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A Perperua Book
Acknowledgments 7
Introduction 9
Chapter 1. Botanical Aspects of the Hemp Plant
(Cannabis Sativa) 15
A. Classi£cati.on 15
B. Gross Morphology 15
C. Ecology 17
1. Cannabis sativa and Insolation 18
2. Cannabis sativa and Temperature 18
3. Cannabis sativa and Moisture 18
4. The Protective Resin of Cannabis sativa 20
5. Ecological Races of Cannabis sativa 20
6. Cannabis satioa within a Plant Community 21
7. The Soil Requirements of Cannabis satfoa 23
D. The Origin of Cannabis satfoa 24
E. Agencies Affecting the Dispersal of
Cannabis sativa 28
1. The Agency of Streams and Rivers 28
2. The Agency of Wind 29
3. The Agency of Animals (Exclusive of Man) 29
4. The Agency of Man 31
F. Factors Affecting the Geographical
Distribution of Cannabis sativa 32
G. The Present Distribution of Cannabis sativa 34
lSBN : 0-498-04095-X Chapter 2. Ethnobotanical Origins: The Earliest
Printed in the United States of America Uses of Cannabis 36
5
6 MAN AND MABIJUANA
7
Introduction
A CLASSI FI CATION
B. GROSS MORPHOLOGY
Hemp is a polymorphic, annual weed that varies in
1. John Hutchinson, The Familie• of Fl.owerlng Plant• (Oxford,
England, 1959 ), p. 107.
2. Norman R. Farnsworth, "Hallucinogenic Plants," Science 162 (6
December 1968), p. 1086.
3. H. Y. Mohan Ram and Ravindra Nath, "The Morphology and
Embryology of Cannabis sativa Linn," Phytomorphology 14 ( 1964 ),
414-29.
4. Hutchinson, op. cit., p. 167.
15
16 MAN AND MARIJUANA
BOTANICAL ASPECTS OF THE HEMP PLANT 17
height from 0.75 to 4.5 meters.11 The stalk of the plant is glandular hair on the perianth lobes of the female flowers
hollow, herbaceous, four-cornered, and may grow to be and anther lobes of male stamens.• This hair secretes a
two inches in diameter. Both male and female plants have resinous material that spreads over the inflorescence and
striking leaves that make them easily identifiable. They to a lesser degree over the lower portions of the plant;
are "... large and palmately compound, each having five this secretion protects the reproductive organs from ex-
to seven linear-lanceolate leaflets, with serrate (toothed cessive transpiration. It is this glandular resin that con-
or notched ) leaf margins. 6 The dioecious nature (having tains hallucinogenic properties.10 • 11
male and female individuals) of Cannabis sativa has been
a significant factor in its natural and cultural evolution. C. ECOLOGY
The etbnobotanical importance of this sexual characteris-
tic will be discussed in the following material. The male The relationships between an individual plant and its
(staminate) plant usually grows taller than the female environment ( autecology) are complex and determine the
(pistillate) plant.7 In addition, there are certain significant representative phenotypes ( varieties) of the species. What
differences in Horal morphology. are the significant environmental parameters for the hemp
plant? Unfortunately, abundant and quantified informa-
The male flowers occur in drooping, axillary panfoles with tion concerning the physiological ecology of Cannabis
subulate bracts. Each flower has £ve free, unequal and
downy periantb lobes. The five antiphyllous stamens have sattva is not fully available. However, some descriptive
short filaments with large, pendulous and longitudinally generalizations that relate to the subject can be inferred,
dehiscing anthers. especially concerning those aspects of hemp's relationship
The female flowers arise in crowded racemes with leafy to the environment that affect the plant products avail-
bracts. The perianth consists of a single, green, persistent, able to man. Hopefully, additional data will be collected
spathe-like structure which encloses the ovary. The former
is covered over by a short brownish gland. and analyzed in the future to give us a more complete
At the base of the ovary and inner to the periantb is a ecological knowledge of the hemp plant.
cupule-like structure. The ovary is subglobose, unilocular
and contains a pendulous anatropous ovule. The style is Aside from the purely scientific importance of such knowl-
highly reduced and bears two elongated glandular stigmas. edge, there is great practical value in knowing how the life
The fruit is grayish, smooth and is enclosed by the persistent cycle of a weed, a forest tree, or a meadow grass is affected
calycine perianths. It is bivalved and one seeded.8 by the environment.12
9. Ram, op. cit., p. 417.
Another important morphological characteristic is the 10. Farnsworth, op. cit., p. 1086.
11. Raphael Mechoulam and Caoni Yebiel, ''The Absolute Configura-
5. Ram, op. cit., p. 414. tion of Tetrahyd.rocannobinol, the Major Constituent of Hashish,"
6. Farnsworth, op. cit., p. 1086. Totra11edron Lett. (1967), 1.2: 1107-1111.
7. Farnsworth, op. ell., p. 1086. 12. John Billings, The Plant and ths Eco~stem, (Belmont, California,
8. Ram, op. cit., pp. 414-16. 1965), p. 46.
18 MAN AND MARIJUANA BOTANICAL ASPECTS OF THE HEMP PLANT 19
The genetic plasticity of Cannabis sativa enables wide and reproduce under a wide range of moisture regimes.
pbenotypic variability in adapting to diverse conditions. Most metabolic and physiologic plant processes are af-
This annual's ability to germinate, develop, mature, pIO- fected by water, but the relationship between moisture
duce viable fruit, and disperse its seed within three to stress and the many plant functions varies with the indi-
five months is a significant aspect of its unusual adapt- vidual stages of development, and the edaphic (soil)
ability. Hemp can inhabit areas that experience the neces- and climatic conditions.13 Water deficiencies may affect
sary environmental condtions (such as adequate solar the pattern of growth and physiological activity of Can-
radiation, appropriate temperatures, and sufficient mois- nabis sativa in such diverse ways as changing root, branch,
ture) only seasonally as well as those that experience and leaf development; Hower formation; seed production;
these conditions throughout the year. and resin secretion.
Cannabis sativa can thrive, physiologically, under sub-
1. Cannabis sativa and Insolation bumid and arid conditions.
Being a beliotropic (sun-loving ) plant, Cannabis sativa Hemp requires about UO days for its growth. It should have
is less tolerant of shade than most other species. It thrives
a rainfall of at least 10 inches during this period. If the level
of free water in the soil is within 8 to 10 feet from the sur-
best in open soil conditions where it does not have to face, as is often the case in alluvial river-bottom lands, and
compete with taller plants for insolation available in the character of the soil is such that there is good capillary
"open" environments (scars in the vegetation created by action to bring the water up, hemp will not suffer from
such activities as river cutting and human disturbance). drought, even should there be very little rainfall.14
Cannabis sativa secretes an insoluble resinous material We do know that in many ways man interferes with
from its glandular hairs to protect the inflorescence against the environment of the hemp plant. For example, cultiva-
excessive water loss in the hotter and drier environments. tion of the plant for fiber has often entailed the close
The resin is sign.IBcant because it contains psycho- spacing of the crop to induce the development of long
active substances that man has long used for intoxicating stems. Another example ( as in parts of India) is the
purposes. The amount of exuded resin is directly depen- removal of male plants from areas in proximity to female
dent upon climatic conditions. Generally, the hotter and plants before cross-pollination occurs. This eliminates fer-
drier the environment, the greater the secretion of resin. tilization of the pistillate plant and intensifies the resin
The more resin secreted, the more concentrated and secretion; the glandular hairs, mostly concentrated on the
powerful the hallucinogenic potency of the individual female inflorescence, seem to slow down or cease resin
plant.18 secretion when fertilized. This would seem to underscore
the protective nature of the resin secretion; once seeds
5. Ecological Races of Cannabis sativa are developed and become viable, the plant has completed
seed production (its vital function as an annual), dis-
It was not until the last few decades that the genus continues resin secretion, and progresses into senescence.
of Cannabis was classified as monotypic. Formerly, bot-
anists believed that more than one species of this genus 6. Cannabis sativa within a Plant Community
existed. Advanced theory in ecology and a qualitative
analysis of the plant indicate that the individual, and even As "'rith most plant species, the intricate synecological
community, variability of Cannabis sativa is in fact either tolerances of Cannabis sativa are scientifically obscure.
phenotypic response to particular environmental condi- The plants that hemp will and will not tolerate as neigh-
tions or genotypic diversity (ecological race). bors have not been fully determined. Yet this knowledge
is essential for a complete understanding of its geographi-
A few plants such as the potato, tomato, poppy, and hemp cal distribution.
seem to have the power of growing with equal luxuriance
under almost any climatic condition, changing or modifying The ultimate constitution of the vegetation must therefore
some important function as .if to adapt themselves to the depend upon what happens to the dilierent potential con-
16. Nonnan R. Farnsworth, "Hallucinogenic Plants,"' Science 162 ( 6 17. George Watt, Dictionary of IM Economic Producu of India (Cal-
December 1968), p. 1086. cutta, 1889), 2: 105.
22 MAN AND MARIJUANA BOTANICAL ASPECTS OF THE HEMP PLANT 23
stituents, and to what extent each is able to maintain itself ticularly the soil requirements, suggest some specific
against and among the others. 18
explanations for the past and present distribution of
Eventually, under stable physical conditions within the Cannabis satica.
environment, the determining factor that limits the range
and abundance of any particular species is competition. 7. The Soil Requirements of Cannabis sativa
The individual plant, to a greater or lesser extent, must
struggle with other plant associates for space, light, nutri- Adaptation to particular soil conditions is another im-
ments, and water. In addition, inherent qualities such as portant ecological process in.B.uencing the growth and
ch emical emanation or secretion of one species may affect distribution of a plant. Do we know the edaphic require-
an~ther species in the community. For example, a physio-
ments of Cannabis satioa? What, if any, are the limiting
logical process of one species may produce toxic effects soil conditions? Does soil composition affect the pheno-
in another. typic response of the hemp plant? Once again, precise
We do know that the relative growth pattern for Can- information is limited. However, I will indicate some
nabis sativa varies significantly when it is in close prox- qualitative necessities and limitations that sh ould illumi-
i.Inity to certain other species. nate pertinent ecological connections between man, the
plant, and the soil environment.
