INTRODUCTION

The term Biodiversity was first coined by Walter G.

Rosen in 1986.
The biosphere comprises of a complex collections of
innumerable organisms, known as the Biodiversity,
which constitute the vital life support for survival of
human race.
Biological diversity, abbreviated as biodiversity, represent
the sum total of various life forms such as unicellular
fungi, protozoa, bacteria, and multi cellular organisms
such as plants, fishes, and mammals at various
biological levels including gens, habitats, and
ecosystem.
 Biodiversity
What does “Bio” means?

Bio =
 Biodiversity

What does “Diversity” means?

Diversity = Variety
 CONCEPT AND TYPES OF BIODIVERSITY
 Biodiversity is the variety of life forms on earth and the
essential interdependence of all living things.
 As defined in convention on Biological diversity singed at Rio
De Jenerio (Brazil) in 1992 by 154 countries, the Biodiversity
defined as “the variability among living organisms from all
sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other
aquatic eco-systems and the ecological complexes of which
the area part- this include diversity with in species, between
species and of ecosystem”
 According to International Union for Conservation of Nature
(IUCN) in 1998, “the variety and variability of species of their
population, the variety of species of their life forms, the
diversity of the complex association with species with their
interaction and their ecological process which influences
perform”
Biodiversity of the Earth
 There are three types of biodiversity

Diversity of Species

Diversity of Ecosystem

Diversity of Genes
 Genetic diversity
• Genes are the basic units of hereditary information
transmitted from one generation to other
• The genes found in organisms can form enormous
number of combinations each of which gives rise to some
variability
• When the genes within the same species show different
versions due to new combinations, it is called genetic
variability
• For eg, all rice varieties belong to the species Oryza
Sativa, but there are different varieties which differ in
their shape, size, aroma due to variations at the genetic
level
Community diversity has three perspectives
 Alpha diversity (α-diversity)
• is the biodiversity within a particular area,
community or ecosystem.
• usually expressed by the number of species
(i.e., species richness) in that ecosystem.
• This can be measured by counting the number
of taxa (distinct groups of organisms) within
the ecosystem (eg. families, genera, species).
 Beta diversity (β-diversity)
• is a measure of biodiversity which works by
comparing the species diversity between
ecosystems. This involves comparing the
number of taxa that are unique to each of the
ecosystems.
• It is the rate of change in species composition
across habitats or among communities.
• It gives a quantitative measure of diversity of
communities that experience changing
environments
 Gamma diversity (γ-diversity)
• refers to the total species richness over a large area or
region = a measure of the overall diversity for the
different ecosystems within a region.
• It is the product of the α diversity of component ecosystems
and the β diversity between component ecosystems.
• Gamma diversity can be expressed in terms of the species
richness of component communities as follows:
γ = S1 + S2 − c
•where, S1= the total number of species recorded in the first community,
•S2= the total number of species recorded in the second community,
•c= the number of species common to both communities.
 Species diversity
• This is the variability found within the
population of a species

• The richness of species in an ecosystem is

called species diversity

• The total number of living species is in the

range of 10-50 million. But till now only about
1.5 million species have been actually
described and given scientific names
 Ecosystem diversity
• An ecosystem develops its own characteristic
community of living organisms depending
upon the availability of abiotic resources,
environmental conditions and other factors
• For eg, a pond possess different sets of flora
and fauna as compared to the river ecosystem
• This diversity has developed over millions of
years of evolution and is of great value that
must be kept intact
Biogeographical classification of India
• India has different types of climate and topography in
different parts of the country and these variations
have induces enormous variability in flora and fauna

• India has a rich heritage of biological diversity and

occupies the tenth position among the plant rich
nations of the world

• Based on the biodiversity, climate, topography India

has been classified into 10 biogeographic zones
 India‟s biographic zones
S.No Biographic Zone Biotic Province
1 Trans –Himalayan Upper regions
2 Himalayan North-west Himalayas, West Himalayas, Central
Himalayas, East Himalayas
3 Desert Kutch, Thar, Ladakh
4 Semi-arid Central India, Gujarat-Rajwara
5 Western Ghats Malabar Coast, Western Ghat mountains
6 Deccan Peninsula Deccan plateau south, Central plateau, Eastern
plateau, Chotta Nagpur, Central highlands
7 Gangetic plain Upper gangetic plain, Lower gangetic plain
8 North-East India Brahmaputra valley, North-Easter hills
9 Islands Andaman islands, Nicobar islands, Lakshadweep
islands
10 Coasts West coast, East coast
Biogeographical classification of India
 Value of biodiversity
The multiple uses of biodiversity value has been
classified by McNeely et al in as follows:
1) Consumptive use value
2) Productive use value
3) Social value
4) Ethical value
5) Aesthetic value
6) Optional values
7) Ecosystem service value
 Consumptive use value
These are direct use values where the biodiversity product can be
harvested and consumed directly. e.g. fuel, food, drugs ,fibre etc
Food:
A large number of plants are consumed by human beings as food. About
90% of present day crops have been domesticated from wild tropical
plants.
Drugs and medicines:
75% of the world‟s population depends upon plants or plant extracts for
medicines
Penicillin-Penicillium Quinine-Bark of cinchona
Vinblastin and Vincristine-Catharanthus
Fuel:
Forests have been used since ages for fuel wood. Fossil fuels are also
products of fossilized biodiversity
 Productive use values
• These are commercially usable values where the
product is marketed and sold
• It may be lumber, wild gene resources
• Animal products like tusks of elephants, musk
from musk deer, wool from sheep
• Despite international ban on trade in products
from endangered species, smuggled hide, fur,
tusks worth millions of dollars are being sold
 Social value
• Values associated with the social life, customs,
religion and psycho-spiritual aspects of people

