by
diet.
 LABORATORY #4 AND #5
The following tables contain terms that are
useful when learning the various bone features.
The terms will NOT be on the test. They are
simply here for you to use when learning the
names of the bone features.
The skull
Know the following bones/bone features on the skull models.
 RIB CAGE

Know the following bones of the ribcage on the • The sternum is the breastbone. It is
model: composed of three bones fused together.
• Manubrium – the top bone. It has 3
notches which are:
➢ Jugualar notch – located at
the top of the jugular vein
➢ Clavicular notches – there
are two of these which
articulate with the clavicles.
• Body – the middle bone.
• Xiphoid Process – the bottom bone. It
is usually pointed at the bottom and is
used as a point of reference for the
Heimlich Maneuver.

THE RIBS
• The anterior end of the rib is at the end
that articulates with the costal cartilage.
• The rib head articulates with the
thoracic vertebra of the spinal column.
• Tubercle – is a small bump on the
posterior end of the rib that articulates
with the vertebra below the vertebra
which with the head articulates.

• The first seven pairs of the ribs are true

ribs because they attach directly to the
sternum via the Costal Catilage.
• The five pairs of the ribs are false ribs
because they are either attach indirectly
to the sternum or not at all.
• The last two pairs of false ribs are
floating ribs because they do not attach
the sternum at all.
THE HYOID BONE
THE STERNUM
The hyoid bone is found between the chin and
the thyroid gland on the anterior neck. This U-
shaped bone serves as an attachment site for
several muscles that help elevate the larynx
during swallowing. It also supports the tongue.
The hyoid bone is an indicator of Strangulation.
 THE VERTEBRAE
• 7 cervical certebrae
• 12 throcacic vertebrae
• 5 lumbar vertebrae
• 1 sacrum
• 1 coccyx
CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
The atlas, the first cervical vertebra (C1),
articulates with the occipital condyles of the
skull. It is the only vertebra without a body. It
has a very large vertebral foramen through which
the dens of the axis protrude at the anterior end.
It is also the only vertebra that does not have a
spinous process. Instead, it has a posterior
tubercle.
The axis, the second cervical vertebra (C2),
articulates with the atlas. It has a prominent,
toothlike process, called the dens, that projects
superiorly from the body of the vertebra and fits
into the anterior portion of the vertebral foramen
of the atlas.
All 7 cervical vertebrae have a vertebral foramen
that is larger than the body (with the exception
of the atlas, which has no body). The spinous
process of the cervical vertebrae (except the atlas)
is short and bifid (forked). Another distinctive
feature of cervical vertebrae are the transverse
foramina, two additional openings in the
transverse processes.
The thoracic vertebrae are a bit larger than the
cervical vertebrae (to support more body weight).
The vertebral foramen is round, and the body is
usually heart-shaped. The thoracic vertebrae
become larger as they get closer to the lumbar
vertebrae. They have a distinctively long, slender
(triangular) spinous process. The transverse
processes are long, thick, and strong. When
viewed from the side, thoracic vertebrae
resemble an elephant.
The lumbar vertebrae have large, thick bodies (to
support much body weight). The large body has
a wide oval shape. The vertebral foramen is
small and somewhat triangular. The spinous
process is thick, broad, flattened, and rounded at
the tip. When viewed from the side, the lumbar
vertebrae resemble a moose.
The sacrum is a large, triangular bone that
articulates with the fifth lumbar vertebra. It
consists of five fused vertebrae. It is concave on
the anterior side, to give increased capacity to
the pelvic cavity. There are four pairs of sacral
foramina, for the passage of spinal nerves. The
dorsal (posterior) side of the sacrum is convex.
At the top of the dorsal side is the superior sacral
canal, which forms a passageway for the spinal
cord. At the inferior end is the sacral hiatus,
which is an opening for the exit of inferior spinal
nerves.
The coccyx consists of four (or five) fused
vertebrae below the sacrum. They diminish in
size from the first to the fourth. The coccyx is
also known as the “tailbone”.
THE SACRUM AND COCCYX