The hemp , Cannabis sativa, if grown with spinach, Spinacia We do know that if Cannabis satioa is grown to maxi-
ole~a~ea, does very badly while the spinach does very well. mize the quality and quantity of Bbrous material, soils
:r11isis also the case, to a varying extent, when the spinach
with calcium are well suited. "Calcareous soils are par-
is replaced by Secale cereale (rye), Vicia sativa, or Lepi-
dium sativ~m (garden-cress). On the contrary, the h emp ticularly well adapted to its production.''2° We also know
does exce~tionally well ~mpared with its companion when that if the soil is finely textured, poorly drained, or super-
the l.atter is Beta vulgans ( beet-root ), Brassica oleracea (a saturated, normal growth of hemp will be precluded.
species of turnip), Lupi nus luteus or Zea mays (common However, if certain basic conditions prevail, Cannabis
com or maize) .1e satioa can adapt and thrive in a relatively wide variety of
Competition among organisms in a community is com- soil environments.
plex, and until the meagre amount of synecological Hemp requires for its b est development a rich, alluvial, or
knowledge of hemp is expanded significantly, complete loamy soil not subject to severe drought, yet not of a swampy
and precise analysis of the plant's past and present dis- condjtion. It is not to be recommended for a light sandy
tribution is impossible. soil, unless it [has] a plentiful supply of nitrogenous fertil-
Nevertheless, the gross environmental conditions, par- izer.21
20. Karl W. Klages, Ecological Crop Ceograpliy ( New York, 1942),
18. Ronald Cood, The Geography of the Flowering Plant.t 3 eds p. 512.
(New York, 1964), p. 34.2. ' ., 21. Uniled States Department of Agriculture, Farmcr'1 Cycwpedla 5
19. Ibid., p. 344. (New York, 1914), p. 576.
24 MAN AND MARIJUANA BOTANICAL ASPECTS OF THE HEMP PLANT 25
Actually, the hemp plant is quite vigorous in disturbed and 1930s, Vavilov and a team of experts carried on
and relatively well-drained soils, especially when nitrogen expeditions to many continents, collecting information
deposits (often associated with man·s residence) are that contributed to the understanding of the areas of
abundant. In fact, hemp's affinity for nitrogen-rich soil species formation and the world·s centers of primitive
environments indicates a significant ecological relation- agriculture.
ship between man and the plant. This relationship illumi- Vavilov·s method of determining the centers of species
nates the theme of this study and will be critically formation included a close investigation of certain basic
evaluated. crops. He attempted to delimit geographical concentra-
tions of homologous variation (similar morphological
traits) for the principal crops of the world. In doing so,
D. T HE ORIGIN OF CANNABIS SATIVA Vavilov discovered the existence of geographical regu-
larity in the distribution of different varieties of many
Where was the center of species formation22 of hemp? crops. He suggested that the area with the maximum
The hemp plant grows in a wild or cultivated state over diversity of varieties for a specific crop was probably the
vast areas of the world. But because its distribution is center of species formation. Combining extensive field
so often closely associated with locations that are or were work and computation, Vavilov traced the origin of many
inhabited or used as trade routes, the origin of the plant crops to particular environments and in some cases to
is obscure. Yet a majority of scholars suggest that hemp specific areas.
is most likely indigenous to central Asia. Vavalov classified hemp as an indigenous species in
three of his major centers of species formation.21 Under
It is thought by modem authors to be indigenous to the the category of fiber plants, he placed the variety of hemp
temperate parts of Asia near the Caspian Sea. southern that produces large fruits in the "Chinese Center" of cul-
Siberia, the Kirghiz Desert and Persia.23
tivated plants. This area includes the mountainous region
One of the most ancient of cultivated plants [ Cannabis of central and western China and the adjacent lowlands.
satfoa] , is native probably to central Asia. 2~ Under the category of spice plants and stimuJants, Vavi-
lov listed h emp as Cannabis indica. As I previously noted,
This opinion was enhanced by the field work and theory this psychoactively potent variety of hemp has since been
of a famous Russian botanist, N. I. Vavilov. In the 1920s classified as an ecological race ( a species sub-group with
22. A center of species formation is the region in wh.ich a plant a phenotypic response to particular environmental con-
origiruites, and not necessarily the cen ter of original domestication for ditions) rather than as a distinct species. Vavilov located
the plant.
23. Oakes Ames, Economic Annuals and Human Culttire.r (Cam-
bridge, Mass.. 1939), p. 26. 25. N. I. Vavilov, '"The Origin, Variation, Immunity and Breeding
24. Richard Evans Schultes, "Hnllucinogens of Pla.ot Origin," Science of Cullvated Plants" (translated from the Russian by K. Starr Chester).
163 ( 17January1969), pp. 245-54. Claronlca Botanlco ( 1949-1950) 13: nos. 1-6,
26 MAN AND MARIJUANA BOTANICAL ASPECTS OF THE HEMP PLANT 27
this variety of hemp in the "Indian Center," which in- areas may be mostly a result of basic conservatism of hill
cludes all of the Indian sub-continent except the regions peoples.
of northwest India, the Punjab, and the Northwest
Frontier. From this point of view Vavilov's ancient centers may per-
Finally, under the category of grain crops, Vavi1ov haps be centers of survival rather than centers of origin.29
again classifled hemp as Cannabis indica and located the Actually, Vavilov himself suggested this possibility when
plant in the "Central Asiatic Center." This comparatively he discussed the origin and distribution of hemp in central
small area includes northwest India, all of Afghanistan, Asia. At first, he did assert that hemp was most likely
the central Soviet Republics of Tadjikistan and Uzbeki- one of the few indigenous crops of the area.
stan, and western Tien-Shan.
Vavilov's work attracted much attention and is often The autochthonic crops of central Asia are few, but still
cited, but very little additional :field work and direct such ones may be found. Of the field crops the first to be
research on the same specific theme has been undertaken. mentioned is hemp. All over northern Tian-Shan, on its
Although Vavilov's evidence for the centers of diverse slopes, in the valleys to the north of it, wild gro,ving hemp
is of common occurrence. The waste lots of the town
varieties of agricultural crops is convincing, his interpre- Yarkand in Kazakstan are covered with thick stands of
tations of the evidence are not as well accepted. 20 One hemp. It grows on the ridges of fields, not infrequently
critic of Vavilov's interpretations emphasized- the sig- forming broad borders along the roads. In ravines, on forest
nificance of crop hybridization with weeds in the evolu- skirts, on marshy ground, on waste land near the villages~
tion of varietal diversity. weed hemp is the commonest of plants. As a weed it reaches
the provinces of Irkutsk, Omsk, and up to the Amur. Wild
Many weeds are derivative from, rather than ancestral to, hemp is usually not utilized by the population, but some-
their associated crops, and consequently Vavilov's centers times its fibre serves for the manufacture of ropes. Its utiliza-
of maximum diversity are not necessarily centers of primary tion is especially extensive in the Altai.so
domestication.:?7
But when Vavilov reevaluated this assumption in the very
. . . I would suppose that these areas of greater variability same paper he noted that there is also good reason to
are points at which Bora (and presumably fauna) which believe that hemp is not endemic to central Asia.
bad previously been separated have come together and
bybridized.28 We admit that the introduction of hemp, as of a wild grow-
ing plant characterized by a vast area stretching from the
The continued existence of primitive varieties in upland southeast of European USSR to the Pacific, bas taken place
simultaneously, as well as at different times, in different
26. Edgar Anderson, Planlt, Man and Life (London, 1952), p. 83. 29. Ibid., p. 85.
27. David R. Harris, "New Light on Plant Domestication and the 30. N. I. VaviJov, "The Role of Central Asia in the Origin of Culti-
Origins of Agriculture," Geograpliical Review 57 ( 1967), p. 92. vated Plants," Bulletin of Applied Botany of Genetics and Plant Breed-
28. Anderson, op. cit., p. 86. ing 26 (Leningrad, 1931): 42.
\
28 MAN AND MARIJUANA BOTANICAL ASPECTS OF THE HEMP PLANT 29
regions. It may as well have taken place in the agricultural Streams and rivers are physical agents that may pick
districts of central Asia.111 up fallen or transported hemp seed, carry it downstream,
and deposit it near the surface of finely sorted alluvium,
Even though the arguments for hemp being endemic to a fine medium for its gennination.
central Asia are not conclusive and, in fact, the origin
and first use of the plant may have occurred in Southeast 2. The Agency of Wind
Asia, I will suggest, with the same cautious reserve as
Vavilov, that its origin probably took place in western Wind, especially in the form of strong upward eddies,
China or central Asia-probably in the upland valleys of is another physical agent that may move hemp seed some
the Tien-Shan or the Altai. It is also suggested that the distance away from the parent plant.
earliest cultural application of hemp took place in this
same general area. 3. The Agency of Animals (Exclusive of Man )
Haven, Conn., 1968), pp. 111-12. 8. Ceorge Watt, Dictionary of th11 Economic Product.s of India 2
6. Ibid., p. 83. (Calcutta, 1889 ), p. 129.
48 MAN AND MARIJUANA ETHNOBOTANICAL ORIGINS: CANNABIS 49
Russfa, Poland, India, and the United States. And although References to the use of Cannabis preparations as anti-
Russia produces more Cannabis fiber than all other na- biotic and analgesic medicament, especially for external
tions combined, the best quality material comes from use, can be found in the folk medicine and old herbals of
Italy, where it has long been used for fine interior design Europe, Africa, and America.
and apparel fabrics. Cannabis has long been prescribed in India to arouse
appetite and as "... a source of great staying-power under
2. Cannabis Seed for Food and Oil severe exercise or fatigue.''1° For thousands of years, In-
dian footbearers transporting goods up into the Hima-
Early man must have experimented with many di.fferent layan mountains have relied on Cannabis as a stimulant
accessible plants for possible food sources. Therefore, it much as South American natives climbing the Andes have
is quite possible that the inconspicuous fruit and seed of relied on cocoa. In addition, potions containing juice from
Cannabis was first ingested by man a very long time ago. the hemp plant eHectively remove dandruff and vermin
Yet the seed, relatively hard and not very fleshy, has prob- from hair, reduce pain from earaches, alleviate bowel
ably been more important as an oil source for lubrication complaints such as diarrhea and constipation, and check
than as a source of fatty food. However, well-ground Can- discharge from gonorrhea. Other signi.Bcaot applications
nabis seed does provide oil with a very high caloric value;0 in India have included its use for relieving headaches,
thus it may have been an important starch food for some acute mania, whooping cough, asthma, and insomnia.
early bands of men.
Its use as oil for lamps long provided light in the homes "In Argentina Cannabis is considered a real panacea for
tetanus, melancholia, colic, gastrnlgia, swelling of the liver,
of millions of Russian peasants. Today Cannabis is cul-
gonorrhoea, sterility, impotency, abortion, tuberculosis of the
tivated for seed in Manchuria and the Ukraine. One of its lungs, and asthma."u
present uses is for bird and poultry feed.
fo South Africa, Cannabis has been used to combat
3. Cannabis for Medicinal Purposes malaria, blackwater fever, blood-poisoning, anthrax, and
dysentery. Women of the Sato tribe have smoked Can-
The use of Cannabis as a therapeutic agent has a long nabis to numb themselves during childbirth. The Hotten-
and continuing history. The ancient medicinal lexicons tots made a drink from Cannabis leaves to use as a strong
( Materia medica) of China, India, and Greece mention la.xative and for inducing abortion.•::
specific uses for this plant. Reports of its medicinal appli- 10. K. M. Nadkaml, Indla11 Alaterla Med/ca (Bombny, 1954), p. 262.
cations are fantastically diverse. 1 J. J. Kobelik, "Cannabis as a l\fodicament," Bulletin 011 NarcotlC3
(July-Sept. 1960), 12, no. 2, p. 7.