• Many of the plants are considered holy and

sacred in our country (Tulsi, Peepal, Mango)

• Many animals like cow, snake, bull, peacock

also have significant place in our psycho-
spiritual arena and thus hold special social
importance
 Ethical value
• Ethical values is also sometimes known as
existence value.
• It involves ethical issues like “all life must be
preserved” and the concept of “Live and let
live”
• The ethical value means we may or may not
use a species, but we feel the existence of the
species is necessary
 Aesthetic value

• Great aesthetic value is attached to biodiversity

• Stretches of barren lands with no signs of
visible life is not a pleasant sight
• Eco-tourism is based on the aesthetic value of
biodiversity
• Ecotourism is estimated to generate about 12
billion dollars of revenue annually
 Optional values

• These include the potentials of biodiversity

that are presently unknown and need to be
explored
• For eg, there is a possibility that we may have
potential cure for AIDS or cancer existing
within the depths of marine ecosystem, or
tropical ecosystem
 Ecosystem service value
It refers to the services provided by ecosystem like

1) Prevention of soil erosion

2) Prevention of floods
3) Maintenance of soil fertility
4) Cycling of nutrients and water
5) Fixation of nitrogen
6) Role as carbon sinks

Different categories of biodiversity value clearly indicate that

ecosystem, species and genetic diversity have enormous
potential and a decline in biodiversity will lead to huge
economic, ecological and socio-cultural losses
 India as a mega-diversity nation
• India is one of the 12 mega diversity countries in the
world

• The ministry of Environment and Forests, records

show 47,000 plant species and 89,000 animal species

• A large proportion of the India Biodiversity is still

unexplored

• Due to diverse climatic conditions there is a complete

rainbow spectrum of biodiversity in our country
 Distribution of species in India
Group-wise species distribution
Plants Number Animals Number
Bacteria 850 Lower groups 9979

Fungi 23,000 Mollusca 5042

Algae 2500 Arthropoda 57,525

Bryophytes 2564 Fishes 2546

Pteridophytes 1022 Amphibia 428

Gymnosperms 64 Reptiles 1228

Angiosperms 15,000 Birds 204

Mammals 372
Reasons for India as a mega-diversity nation
1)Endemism
• Species which are restricted only to a
particular area are know as endemic.
• India shows a good number of endemic
species. About 62% amphibians, 50% lizards,
53% fresh water fishes, 36% reptiles, 10%
mammals, and 33% flowering plants are
endemic to India.
• Western ghats are the site of maximum
endemism
 Reasons for India as a mega-diversity nation

2)Centre of origin
• A large number of species are know to have
originated in India
• Nearly 500 species of flowering plants have
their origin in India
• India has been the center or origin for 166
species of crop plants and 320 species of wild
relatives of cultivated crops
Reasons for India as a mega-diversity nation
3)Marine diversity
• The coastline of our country exhibits a rich
biodiversity
• Along 7500 km long coastline, in the
mangroves, coral reefs back waters etc,
different species are found
• The marine diversity is rich in mollusks,
crustaceans and several species of mangrove
plants and sea grasses are found
 Biodiversity at global national and
local level
Global biodiversity :
Globally we have roughly identified
1,70,000 flowering plants
30,000 vertebrates
2,50,000 other groups of species
Terrestrial biodiversity :
Tropical rainforests,savannas,desert,tundra etc.
 DISTRIBUTION OF BIODIVERSITY
 Flora and fauna diversity
depends on-
 Climate
 Altitude
 Soils
 Presence of other species
 Most of the biodiversity
concentrated in Tropical
region.
 BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS:
 A region with high biodiversity
with most of spices being
Endemic (native or restricted to a
certain area / place).
 India have two Biodiversity
Hotspots - East Himalayan A biogeographic region with significant levels of
biodiversity that is under threat from humans
Region and Western Ghat.
 BIODIVERSITY AND BALANCE OF NATURE
 Tropic Level: Elimination of species from tropic level can
cause destruction of ecosystem as well as biodiversity.

Plants in forest Deer Lion

Complex Ecosystem: In a complicated ecosystem having several

tropic levels, loss of one or more spices do not cause any
serious problem because the alternative available.
Keystone Species: Loss or addition of species causes detectable
changes in ecosystem rates i.e. species make unique
contribution to ecosystem functioning.
Niche Complementary: Difference among species in their
requirements for different resources will cause
complementary interaction so that a species could obtain
more resources.
Facilitation and Mutualism: Plants may also benefit from
their neighbors through amelioration of the physical
and biotic environment.

Portfolio Effect: Species richness increases the temporal

stability of the entire community while the biomass is
stabilized.

Insurance Hypothesis: Biodiversity buffers ecosystem

against environmental changes such as global
warming.
 BENEFITS OF BIODIVERSITY
Consumptive value:
 Food/Drink
 Fuel
 Medicine
 Batter crop varieties
 Industrial Material

Non-Consumptive Value:
 Recreation
 Education and Research
 Traditional value
Ecological services:
Balance of nature
Biological productivity
Regulation of climate
Degradation of waste
Cleaning of air and water
Cycling of nutrients
Control of potential pest and disease causing species
Detoxification of soil and sediments
Stabilization of land against erosion
Carbon sequestration and global climate change
Maintenance of Soil fertility
 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
Natural causes:
 Narrow geographical area
 Low population
 Low breeding rate
 Natural disasters

Anthropogenic causes:
 Habitat modification
 Overexploitation of selected
species
 Innovation by exotic species
 Pollution
 Hunting
 Global warming and climate
change
 Agriculture
 Domino effect
 RECENT ISSUES ON BIODIVERSITY

 Some 75 per cent of the genetic diversity of crop plants been

lost in the past century.
 Some scientists estimate that as many as 3 species per hour are
going extinct and 20,000 extinctions occur each year.
 Roughly one-third of the world‟s coral reef systems have been
destroyed or highly degraded.
 About 24 per cent of mammals and 12 per cent of bird species
are currently considered to be globally threatened.
 More than 50 per cent of the world‟s wetlands have been
drained, and populations of inland water and wetland species
have declined by 50per cent between 1970 and 1999.
 CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
 Biodiversity inventories
 Conserving Biodiversity in protected Habitats-
• In situ conservation
• Ex situ conservation
 Seed Bank, Gene Bank, Pollen Bank, DNA
Bank zoo

Gene Bank Bandhavgarh National Park

 Restoration of Biodiversity
 Imparting Environmental Education
 Enacting, strengthening and enforcing Environmental
Legislation
 Population Control
 Reviewing the agriculture practice
 Controlling Urbanization
 Conservation through Biotechnology
 Biodiversity
Conservation

In situ Ex situ

Sacred Biosphere Sacred plant home

Reserves National
groves and parks, wildlife garden
lakes sanctuaries

Terrestrial Seed Bank,

Gene bank,
Cryopreservation
Marine

Botanical garden,
Zoological garden,
Aquaria
 BIODIVERSITY IN INDIA
Categories No. of Indian % of Indian species Species Threatened
Species Evaluated In India

Mammals 386 59 41%

Birds 1219 _ 7%

Reptiles 495 73 46%

Amphibians 207 79 57%

Freshwater Fish 700 46 70%

Source- Based on Kumar et.al 2000

 Tropical rainforests
• These are the earths largest storehouse of
biodiversity.
• About 50 to 75% of global biodiversity lies in
these tropical rain forests.
• Of about 3000 plants identified by national
cancer research 70% is derived only from
tropical rain forests
• Extracts from one of the creeping vines in the
rain forests at cameroon have proved effective
in the inhibitioin of replication of AIDS virus
 Temperate forests
Globally they have nearly
• 1,70,000 flowering plants
• 30,000 vertebrates
• 2,50,000 other groups of species.
Marine diversity
Marine diversity is even much higher than
terrestrial biodiversity but it is still less known
and described
 Biodiversity at national level
• India is the second largest nation containing
5% of world’s biodiversity and 2% of the
earths surface
 Hotspots of biodiversity