9. F mncls Long, "Application of Calorimetric Methods to Ecologlcnl 12. John Watt and Marla Breyer-Brnnwijk, Tho Medical and Polsonoiu
Research," Plant Pliyslology (1964), 9: 325. Plants of South Africa (Edinburgh, 1932), pp. 30, 262.
50 MAN AND MARIJUANA ETHNOBOTANlCAL ORIGINS: CANNABlS 51
Medicinal potions of Cannabis do not cause nausea, tion of the plant as the "liberator of sin" was replaced by
severe constipation, or headaches as opium can; and its a more favorable attitude in a later period when it was
moderate use does not induce physical addiction. referred to as the "delight giver."
Although the drug use of Cannabis is, at present, le-
4. Cannabis as a Hallucinogen gally restricted throughout most of the world, reports of
many arrests in numerous countries indicate its wide-
From the flrst beginning of our knowledge of man, we find
him consuming substances of no nutritive ~al~e, but ~en
spread distribution. The following chart, which lists the
for the sole purpose of producing for a certain time a feeling words used in various countries and groups for Cannabis
of contentment, ease and comfort.13 preparations, serves as another indication of its global,
historic distribution for euphoric or religious purposes.
Today, as in the past, the most conspicuous use of this What are the various psychoactive preparations and
plant is for euphoric or psychoactive purposes. Cannabis relative potencies of Cannabis? The most potent prepara-
is perhaps one of the oldest known and most widely dis- tion of Cannabis consists of concentrated glandular resin
seminated hallucinogens. collected from unfertilized female plants and compressed
As with many of the popular contemporary halluci- into sticks or blocks. Referred to as "hashish" in Egypt and
nogens, the drug use of Cannabis has been and is oft~n "charas" in India, this preparation is powerfully halluci-
prompted by the desire to relieve the monotony of daily nogenic and is often mixed and smoked with tobacco.
life, and to increase the delight of living. nnnscha-Russia hamp-Denmark
Sometimes Cannabis has been used, like other hallu- bangi-Congo hampa-Sweden
cinogens, to induce a transcending spiritual experience. bhang-India hampr-FJnland
bhanga-Sanskrlt hanf-Cermany
Among some primitive African groups, Cannabis still canaib-Ireland hanpr-Norway
plays a significant role in religion and music. In India it canamo-Portugal, Spain haschisch-France
bas been used for many centwies by yogis to generate canape-Italy hashish-Africa, Asia
canna-Persia hemp-Great Britain
wild imagining, feelings of transcendence, and psychic cannapis-Rumania bennep-Holland
exaltation, which consumers believe are God-given qual- chanvre-Fran.c e herbe-France
ities of the plant. c.h anis-India hierba-Mexico
In the past, societies have assessed Cannabis' social daggn-Sou th Africa intsnngu-South Africa
dawamesk-Algeria lcana pes-Lithuania
value for psychoactive purposes with a wide range of diamba-Brazil lcanas-Brittany
attitudes depending largely upon "... whether a society djamba-South Africa leanbun-Chaldean
was interested in using the plant or interested in prevent- esrar-Turkey, Persia lcanebosm-Hebrew
ganja-India lcanebusma-Ammaic
ing its use."u For example, in ancient China the denuncia- ganga-Malaya lcanep-Albania
13. Louis Lewin, PIUJntastica (New York, 1964), p. 1. ganjilca-Sanslait kanna b-Arabia
14.. Nonnnn Farnsworth, "Hallucinogenic Plants," Science 162 ( 6 De- grifa-Spain, Mexico kannabis-Greek
cember 1968), p. 1088. haenep-Old English kanopia- Czechoslovalda
52 MAN AND MARIJUANA ETHNOBOTANICAL ORIGINS: CANNABIS 53
kendir-Tnrtar marijuana-Mexico, America
khanchha-Cambodia matakwan.e -Sotho (South Africa)
gentle intoxicant when taken in moderation. This hemp
kif-North Africa mbangi-Tanzania confection is a compound of sugar, butter, flour, milk, and
konop-Bulgaria momea-Tibet "siddhi" or "bhang."
konope-Poland nsangu-Zulu (Africa)
konoplja-Russia qunubu-A.ssyrian Of all that Orient lands can vaunt of marvels with our own
lia.mba-BraziJ so-la-ra-dsa-Tibet
maconha-Bmzil suruma-Ronga (Africa)
competing, the strangest is the Hashish plant and what
majum--North Africa, India takrouri-TIIIlisia
will follow on its eating.
marihuana-Mexico, America umyn-Xhosa ( Africa) Whittier
The dried infertile inflorescence and adjacent leaves
from the top of the female plants form another very po- D. TRANS ITIONS TO CULTIVATI ON AN D
tent preparation known widely by its Indian name of CIV ILIZATION
"ganga," which is smoked in pipes and cigarettes. The
other parts of the pistillate plant and most of the male Thus, as I have d emonstrated, there are many indica-
plant contain relatively meager amounts of the psycho- tions to suggest that hemp was one of the earliest culti-
active glandular resin and therefore provide a much vated plants. This theory is significant in that the shift
milder hallucinogenic preparation which is also smoked from food-procurement to food-production was one of the
or eaten. most important developments in human history.16 This
An inebriating drink known by its Indian name of slow but momentous development, which increased the
"bhang" or "siddhi" is prepared from uncultivated female food supply significantly and therefore stimulated sul:r
plants. Extracts of Cannabis sativa are made into a paste stantial population growth, was the profound Agricultural
and mixed with water or milk to make this drink used by Revolution.17
the lower classes in India and by a wider cross-section of The diffusion of systematic farming spread slowly dur-
the population on certain religious holidays. ing the Neolithic stage, replacing the Mesolithic culture
of hunting, collecting, and fishing by the process of con-
Almost invariably the inebriation is of the most cheerful tact and acculturation. Eventually the development of
kind, causing the person to sing and dance, to eat food with cultivation and domestication techniques stimulated farm-
great relish, and to seek aphrodisiac enjoyments. In persons
of a quarrelsome disposition it induces., as might be expected, ing culture and the decline of hunting and fishing econ-
an exasperation of their natural tendency. 15 omies of the Mesolithic to a secondary role (except in the
marginal areas of the inhabited world ).
A confectionary or sweetmeat preparation called "Ma- During the post-Pleistocene period in southwest Asia,
joom" or "Majum" contains portions of Cannabis and is a 16. V. Cordon Childe, "The Neolithic Revolutlon," Man Before Hi.s-
tory ( ed. by Creighton Gabel) (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1964),
15. Udoy Chtllld Dutt, The Materla Medica of the Hfndu.s (Calcutta, P· 40; nod Cmhnme Clark, World Prehistory (London, 1961), pp. 76-77.
1900), p. 237. 17. Childe, op. cit., p. 58.
54 MAN AND MABIJUANA ETHNOBOTANICAL ORIGINS: CANNABIS 55
where farming may have originated and Megalithic civili- Jeys where largescale "hydraulic" civilization manifesting
zation apparently evolved, climatic conditions may have monumental architecture developed. In the section that
been favorable for incipient agriculture. However, the follows, I will elaborate on my theory that although hemp
alluvial lowlands in the riverine areas of the Tigris, Eu- was evenhtally known in all four of the above-mentioned
phrates, Nile, and Indus valleys were still too arid in this areas of early civilization, at least the first historic use of
period of prehistory. And although the annual Hooding this plant probably took place in central Asia.
of the alluvial plains brought new soil, fresh nutrients, and
moisture to certain lowland valleys, the magnihtde and
seasonality of the moisture deficit necessitated a certain
degree of social organization and perhaps sub-division of
labor for flood control and irrigation construction and
maintenance.18
Therefore, perhaps it was in the hills or uplands of
southwest Asia where rainfall was more adequate for
"dry farming" and where wild, potentially cultivable an-
nuals did and do exist that systematic farming began.
On the other hand, as suggested, it is possible that agri-
culture originated in southeast Asia.19 In any case, even-
tually some degree or combination of social stratification,
population pressure, and perhaps spontaneous initiative
precipitated the diffusion of peoples and culture from the
small upland settlements down into the semi-arid riverine
lowlands where the beginnings of largescale civilization
are to be sought. Perhaps hemp was one of the original
cultivated plants brought to these semi-arid lowlands by
the progenitors of civilization.
Between 5000 and 4000 B.c. Neolithic folk moved into
the riverine lowlands of the Tigris and Euphrates and sub-
sequently into the Nile, Indus, and Hwang Ho river val-
18. Jaquettn Hawkes, "The Achievements of Paleolithic Man," Man
Before Hi$tory (ed. by Creighton Gabel) (Englewood Cllffs, New Jer-
sey, 1964). p. 57.
19. Carl 0. Sauer, Agriculture Origln.t and Dispersal.t (New York,
1952). p. 21.
DIFFUSION OF CANNABIS SATIVA 'S/
A. HEMP'S ASSOCIATION WITH MIGRATING
NOMADS
~
m.
bhanga.
n. Hemp remains found at neolithic sites in North C'1ina
suc11 as Anyang. I
o. Fragments of silk and hemp textile found at late neolitllic
Liang-chu site in Cl1ekiang (2000-3000 B.c. ).
p. Cord-marked pottery of South China possibly impressed
with hemp.
q. Hemp found at neolithic sites in Kansu and Chinese
Turkestan.
Male and fema le flowers of Cannabis sutiva.
DIFF1JSION OF CANNABIS SATIVA 65
temperate environment are better suited for the develop-
ment of flexible fiber material in the hemp plant, while
in the hotter and somewhat drier regions to the south.
more psychoactively potent resins would be produced
along with brittle, almost useless fiber cells. But this
climatic explanation is not completely satisfactory because
cultural attitudes, micro-climatic conditions, and the avail-
ability of this plant surely influenced hemp's preferred
uses in the respective regions.
Now if we examine the Persian word bang (an intoxi-
cating hemp preparation), we .find that it can be traced to
the ancient Avestan word banha and the ancient Sanskrit
word bhanga. The Arabic equivalent is banf; in Portu-
Greatly enlarged diagram of staminate (male flower). Actt1al guese bango; in Spanish and French bangue.19 Thus it
Si:;e 7mm appears that hemp spread into the Middle East from
where it grew wild in central and (later) western Asia,20
probably by the agency of invading nomadic charioteers.
Subsequently, in classical times, it diffused rapidly through
the Mediterranean region, across North Africa and into
what today is the Iberian peninsula, where its etymo-
logical identity indicates an Eastern origin. But what
other archaeological or historical evidences do we have
from the general area of southwest Asia and the Medi-
terranean?
We know that the Phrygian tribes that invaded the
Hittite Empire in the Anatolian Plateau during the 1st
millennium B.c. were weavers of hemp (and possibly im-
bibers of intoxicating hemp preparations ).
Let the people be engaged in the plantation of the mulberry- Also in the river valleys of Honan, which lead into the
tree and hemp, so as to produce cloth and silk.02 Hwang Ho river,
In the Shu King, the most ancient of the Chinese classical
The soil of this province was mellow (and) its articles of
books dating from about 2357-627 B.c.88 we find some tribute were varnish, hemp, fine cloth of dolichos fibre, and
creditable evidence for the use of hemp in early Chinese the boehmerea.81
civilization. In Part III, Book I of the Shu King (The
Tribute of Yu), there is reference to agricultural develop- Moreover, we find evidence for hemp's ancient use in
ment and the culivation of hemp. On the development China in the Shih King (the Book of Poetry), which illus-
of irrigation and agriculture we find these references in trated the religious views and practices. Stanzas 5 through
the Tribute of Yu: 9 of Ode 5 depict the process of "divination• for interpret-
ing dreams. These particular stanzas refer to the time of
The (waters of the) Hwang and Wei were brought to their King Hsuan (827 to 782 B.c.).88
proper channels, and Ta-lu was made capable of cultiva-
tion.°'
The boy would have a sceptre, a symbol of dignity, to play
Thus, throughout the nine provinces a similar order was with; the girl, a ti.le, the symbol of woman's work, as, sitting
effected :-the grounds along the waters were everywhere with a tile on her knee, she twists the threads of hemp.09
made habitable; the hills were cleared of their superfluous
wood.8G Ode 1 of the Book of Poetry relates the legend of Hau-Ki,
whose mother is said to trace her ancestral lineage to
60. Norman Farnsworth, "Hallucinogenic Plants," Science ( 6 Decem-
ber 1968), 162: 1086. Shen Nung in prehistoric times.70
61. George Watt, Commercial Products of India (Calcutta, 1908),
6. 251. 66. Legge, op. cit., p. 66.
62. Chi-Yun Chang, op. cit., _p. 59. 67. Legge, op. cit., p. 70.
63. James Legge, The Sacred Boob of China (Oxford., 1966). 3: 1. 68. Legge, op. cit., p. 349.
64. Legge, op. cit., p. 65. 69. Legge, op. cit., p. 350.
65. Legge, op. cit., p. 74. 70. Legge, op. cit., p. 398.
DIFFUSION OF CANNABIS SATIVA 83
82 MAN AND MARIJUANA
dreams induced by ingesting hemp? Whatever the case,
In this ode the "boyish habits of agriculture" are dis-
". . . every tyro (novice ) in things Chinese knows that
cussed. hemp ( Cannabis sativa) belongs to the oldest cultivated
When be was able to feed himself, be fell to planting beans. plants of the Chinese.""8
The beans grew luxuriantly; his rows of paddy shot up
beautifully; his hemp and wheat grew strong and close; his
gourds yielded abundantly.11 E. THE CULTURAL DIFFUSION OF HEMP INTO
ANCIENT INDIA <SOUTH ASIA)
In addition, the use of hemp for making paper in
ancient China is at least as old as 105 A.D., when this use Hemp drugs have been used in India from very early times
is said to have been invented by Ts'ai Lun.72 in order to overcome fatigue and worry, for production of
euphoria. and to give courage to warriors during times of
Regardless of its earlier condemnation, hemp euphoria stress. 71
was sought after at least by the Chou period ( c. 1000-221
B.c. ). when it was used for "the enjoyment of life";78 and Today the hemp plant grows wild over an extensive area
another scholar indicates that the ecstatic effects of in- of northern India, northern West Pakistan, and along the
gesting hemp juice ". .. must have been known in China slopes of the Himalayas from Kashmir to the east of
as early as the 4th century A.D., as the Shir-i-Chi, quoted Assam, up to altitudes of 10,000 feet above sea level.18
in the Ko-Chih-Ching-Yuan, speaks of the juice of hemp. Although it does grow wild over such a vast area, accord-
the eating of which causes one to see spirits."7• I will ing to the comprehensive Hemp Drug Commission report
suggest that these qualities of the hemp plant were known of 1894, this plant is not indigenous to India.79 Assuming
much earlier, at least as early as the days of Shen Nung. then that the hemp plant did not have an autochthonous
It is interesting that the Chinese character hu, whieh origin in India, from where and when did hemp enter
refers to barbarians or foreigners of the West, can be ancient India?
connected to the character for hemp ( hu-ma ) to indicate As I previously noted, after about 1700 B.c., militant
western or foreign hemp 711 and the potent female hemp nomads commanding effective chariot armies moved out
plant. The character ( hu ) is also used in the old phrase of the vast central Asiatic steppes, mountains, and deserts
( hu m£ng tin tao ), which means to have extraordinary in successive waves of migration. Besides dispersing in
dreams. Is this an indication of hallucinogenic visions or groups west into Eastern Europe and east toward China,
76. Laufer, op. cit., p. 563.
71. Legge, op. cit., p . 398. 77. R. N. Chopra and C. S. Chopra, ''The Present Position of Hemp-
72. Berthold Laufer, Sino-lranlca ( Chicago, 1919), p. 563. Drug Addiction in India," Indian Medical Research Memofr1 (Calcutta.,
73. Herrlee Glessner Cree~ The Birth of Clafna (New York, 1937), 1939 ). 31:20.
p. 319. 78. Ibid., 4.
74. Friedrich Hirth, China and the Roman Orient (New York, 1966), 79. George Watt, Commercial Producu of India (Calcutta, 1908).
p. 279. p. 249.
75. Ibid., p. 279.
..
84 MAN AND MARIJUANA DIFFUSION OF CANNABIS SATIVA 85
these Indo-European-speaking nomads traveled south into Indeed, the wide support for this theory is primarily based
the Iranian plateau. Eventually some of them or their on literary mythology. Specifically it is the most ancient
successors crossed the Hindu Kush mountains in relatively Indian religious record, the Rg-Vedic reference to Aryan
large numbers by pushing through a few remote passes invasions, that is most often used to substantiate this
and down into the Punjab ("the land of five rivers"). I will hypothesis.
suggest that these migrating tribes brought with them to
ancient India certain new materials and innovations, A reasonable guess is that the greater part of the Rigveda
among which were the hemp plant and some of its various was prepared, or at least refers to events that took place,
uses. about 1500-1200 B.c. in the Punjab.82
Moving into the Indus river valley of the Punjab some
3500 or more years ago, these migrating "Aryan" tribes However, at least one noted archaeologist suggests that
would have encountered a landscape long influenced by some artifacts such as copper tools, beads, and other per-
one of the world's oldest large-scale civilizations. In fact, sonal and portable objects recovered from different sites
the ancient "Harappan culture" had probably been evolv- in the Indus valley at Jhukar, Shaki-Tump, and in the last
ing on the Indus flood plain for approximately 1000 years phase of Mohenjo-daro, correlate significantly in sequence
(c. 2500-1500),80 if and when it was interrupted by and kind with analogous objects found at ancient sites at
"Aryan" warriors sometime daring the 2nd millennium B.c. Anau in Turkestan and in the last phases of Tepe Hissar
At present there is not much conclusive archaeological ( Hissar m ). Therefore, they underscore the theory of
evidence to support the theory that a nomadic group(s) relatively large-scale migrations of nomadic groups into
invaded, overran, and eventually dominated the Indus ancient India during the 2nd millennium B.C.
civilization 3500 years ago.
I think we should probably be justi.6ed in considering the
There is not enough evidence to say with certainty that the analogous objects as manifestations of a fairly homogeneous
destroyers of the Indus cities were members of the group semi-nomadic culture which was accustomed when settling
of related tribes whose priest composed the Rg Veda (the down to adopt the pottery of the local people, and to regard
earliest revered literary tradition in India), but it is prob- all these cities as representative of a diffuse movement of
able that the fall of this great civilization was an episode in peoples eastward in the first half of the second millennium
B.C.83
the widespread migratory movements of charioteering peo-
ple which altered the face of the whole civilized world in
the 2nd millennium B.c. s1 In any case, the "Aryan" invasions were not a single con-
certed effort, but actually involved a rather long period
80. Mortimer Wheeler, Early India and Pakistan ( London, 1959). pp.
93-117; and Stuart Piggott, Prehlstorlc India to 1000 B.C. (London, 82. D. D. Kosambi, The Culture and Cil>lUzaUon of Ancient India
1950). pp. 214-43. ( London, 1965), p. 73.
81. A. L. Basham, The Wonder tllllt Was India (New York, 1959).
83. Stuart Piggott, "The Chronology of Prehistori.c Northwest India,"
p. 28. Ancient India <January 1946), 1:155.
DIFFUSION OF CANNABIS SATIVA 87
86 MAN AND MARIJUANA
references for climatic conditions akin to the Himalayas.
of time and many tribes.s. But even if these migrations
in~oduced significantly large numbers of nomads into ... in the "countries" of the Vendidad, the Vaejah of the
northwest India (Punjab), where did they originate and Aryans, . . . there were ten months of winter and two of
what effect, if any, did they have on the diffusion of hemp summer. I am not a student of climates, but I would sup-
into ancient India? pose that could refer to a homeland in the Hindu Kush, in
The most generally accepted theory holds that the Indo- the Karakoram range, the Himalaya, or Meru.90
European nomads who apparently took part in violent Shafer also suggests that the order of geographical nomen-
migrations into the Punjab most likely"... were familiar clature referring to the rivers of the Punjab indicates
with and probably originated in the northern regions of westward, rather than eastward, migrations.
Eurasia."811 In addition, many scholars suggest that the
invaders of the Indus valley moved first on to the Iranian Names of rivers for the Punjab in Iranian and Indo-Aryan
plateau and eventually turned east to migrate toward place names go from East to West in India.91
northwest India.88
Although it seems that the "Aryans" produced most of Furthermore, Shafer strengthens his interpretation with an
their clothing from woolen fiber81 and depended upon ethnographic rendering of some ancient references:
sesame as their chief oil source,88 "there is evidence that A glance at the ethnic-linguistic map will show that the
the Aryans came into India using hempen ropes, with Indo-Aryans at a period of the Mahabharata knew almost
Bhanga as a name for Cannabis fibre. They may have been nothing of the peoples west of a narrow fringe on the fur-
users of hempseed oil before they contracted sesame oil ther bank of the Indus river. And a survey of the geographi-
and found it better."89 cal knowledge of the authors of the Rg Veda shows that they
too knew nothing beyond the tributaries of the Indus. But
Before discussing the specific evidence that indicates
the ethni~linguistic map shows that the Indo-Aryans knew
the early use of Cannabis sativa in ancient India, we a considerable amount about the peoples along the upper
should consider another general corridor for its diffusion. Indus valley in present Tibet. The geographical locations
At least one critical author has marshaled a good deal outside India that are most often connected with Indian reli-
of evidence to support his theory that the "Aryans" came gion and tradition are almost entirely in or north of the
to the Punjab not from the Iranian plateau but from the Himalayas, not west of the Indus.92
mountain regions to the north. Shafer presents Vedic Although most scholars would argue against this theory,
84. Basham, op. cit., p. 30. if it is correct, the introduction of the Aryans and hemp
85. Kosambl, op. cit., p. 75. into India may also have come directly from the north.
86. Ian Burkill, "Habits of Man and the Origins of the Cultivated
Plants of the Old World," Readings In Cultural Geography (ed. by 90. Robert Shafer, Ethnography of Ancient India (Wiesbaden, West
Phillip Wagner and Marvin Mikesell) (Chicago, 1962), p. 274. Germany, 1954), p. 41.
87. Basham, op. cit., p. 36. 91. Ibid., p. 37.
88. R. C. Majumdar, ed., The Vedic Age (London, 1952), p. 174. 92. Shafer, op. cit., p. 38.
89. Burkill, op. cit., p. 275.
88 MAN AND MARIJUANA DIFFUSION OF CANNABIS SATIVA 89
At least one kind of preparation of hemp, charas, the com- What ancient evidence is there to indicate the existence
pacted resin, probably difiused into India from this region. of hemp in ancient India beginning sometime in the 2nd
millennium B.c.? In contrast to the sedentary agricultural
The probable importation of the narcotic in ancient times economy of the Indus civilization ( Harappan culture),
into India in a prepared form, as it comes at the present day the Aryans were originally wandering herdsmen. In fact,
from Yarkand (central Asia) is indicated in the name
the Aryan's apparently violent interaction with the declin-
Kashmiri often applied to it in early Uterature. It is thus
probable that the knowledge of the narcotic, or at least of ing Harappan culture has left a sad legacy for the archae-
charas was brought to India across the Himalayas.93 ologist. Although there is a lack of artifacts associated
witl1 the ancient Aryans, we do have the remnants of a
This particular trade of charas over the high passes and most extraordinary body of religious literature and my-
along innumerable routes in the Himalayas from Chinese thology that is, more or less, the sole source of information
Turkestan (Sinkiang province in central Asia) to India has for this period and region .
a very long history and was important up to very recent But just as the paucity of concrete Aryan remains has
times. In 1937-38 th.is narcotic trade actually represented ba.fHed the archaeologist, the Vedic literature, with its
42 percent of the total value of Sinkiang's exports to symbolic obscurities and disregard for sequence of events
India.SM in time, has frustrated the historian. Therefore, any dating
In any case, the original difiusion of hemp into ancient and sequential arrangement of data must remain tenta-
India by so-called "Aryan" tribes in the middle of the 2nd tive. For th.e prehistoric and Vedic periods, the student
millennium B.C. presupposes the non-existence of th.is can refer to and rely on only vague reports and scanty in-
plant in the Indus valley before the Aryan migrations. It formation that have been passed down through the cen-
is a fact that no archaeological evidence has been uncov- turies. Thus the historically minded scholar finds himself
ered to substantiate the presence of the hemp plant in in a chronological morass when delving into the antiquities
ancient India prior to the Aryan invasions. Satisfactory of the early Indian civilization. This situation is basically
interpretation of the enigmatic Indus script in the future a manifestation of Indian metaphysics; the cyclical con-
and comprehensive pollen analysis of ancient Indian flora cept of nature (central to Indian thought) indirectly de-
may present evidence for the presence of hemp in the emphasized the importance of an individual historic event
Indus valley before the 2nd millennium. But until such and its position in sequential arrangement
time, we can suggest that hemp was not growing in north- However, the ancient Indians were not comp1ete1y lack-
west India until the influx of migrating bibes approx- ing in the appreciation of the historical perspective as
imately 3500 years ago. manifested by the carefully preserved lists of teachers in
various Vedic, Buddhist, Jain, and other religious texts.
93. George Watt. Dictionary of the Economic Products of India (Cal- Aside from these meager religious chronicles, there was a
cutta, 1889), 2: 106.
94. Owen Lattimore, The Pic;;ot of Aria (Boston, 1950), p. 173. dearth of enthusiasm or ingenuity to collect and organize
90 MAN AND MARIJ UANA DIFFUSION OF CANNABIS SATl VA 91
scattered and pertinent evidences into a critical his~orical names for the same place or material,00 the propagation
text that was popular enough in literary form to ~ure over generations of fanciful geographical legend, and the
its preservation. Thus, in the broadest sense, ancient freque ntly utter disregard for distinction between real
Indian civilization failed to produce scholars whose his- and fabulous geography have raised serious obstacles for
torical methodology paralleled the notable early western the inquisitive and rigorous student of ancient India.
historians such as Herodotus and Thucydides. Actually, we find that the most accurate information for
It should also be emphasized that the ancient Indian the historic period comes not from indigenous sources but
cultural milieu was (and is ) thoroughly interwoven with from the writings and observations of travelers from
philosophical or religious ideals and oriented toward an Greece, Persia, and China.
oral transmission of these ideals. The ancient Vedic tradi- Thus, many limitations hinder scientific analysis of an-
tion of the Aryans was hymnal in its earliest form. In fact, cient India and for this study the origin and cultural dif-
the earliest Indian literary record, the Rg Veda, was con- fusion of Cannabis sativa. Indeed the fundamental chal-
sidered as sru.ti ( the revelation of truth by Brahman- lenge when dealing with questions that have a historical
the universal and omnipotent entity out of which all things focus, and especially where Indian antiquity is concerned,
emanate and eventually return in a cyclic-like order) and is to accept the fact that some speculation can hardly be
not to be desecrated by the written word. In this tradition, avoided. However, the probabilities for valid conclusions
the sruti was to be orally transmitted from gum to acolyte lie within the grasp of the student who can decipher fact
in orderly succession according to meticulous discipline: from fantasy in his own research as well as in that of
As the oral tradition broke down gradually, the sruti others.
became "desecrated" through their popularization among As I have suggested, knowledge of the 6brous and
the masses and the sacred Vedic legends and mysteries euphoric qualities of hemp is a very ancient tradition in
were written down. This written record was in essence India. In the following discussion I will first present the
the antithesis of the pristine Vedic tradition. Thus we find evidences for hemp's use in ancient India; and then I will
that the only concrete result of historical study in the most suggest a gross working outline for the early history of
ancient period can be found in the long lists of kings and man's association with the hemp plant in this region.
legends preserved in the "sacred" Vedas, the "popular"
Puranas, and the "epics" of the Mahabharata and Rama-- According to the old Hindu poems, Cod Shiva brought
yana. down the hemp plant from the Himalayas and gave it to
In addition to a faulty or negligible chronology and the mankind.00
lack of substantiaJ, documented historical and cultural 95. The use of Patlibotbra, Patliputrn, and Patnn for the same city in
information, research concerned with ancient Indian what is today the state of Bihar and. even more slgniflcantly for this study,
the use of several different names for the hemp plant and its many ap-
geography and history is further impeded by other p~ob plications.
lems. The use of similar or identical names for various 90. R. N. Chopra and C. S. Chopra, "The Present Po~ltion of Hemp-
physical and cultural phenomena, the use of different Drug Addiction," Indian Medical Researcli Memoirs (Calcutta, 1939),
31: 3.
92 MAN AND MARIJUANA DIFFUSION OF CANNABIS SATIVA 93
Apparently the earliest synonym for hemp in ancient The five kingdoms of plants, having Soma as their chief, we
India is bhanga (a word most likely introduced by the add.res~; the darbha, hemp, barley, saha-let them free us
Aryans) ,97 which comes from an etymological root that &om distress.101
means "to break." This association may indicate the break-
In the Kausitaki Brahminia of the Rg V eda which is
ing away or retting of fiber from the hemp plant. This
approximately as old as the Atharva-Veda, we flnd refer-
seems to indicate an early use of hemp for fiber by the
ence to the male and female forms of Cannabis sativa:
Aryans-probably, in their case, for rope and clothing.
Furthermore, in old Indian folk songs"... ganga or bhang bhangajala, meaning a hempen net, and bhangasayana,
bed-stead woven with hempen cords.102
(with or without opium) was the invariable drink of
In connection with the ancient Srauta rituaJs, I have
heroes before performing great feats of heroism."98 The
probable application of hemp for such purposes is also found reference to the use of hemp in sacrificial ceremony
underscored by the fact that one of the oldest names for ( it should be noted here that ritualistic, highly codified
the plant in India was vifaya, which means the "victo- c~~em~ny w.as a ubiquitous and extremely significant ac-
rious."98 This tradition of hemp intoxication as a means of tiVIty m anc1~nt India by at least the 1st millennium B.c.).
stimulating confidence, bravery, and success reflects an- The Srauta rituals were performed by professional priests
other kind of use probably introduced by the ancient on behalf o~ spec.fie clients (householders) and probably
were conceived m the 1st millennium a.c. or before.1os
Aryan invaders of the Indus valley.
Of the Vedas, which comprise the basis of the Indian These rituals were performed in accordance with the re-
literary tradition, the fourth and not necessarily the young- vealed scriptures ( the Sruti of the Vedas). In the Agni-
est one, the Atharva-Veda, seems to have been most rep- Chayana Srauta ritual, which is concerned with the con-
resentative of the "people proper" ( the lower classes). In struction of a fire-altar for animal and human sacrifice, we
fact, because of this heritage, the popular blessings, for- find the following use of hemp:
mulas, theological concepts, and mysteries of the Atharva-
Fourteen days after this consecration ( Diksha ) took place
Veda apparently gained recognition as sacred literature a~d thenceforth fire was kept in the pot, which was filled
only after a long struggle. 100 Actually, the oldest known with munga grass and hemp.1oi
Indian literary reference to hemp occurs in the Atharoa-
Veda ( c. 2000-1400 e.c. ) in Book XI, 6, 15. In this section, The Mahabharata is an extensive collection of several
dedicated to the "gods" for the soothing of grief, the fol- histories and Jegends that consists in its present form of
lowing is stated: more than two hundred thousand verses.
It has been said that the Mahabharata represents,
97. Ian Burkill, "Habits of Man and the Origins of the Cultivated
Plants of the Old World," Readings in Cultural Ccograp11y (ed. by 101. William Whitney, Atharoo-Veda Samldta (Delhi, 1962), 2: 642.
Phillip Wagner and Marvin Mikesell) (Chicago, 1962), p. 275. 102. Ceorge Watt, Dictionary of Eco11omlc Products (Calcutta 1889)
98. Chopra, op. cit., p. 3. 2: 105. • '
99. Chopra, op. cit., p. 2. 103. Mnjumdar, op. cit., pp. 235-37.
100. R. C. Mnjumdnr, ed., T11e Vedic Age (London, 1952) pp. 232-33. 104. Lionel Barnett, Antiquities of India (London, 1963), p. 177.
DIFFUSION OF CANNABIS SA.TIVA 95
94 MAN AND MARIJUANA
. . . a whole literature rather than a single homogeneous The close linguistic affinity between the Indian Rg
work, and that "it constitutes a veritable treasure house of Vedic tradition and the Avestan religious literary record
Indian lore, both secular and religious, and gives, as does of ancient Persia reflects a common cultural h eritage.
no other single work,"' an insight into the innermost depths Therefore, we should consider the fo llowing Avestan ref-
of the soul of the people of I-Iindustan. 10G erences for banga ( Aves tan for hemp ), which can be cor-
related Jinguistically with the Indian blianga. In the XV
W e should be careful to note that the Mahabharata's
Fargarcl of the Vendidad, a compilation of religious Jaws
lengthy evolution, which transpired before assuming its
and i:nythology, hemp is referred to as a stimulator of
present form, limits its reliability as a source of historical
abortion.
detail, especially since it obviously was altered b y religious
scholars to fit the ethics and values of dilierent periods. And the damsel goes to the old woman and appUes to her
tl1~ t she may procure her miscarriage; and the old woman
The Mahab1iarata existed in some form or other ns early as brings her some Banga, or Shalta or Ghnana, or Fraspata,
400 n.c.; but its present recension, which includes a tre- or some other of the drugs that produce miscarriage ...109
mendous bulk of priestly piety, presumably deposited
around an original core of more secular poetry, dates from In the Din Y ast, a devotional treatise dedicated to the
between 200 and 400 A.O. It is rather as though Homer had
been reworked by the Christian Fathers into an allegory and go.ddess Kista, we find another reference for hemp. In
handbook of Christian doctrine, leaving only traces of the t~ 1s case, the use was for inducing euphoric feelings and
original spirit of the poem.106 righteous action.
It is in this context that we should consider the reference T~ whom the holy Hvovi (Zarathustra's wife) did sacrifice
to hemp in the Mahabharata. In one section of this lengthy w1tl1 full knowledge, wishing that the holy Zarathustra
"epic" ( Mbb. Anu. 161.97) is stated that one who wishes would give her his good narcotic ( Bangha· the so-called
~an~ of Zoroaster, Vendidad XV, 14, what ~ust have been
to attain glory (or prosp erity ) should avoid the fruits of its Vlrtu~ may be gathered from the legends of Gustasp and
Pippala, Vata, Udum bara, and the leaves of Hemp.101 In Ardu V1 mf, who are sajd to have been transported in soul
the "Sabha Parva" of the Mahabhar·ata the Sakas ( Scyth- to tl10 heavens, and to have had the higher mysteries re--
ians of Turkestan) who migrated to ancient India are said vealed to them, on drinking from a cup prepared by the
to have carried with them gifts of thread spun by "worms" prophet-S~dust ~amah-or from a cup of Gustasp- bang)
that she m1ght think according to the law, speak according
and patta. In this reference hemp fiber ( patta) probably to the law, and do according to the Jaw. n o
was involved.108
105. Swami Prabhavanda, The Spiritual Heritage of India (New .· Before .outlining the cultural d iffusion of hemp in an-
York, 1963), p. 81. cient India'. we sho~d consider (very superficially) one
106. William McNelll, The Rise of the West (Chicago, 1963), p. 190.
107. Om Prakash, Food and Drinks In Ancient India ( Delhi, 1961 ), other puzzling but significant question: what was the fa-
115: 128. 109. Jnmes Dnrmesteter, The Zend-Avesta (Oxford 1883) 1-2· 175
108. George Watt, Commci·clal Products of India (CRlcutto, 1908), llO. Ibid., p. 267-88. ' • · ·
p. 252.
96 MAN AND MARIJUANA DIFFUSION OF CANNABIS SATIVA 97
mous Soma plant that played such an important part in and ritual. "Vedism in its formal sense was not a religion
the formation and evolution of the Vedic civilization? of the masses."1u Apparently for some time members of
Was Soma really the hemp plant? There are many evi- this priestly clique limited the knowledge and use of Soma
dences to suggest such an identification. But first of all, to their own esoteric activities. Thus a small, influential
what were the qualities and significance of the Soma segment of ancient Indian society controlJed religion and
plant? the distribution of the Soma plant. "The ordinary S~
The Aryans or migrating tribes that come to northwest sacrilice was clearly a sacrifice of rich patrons."••~
India in the 2nd millennium s.c. brought with them a However extensive and lengthy its restriction to a se-
polytheistic religious tradition consisting of a collection lect group, the use of Soma was an extremely important
of metrical hymns ( the Rg Veda) praising and defying practice. In fact, some scholars have suggested that the
certain natural phenomena. Some of the more prominent Link between shamanism (e.g., early Aryan nature wor-
powers of nature personi..Bed in the Rg Veda include the ship ) and the traditional Hindu religion may have been
sacred force of fue (Agni) , the vigor of storms and thun- Soma. S~a eventually became,
der (Indra), and the psychoactive potency of Soma juice.
Indeed the praise and use of Soma formed a crucial part . : . the repository oI all the nourishing and fertilizing prin-
of the original cult of the Aryans. ciples of nature. At the same time it (was) the food of the
gods 8:°d the intoxicating drink of man, symbol of the im-
Although it eventually became embellished "vith pre- mortality of the one and of the fleeting life of the other.
tentious elaboration and ritual ( Srauta), the original cult But Soma, the narcotic drink, brought e:<llilaration and at
was fundamentally simple. It focused on an outdoor altar l~ast th~ momentary sense of immortality. It united the im-
fire and involved the sacrificial slaughter of animals and bLber with the gods: vVe have become immortal, we have
the offering of such substances as ghee ( melted butter) entered into the light, we have known the gods" ( Rigveda
48.3). Here are the first vague hints of a concern for salva-
and Soma. Actually, ceremonial libations of S~ma juice tion. In time Soma, the instrument, became confused with
were conspicuous. According to the hymnal, "gods" and the divine life itself and Soma became king of the Brahmans
priests were equally fond of Soma juice, often lauding its ( the universal god ).m
exhilarating and wondrous spiritual, psychological, and
medical powers. The IX book or Mandala of the Rg Veda Furthermore, the heightened sense perception and hal-
is almost completely devoted to its praise and use. lucinations stimulated by the use of Soma may have pro-
However, originally knowledge of the pristine Aryan duced the dominating Indian philosophic concept of
hymns and, consequently, the psychoactive sacrament Maya ( that which one perceives in the normal state of
Soma were restricted to the Aryan invaders themselves.
111. Charles Drclcrneier, Kinship and Commu11lty in Ancient India
Eventually the indigenous priestly elite usurped much of (Stanford, Calif., 1962), p. 13.
the religious authority held by the writers of the Aryan 112. Arthur MacDonell and Arthur Keith Vedic Index {Delhi 1958)
2: 479. • • •
hymnal and gained control of theological interpretation !13. Drekmeier, op. cit., p. 58.
98 MAN ANO MARIJUANA
DIFFUSION OF CANNABIS SATIV A 99
consciousness is not the ultimate nature of reality but The Identification of Soma: Evidence to Suggest
illusion ). This traditional Indian association of illusion that the Plant Source was Hemp
with "normal" consciousness has parallels in other cul-
tures that sanctify the use of certain hallucinogenic plants For over 2000 years, during which period the Aryans aban-
and has obviously exerted a tremendous historic iniluence doned the original plant and forgot it, the identity of soma
on the Indian life style and attitudes toward the environ- has been a deep mystery.1H
ment. Soma probably helped stimulate the desire to tran-
scend normal conscious ex-perience. Indeed, as suggested, Westem scholars actually began systematic studies of
it also may have served in early Vedic times as a connec- the Y.!dfo tr_adition on1~ as late as tl1e eighteenth cen-
tive between pristine nature worship and the primary ~· ~u~ 10 ~e r~latively short tin1e that has elapsed
development of the Brahman. cult that advocated the ac- smce this mvestigation was initiated, over 100 species
ceptance of one all-encompassing entity. This monistic have been suggested as the source of Soma. However, no
metaphysical ideal gave rise to, and still pervades much of. conce~ted acceptance of any identifications has as yet
Indian religious philosophy. prevailed. Some of the more noteworthy proposals in-
The relationship of pious doctrine to intangible and clude: Ephedra vulgaris,110 wild rhubarb, Periploca
material phenomena is especially relevant to a basic un- aphylla, Sarcoste11ima arevistigma, Setaria glauca rn ca~
derstanding of India. A combination of human perception, nab'ts sat',wa, 118 an d, most recently, a hallucinogenic
, mush-
cultural tradition, and the elements of the natural environ- room, Amanita muscaria. Others have suggested that
ment are reflected in any particular cultural landscape. ~o~~ was a symbolic myth. I will enumerate several sim-
Soma stimulated the religious philosophy which, more or ilanties between Soma and hemp.
less, shaped t11e attitudes that have ultimately influenced
the human transformation of the Indian environment. I The cffcc~ of Soma, with vivid hallucinations, and the sense
of ~xpanclmg to enormous dimensions, are rather like those
suggest that the legacy of this single ''culture trait" ( the attributed to s~ch drugs as H ashish. Soma ma well have
use of Soma) is, at least indirectly, represented in ancient been h.emp, which grows wild in many parts of
India, cen-
and contemporary India in profound and manifold ways. tral Asia, and soQth Russia, and from which modem Indians
Thus if it were possible to substantiate, beyoud any produce a narcotic drink called bhang.uo
doubt, that the plant source of Soma juice was Cannabis 114. Rohert Schultes, "Hnlluclnogens of Plant Orimn " Sci 163
sativa, the diffusion of hemp into ancient India would ( 17 Januury 1969), p. 246. o· • ence
seem to be deeply significant. Alas, even with all the cir- 115. Willlnm McN ·UL The Rise of the West (Chicago 196.'3) 189
116. MncDo nell, Arthur nnd Keith, Arthur. Vedic Ind~ Vol 2PD ,,_;
cumstantial evidence that I have collected and will list to 1958, p. 231. , . , eJW,
support this identification, it would be extremely naive 117. Louis Lewin, Phastastica (New York, 1964) 117
118. A. L. Basham, The Wonder tliot Was India' rNew York 1959)
and in a real sense impetuous to dogmatically assert this f9ff5 0); an~ Joseph Ray, "Some Pinnt," Indian Historical Quorlcriy (Jun~
.9 • 15. 197.
theory. 119. Basham, op. cit., p. 236.
DIFFUSION OF CANNABIS SATIVA 101
100 MAN AND MARIJUANA
the. lowlands of northern India from an upland or celestial
The E'Vidences: region.
1. Both the Soma and bhang plants were species growing
spontaneously in the mountains of north India: Like the corre~nding.Haoma ~. th_e Aoesta, Soma grows
on the mountains, but his true ongm lS said to be in heaven,
The Soma plant grew on the mountains especially on the from which he was brought to earth by an eagle.1:is
mountain Mauhavanta (Mun;avant) which is a part of the
(northwest) Himalayas.120 (Cannabis sativa) ~ said to have been produced in the
s~pe of nectar while the gods were churning the ocean
As the Soma plant was usually found in mountains, the with the mountain called Mandara. us
forest of Soma might be in the sub-montane tracts of the
Himalayas from the Punjab to Bihar.121 4. Professors MacDonell and Keith in their Vedic Index
. . . (the hemp-bhanga ) grows wild throughout the Hima- s~ate tha.t the Indian hemp preparation bhanga is asso-
layas from Kashmir to the east of Assam at the altitude up ciated with Soma in the Rg Veda.
to 10,000 ft. above sea-level.122
In the Rigve~a (IX.61.13) (~hanga) is an epithet of Soma,
The area of possible cultivation of hemp fibre was admitted presumably 111 the sense of mtOKicating" which then came
to be that where it has from time immemorial been pro- to designate hemp.121
duced, namely the slopes of the warm temperate Hima-
l ayas.123 5. The plant sources for both Soma and bhanga also seem
2. Geographical references in the Rg Veda also indicate to have certain botanical characteristics in common. Mac-
that the Soma plant eventually diffused to locations along Donell and Keith associate naicasakha with the Soma
the banks of the Sarasvati and Arjikiya rivers. The fertile plant: This quality indicates branches ( or twigs or leaves)
alluvial soils adjacent to these and other rivers that have hanging down, also a characteristic of the hemp plant. 128
their headwaters in the Himalayas " ... are exactly the 6. The Vedic descriptions for the color of Soma include
situations of the wild growth of Bhanga ( hemp ) ."l2-4 !;be word hari,, which ~~y be interpreted as meaning
3. According to mythology both plants were brought to green or greemsh yellow. 129 At Indore in Madra Pradesh
the male ( or more correctly the female ) form of the hem~
120. Om Prakash, Food and Drinh in Ancient lndJa ( Delhi, 1961),
p. 303. 125. R. C. Majumdar, ed., The Vedic Age ( London, 1952), p. 375.
121. Ray, op. cit., p. 201. 126. George Andrews and Simon Vinkenoog, The Book of Gras$ ( New
122. R. W. Chopra and G. S. Chopra, "The Present Position of Hemp- York, 1968 ), p. 8.
Drugs Addiction in India," Indian MealcaL Research Memoirs (Calcutta, 127. Arthur MacDonell and Arthur Keith Vedic Index (Delhi 1958)
1939 ), 31: 4. 2 : 93. I I t
123. George Walt, Commercial Products of India (Calcutta, 1908). 128. tbid., 474.
p. 255. 129. Ray, op. cit., p. 204.
124. Ray, op. cit., p. 204.
102 MAN AND MABIJUANA DIFFUSJON OF CANNABIS SATIVA 103
plant is called hari. 130 In addition, MacDonell and Keith Often it was mixed with milk or dadlil ( IX.71.8 ), sometimes
also designated babbru ( brown) and aruna ( ruddy) as with honey and barley meal ( IX.68.4 ) .1a4
the possible color of the Soma plant. 131 These color inter-
pretations also could St the hemp plant. The following are descriptions of the preparation of
6. In the Rg V eda ( IX.97 .19;107.2 ) the Soma plant is bhang:
said to have a strong and pleasant smell. The hemp plant
When prepared for consumption the fragments of the plant
also bas distinctive odorous qualities. are ground to a paste, and of this an emulsion is made which,
7. It is possible that both Soma and bhang~ c.ame from after being filtered through a cloth, may be consumed in
an annual plant "... coming up at the begmrung of the that form, or Savoured with sugar, spices, cardamons, melon
rainy season."132 seeds or milk. 136
8. "In the Sukla Y ajurveda ( IV .10), mekhala, the girdle,
The usual mode of consumption is by preparing bhang in
is described as the tying front knot of Soma."133 Is this an the form of a drink. The leaves are pounded and mixed with
implication that the Soma plant had the same fibrous water to form a thick paste called "panga." This is mixed
qualities as the hemp plant? Consider ~e word amsu with water and strained through cloth.180
( hair or ray) , which is also associated with Soma. Does
this indicate a fibrous quality or the source of glandular 10. Furthermore, many of the effects ascribed to Soma
resin? intoxication are similar to those associated with hemp in-
9. Striking similarities can likewise be found for the prep- toxication.
aration of both the Som~ and blw.nga drinks. The follow-
The effects of Soma drink are exactly the same as those of
ing is a description of the preparation of Soma reported
Bhang. Soma used to be drunk between eating of food
in the Rg V eda. (IX.51.3). It is nourishing when taken with mjlk and food
(IX.52.1). It is exhilarating (VITI.48), exciting (II.41.40 )
The shoots bearing leaves ( L"<.82.3) were first cleaned and and intoxicating ( IX.68.3;69.3) .It stimulates the vofoe and
next moistened with, or steeped in, water when the stalks impels the Oow of words ( IX95.2;101.6 ). It awakens eager
would swell (IX.31.4). The mass was then crushed and thou~t (VI.47.3), and excites poetic imagination (IX.67.13).
ground between a pair of stones (L"<,67.19) or in a mortar It incluces sleep ( IX.69.3 }, and desire for women. ( IV.67.10-
nod pestle ( I.28.1) . The ground paste was next mix~ "~th 12). It bestows fertility (IX.60.4;74.5 ). It cures diseases
water in a jar and the mixture poured. from on~ Jar mto ( Vlll.48.5 ) and was believed to prolong life ( VIII.48.5 ).
another causing sound (IX.72.3 ). Then it was strained over None but the strong can tolerate it ( IX.53.3;81.1 ). It is
sheep's wool (IX.69.9 ). Thus prepared it was "pureD drink.
134. Ray, op. cit., p. 205.
130. George Watt, Commercial Products of India ( Calcutta, 1908 ), 135. George Watt, Commercial Products of India ( Cnlc utta, 1908),
p . 250. p. 259.
131. MncD onell, op. cit., p. 474. 136. R. N. Chopra and C. S. Chopra, "T he Pl"esent Position of Hemp-
132. Rny, op. cit., p . 207. Drug Addiction in lndi.a ," Indian Medical Researc11 Memoirs ( Calcutta,
133. Ruy, op. cit., p . 202. 1939), 31 : 44.
104 MAN AND MARIJUANA DIFFUSION OF CANNABIS SATIVA 105
constipating (IX.18.1). but sometimes causes bowel com- (Yogis) are well-known consumers of bhang and ganga, and
plaints. It was drunk before military engagement ( IX.61.13; they are worshippers ( Shiva).142
85.12) and after victory (IX.101.1), for which Indra's favour
was prayed for. 13 7 Even today a religious mendicant smoking ganga is not
only tolerated but is looked upon with some veneration
Even disregarding the possibility that the Soma plant and is even considered to possess supernaturaJ powers of
healing disease and infumities, by some of the illiterate
and hemp were identical, it seems quite clear that both classes. Sects of "sanyasis," "mahantas," "Mantradata gurus"
were used to induce religious and euphoric experiences or religious preceptors are held in great r espect although
from a very early time in ancient India. The uses of Soma they indulge freely in hemp drugs. In fact, offering of hemp
for such purposes are well known; 188 but I think it is quite to them is considered to be an act of piety.w
significant that similar uses in India have been and are
In fact, Indian prohibition of the most mildly intoxicating
attributed to hemp.
form of hemp, bhang, has been resisted by a large seg-
Its (hemp) use probably dates from abo?t ~,000 years ba~k. ment of the Indian community that has felt such action
Innumerable generations have shared m its consumption would limit their religious liberty.
and will probably continue to do so as long as the plant can
be obtained growing wild or in cultivation.1119 The enormous influence that Indian hemp and its associa-
tions have on the mind of certain classes in this country
Cannabis sativa is regarded by the Hindus as a holy plru;tt and the tradition that has been built round it can be easily
and the origin of this conception can be traced to the Vedic imagined from what has been said above. It is possible that
period.HO any interference with the use of Indian hemp, especially of
bhang, in connection with religious customs and observances
The use of hemp drugs in connection with religious. and may b e regarded as interference with a long established
social practices is still met with in almost all the proVJnces usage and an encroachment upon the religious rights and
of India, though to a much smaller extent than in the pastm liberties of some of these classes. 144
As I noted, the Indian "god" Shiva supposedly brought Even in recent times, bhang remains the social indulgent
the bhang plant to man from the Himalayas. This myth and religious drink of the lower classes in India; and the
was probably originated by holy men ("yogis") who use smoking of potent ganga remains as the almost universal
the plant for spiritual purposes. psychoactive practice of certain classes of sadhus ( reli-
137. Ray, op. cit., p. 205. gious monks) and mendicants. 1411
138. Richard Schultes, "Hallucinogens of Pla.nt Origin." Science 163
(17 January 1969), p. 246. 142. George Watt, Commercial Product1 of India {Calcutta, 1908),
139. Louis Lewin, Phastastica (New Yorlc, 1964), p. 109.
140. R. N. Chopra and C. S. Chopra, "The Present Position of Hemp-- p. 252.
Drug Addiction in India," Indian Medical Re.search Memoir1 (Calcutta, 143. Chopra, op. cit., p. 23.
144. Chopra, op. cit., p. 23.
1939). 31: 21. 145. B. N. Sastri, ed., The Wealth o/ lndta (Delhi, 1950), 2: 62.
141. Ibid., p. 22.
106 MAN AND MARIJUANA
DIFFUSION OF CANNABIS SATIVA 107
F. AN OUTLINE OF THE CULTURAL DIFFUSION OF heavily populated areas and retreated to the sub-montane
HEMP W ITH IN A NCIENT INDIA regions north of the Punjab and Ganges valley. In their
upland refuges, these 'b oly men" sought wisdom accord-
The original Aryan tribes probably introduced the hemp ing to their own visions and composed forest treatises ( the
plant into India sometime in the second millennium s.c. Aranyakas) that formed the basis of traditional Hindu
These migrating invaders most likely entered the Indian philosophy ( the Upanishads).
sub-continent via accessible passes in the high moun- Moreover, one of the "yogis" most signi6cant cultural
tainous regions bordering this area. As a campfollowing activities and possible sources of inspiration was the use
weed migrating along with the nomadic tribes, hemp of psychoactive hemp preparations such as bhang and
e entually escaped from the agency of man and colonized ganga. Progressively, certain "yogis" constructed sophisti-
open habitats, especially near rivers and streams, in the cated, fun ctional systems of meditation that, more or Jess,
mountainous uplands of the Hindu Kush, the Pamirs, and phased out (for the able and dedicated students) the need
the Himalayas. To a limited extent, the agencies of streams for hemp intoxication as a vehicle fo r reaching the heights
and nomadic peoples extended the Indian distribution of of religious experience. Th us, some of spiritual teachers
hemp down the southern slopes of the Himalayas and into and students first renounced the superstitious and cumber-
the Punjab and plains of the Ganges valley during the an- some ritual of the Bralza.manas and later the use of hallu-
cient period. Thus, in the early phases of Indian history, cinogenic preparations such as those derived from hemp.
hemp probably was a relatively obscure plant for the mass But the diffusion and "acclimatization" of hemp probably
of population centered on the lowland doabs ( interfluves) progressed relatively fas t after retreating "yogis" estab-
and in the riverine valleys. lished the plant's association with religious and euphoric
After a period of militant confrontation and indiscrimi- experience and helped disseminate knowledge about it.
nate destruction, the Aryan invaders eventually settled in Therefore, a signi6cant portion of the Indian population,
the Punjab and margins of the Ganges valley. Subse- especially the lower classes, continued (even up to the
quently, over many centuries, a synthesis of Aryan and present) to use hemp for such purposes.
indigenous cultures developed; and the original poetic
... the practice was held in great esteem in ancient India
theology of the Aryans embodied in the Rg Veda came
and early literature is full of rcfercnccs to the virtues of~
under the conservative control of a dogmatic priesthood drug.WI
that dominated the socio-religious organization and activ-
ity of the Indian communities. A strong class organization
-"the caste system"-reinforced by strict, formalized rit-
ual ( the Brahamanas) emerged as the most influential
element in the ancient Indian social order. In reaction to
this trend, certain disaffected individuals left the more J.46. Chopro, op. cit., p. 26.
109
Presently the morality, legality, and practicality of using
hemp for intoxication is quite controversial. Is Cannabis
sativa a benelit or curse for man? It seems quite shameful
Summary and foolish to pass judgment on such matters without at
least attempting to understand how, when, why, and with
what e.ffects the plant was used in the past. Most people
are nnaware of the many diverse uses of hemp and the
It seems quite evident that man has had an ancient antiquity of its use, and it is hoped that this research has
and significant conscious association with the hemp plant. shed light on the subject. Perhaps this work will serve as
The earliest people to utilize hemp extensively probably encouragement for others to study an interesting, puz-
did so near riverine environments where the plant would zling, and significant problem.
have found a favorable niche and provided many uses.
Of the many applications of hemp, its use as water-resis-
tant fiber for fish line and as a possible stupefying .fish
poison were certainly important. Perhaps it was Meso-
lithic peoples that consciously developed the association
with hemp after the last deglaciation. It is also quite pos-
sible that man's association with the hemp plant was
originally motivated by religious or euphoric interests.
Man may well have learned about hemp's use for fiber,
medicines, food, fish poison, and oil only after the plant
was first lmowingly used to induce spiritual or psycho-
active excitations. The use for psychological stimulation
may have preceded its use for such things as durable rope,
seed food, and medicinal preparations.
In any case, the uses of hemp for rope and for ritualistic
intoxication have long enigmatic histories. I suggest that
its cultural diHusioo from central Asia into Europe, south-
west Asia, India, and possibly even China was stimulated
by the wide-ranging nomadic migrations that followed the
perfection of chariot warfare in the 2nd millennium B.C.
Much remains to be understood about who used the plant
for what purposes, when, and because of what motivation.
108
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116 MAN AND MARIJUANA
l
INDEX 119
118 MAN AND MARIJUANA
Kapnobatai, 70 Nalcasakha, 101
cocoa, 49 lwri, 101--02 Karakoram rnnge, 87 N ebraska, 34
Costa Rica, 34 hashish, 51, 99 Kashmir, 100 ~epenthe, 61
crop hybridlzation, 26 flou-Ki, 81 Kasbmiri, 88 1 ero, 70
Crotalarla pincea ( su nn hemp ), 46 Hemp Drug Commission Report, Kassites, 62 ~ile ri\ er, 54
1894, 83 Kauikistan, 27 nitrogen-rich soil environment, 24,
Dacia, 70 Herodotus, 58-59, 70, 90 Keith, Professor, 101-02 39, 41-42
Dadhi, 103 Hibiscus cannablnus ( patsan King George Ill, 47
Darblia, 93 hemp ), 46 Kirghiz desert, 24 Oat, 30
Darwin, Sir Charles, 30, 32 Hiere 11, 70 Kistn, Coddess, 95 Old Buckenham Mere, 69
de Candolle, 68 H imalayan mts., 30, 33, 49, 83, Ko-Chih...Ching-Yuan, 82 Old T estament, 62
Diksha, 93 87-88, 91, 100, 104, 106 Omsk, 27
Din Yost, 95 Hindu, 104, 107 Lepidium sot1u11m ( garden gross), Opium, 92
Dioscorid cs, 70-71 Hindu Kush, 57, 87, 106
22
DoUchos Rbre, 81 fllndu poems, 91 Pamirs, 106
Linnaeus, 15
Dunbartonshire, 69 Tlind ustnn, 94 l'one,o, 103
Li Yun, 80
Dzungarian basin, 57 Hippocrates, 71 PatU 1·othre, 91
Lucilius, 70
I littites, 62, 65 Lupinus lutew, 22 Pa tliputrn, 91
Egypt, 51 Hokknido, 34 Lu Shu (of the Sung dynasty), 46 Pa tna, 91
Ep11edra oulgarls, 99 I romer, 54, 94 Pazyryk valley, 59
Euphrates, 54 Jlonan, 81 Pergames, 71
Mo, 77
llooker, Joseph Dalton, 32 MacDoneJI, Professor, 101-02 Periploco oplydla, 99
Fargard, XV, 95 horse-drawn chariot, 62 Persia, 24, 62, 07, 95
Macedonia, 55
Finno-Ugrian, 68 Hottentots, 49 Phrygians, 62, 65, 66
Madra Pradesh , 101
Fishing, development of, 38 1-lsin dynasty, 76 Pippla, 94
Mahabhar ata, 87, 90, 93, 94
F lax, 61, 64, 72-73 Hsua n King, 81 Pliny, 71- 72
Moltantas, 105
Floral morphology, 16 Humulus l11p11lus, 15 Pottery, cord-marked, 46
Mofeom or Mo/um, 52
Fraspata, 95 H voui (Zarathrnstra's wife ), 95 Punjab, 2.6, 84, 86-87, 100, 106,
Manchuria, 48
Hwang Jlo, 54, 57, 75, 80-81 Mandala IX ( of Rg Veda), 96 107
Calen, Claudius, 71 Hyksos, 62 Puranas, 90
Mandara mt., 101
Conga, 52, 92, 105
Mantredata gurus, 105
Canges valley, 106--07 Indian civilization, 89 Ramayana, 90
Marijuana, nume of, 9
Cangetlo plains, 34 Ind inn metaphysics, 89 Retting, 43
Celotop11yllls, 72 Mayo, 97
l ndo-Aryan, 87 Mekkaw, 102 Ridley, Henry N., 30
Cetae, 70 Indo-European, 86 Rg Veda, 84-85, 87, 90, 95-97,
Merovinginn Q ueen, 69
Gliee, 96 Indore, 101 100-02, 106
Chnano, 95 Mens, 87
lndra, 96, 104 Roma n, 69, 71
Mesolithic, 53, 79, 108
Cordion, 65 Indus, 54, 74, 84-89, 92 Mesopotamian, 62-63, 66-67, 73
Guru, 90 Iranian plateau, 74, 84 , 86
Millet, 30 Snd1rns, 105
Custosp, 95 Irkutsk, 27
Mitn:oni, 62 Salia, 93
Mobenjo-daro, 85 Sakas, 11.t
HommameUdae, 15 Join, 89 Sonyosu, 105
Han, 77 Moraceae, 15
Jhukar, 85 Saravnt:I river, 100
Ho67no, 101 Munga g ross, 93
Mylasa, 72 Sardust Namah, 95
H arappan, 84, 89 Kansu, 75
120 MAN AND MARIJUANA
Sascostcmma arevlstlgma, 99 Tmnscaucasus, 60, 67
Sate tribes, 49 Tribute of Yu, 80
Sauer, Professor Carl 0., 37 Trojan, 68
Scythians, 57-62, 66-70, 94 T'sai Lun, 82
Secale cercalc, (rye), 22 Tudor, 47
Setaria gla11ca, 99 Turkestan, 85, 94
Shafer, Robert, 86, 87
Sbaki-tump, 85 Udumbam, 94
Shnllll, 95 Ukraine, 48
Shamanism, 97 United Nations, 34
Shang, 78 United States Navy, 47
Shantung, 81 Upanishads, 107
Shen-Nung, 46-47, 78, 81 Urtlcales, 15
Shlh-King, 81 Uzbekisllln, 26
Shir-i-Chl, 82
Sl1iva, 91, 104 Voe/ah, 81
Shu King, 80 Vata, 94
Siberia, 24, 59 Vavilov, N. I., 24-28, 76
Slddhi, 52 Vedic, 67, 86, 89, 90, 92, 96, 97,
Sinkiang, 88 98, 101, 104
Soma, 93, 96-102, 101 Vendidad, 81, 95
Southeast Asia, 28, 46, 54 Vlcla saliva, 22
Southern Russia, 99 Vifaya, 92
Spinacia elcracea (spinnch), 22
Vikings, 69
Srauta, 96-97
Sruti, 90, 93
Wei river, 80
St. Denis, 69
Sulta yaj11roeda, 102 Wheat, 30
Syracuse, 70 Whittier, 53
Wild rhubarb, 94
Tadjikistan, 26
Taiwan, 46, 74 Yang-Shae, 75
Tepe Hussnr, 85 Yarkand, 27, 88
Teutonic people, 68-69 Yogi, 50, 104, 105, 107
Thrace, 68, 70 Yuan-Shun site, 46
Thucydides, 90
Tibet, 87 Zarathustra, 95
Tien.Shan, 26-28, 81 Zea mays (common com ), 22
Tigris, 54 Zoroaster, 67, 95