• Areas which exhibit high species richness as

well as high species endemism are termed as
hotspots of biodiversity
• To qualify as a biodiversity, a region must
meet two strict criteria:
1)It must contain at least 0.5% or 1,500 species
of plants as endemics,
2)It has to have lost at least 70% of its primary
vegetation
 Global hotspots of biodiversity
1) Tropical Andes 13) Caucasus
2) Mesoamerican forests 14) Sundaland
3) Caribbean 15) Wallacea
4) Brazil‟s Atlantic forest 16) Philippines
5) Western Ecuador 17) Eastern Himalayas
6) Brazil‟s Cerrado 18) South-central China
7) Central Chile 19) Western-Ghats
8) California Floristic Province 20) South-western Australia
9) Madagascar 21) New Caledonia
10) Eastern Arc and coastal 22) New Zealand
forest of Tanzania/Kenya 23) Polynesia/Micronesia
11) Western African Forests 24) Succulent Karoo
12) Cape Floristic Province 25) Mediterranean Basin
 Salient features of Indian Hotspots
A)Eastern Himalayas:
• The eastern himalayan region encompasses Bhutan,
North east India, and south, central and eastern Nepal
• The region is home to 163 globally threatened species
including Asia‟s
Three largest herbivores –the Asian elephant, the greater
one horned rhinoceros, and the wild water buffalo
Carnivore-The tiger
Birds-Vultures, Storks and hornbills
• Out of the world‟s recorded flora, 30%are endemic to India
of which 35,000 are in the Himalayas
 Salient features of Indian Hotspots

B)Western Ghats
• It extends along a 17000 sq.km strip of forests in
Maharashtra, Karnataka, TN and Kerala and has 40%
of total endemic plants
• The major centers of diversity are Agastyamalai Hills
and Silent valley-the New Amambalam reserve basin
• It is reported that only 6.8% of original forests are
existing today while the rest has been deforested or
degraded
 Threats to Biodiversity
• Extinction or elimination of a species is a
natural process of evolution.
• The process of extinction has become
particularly fast in the recent years of human
civilization
• One of the estimates puts the figure of
extinction as 27/day
• If the present trend continues we would lose
1/3rd to 2/3rd of our current biodiversity by the
middle of 21st century
 Loss of Habitat
• Destruction and loss of natural habitat is the single largest
cause of biodiversity loss
• Billions of hectares of forests and grasslands have been
cleared over the past 10,000 years for conversion into
agricultural lands, pastures, settlement areas or
development projects
• Thousand of species have perished due to loss of their
natural habitat
• A phenomenon known as habitat fragmentation have
resulted in loss on many singing birds
• As a result of human intervention marine biodiversity is
under serious threat due to large scale destruction of the
fragile breeding and feeding grounds
 Poaching
• Illegal trade of wildlife products by killing
prohibited animals, is a threat to wildlife
• Despite international ban on trade in products
from endangered species, smuggling of
wildlife items like furs, hides, tusks, etc
continues
• The worse issue is that for every live animal
that gets into market, about 50 additional
animals are caught and killed
 Man-wildlife conflicts
• When wild life causes immense damage and danger
to man , the conflict occurs
• In retaliation, the villagers electrocute or kill the
animals which sometimes exceed poaching
Causes:
1) Dwindling of habitats and human encroachments
into the forest areas
2) The wild life corridors through which animals used
to migrate seasonally have been used for human
settlements and hence animals attack the settlements
 Causes of man-animal conflict

3) The stopping of cultivation of paddy, sugarcane etc..

within the sanctuaries have led the animals to stray
out
4) The compensation paid by the government in lieu of
the damage caused to the crops is not adequate and
the agonised farmer gets revengeful and kills the
wild animals
5) Ususally the ill, weak and injured animals have a
tendency to attack man
 Classification of species
Extinct species- A species is said to be extinct when it is
not seen in the wild for 50 years at a stretch.
Eg Dodo, passanger pigeon
Endangered species-When the number has been reduced
to a critical level or whose habitats have been
drastically reduced and when not protected and
conserved they are endangered species
Rare species-Species which are not endangered at
present, but are at risk are categorised as rare species
Endemic species-Species which are restricted to a
particular area is called as endemic species
 Endangered species

• These are species which if not protected are likely

to become extinct in near future
• The International Union for Conservation of
Nature and Natural Resources(IUCN) publishes
the Red Data Book which includes the list of
endangered species of plants and animals
• In India nearly 450 plant species , 150 mammals
and 150 species of birds have been listed as
endangered species
 Few endangered species of India
1) Reptiles: Green sea turtle, Tortoise, Python
2) Birds: Peacock, Great Indian Hornbill, Pelican,
Siberian White Crane
3) Carnivorous mammals: Indian wolf, red fox, tiger,
lion, red panda, leopard, striped hyena, desert cat,
dugong
4) Primates: Capped monkey, golden monkey, nilgiri
langur, hoolock gibbon
5) Plants: species of orchids, rhododendrons Santalum,
Cycas beddonei etc
 Endemic species of India
• India has two biodiversity hotspots and thus
possesses a large number of endemic species

Endemic flora - Sapria himalayana, Uvaria lurida,

Nepenthes Khasiana, Pedicularis
perroter etc.

Endemic animals - Varanus, reticulated python,

Indian Salamander, Viviparous
toad, nectophhryne.
 Red fox Indian wolf

Capped langur
Hoolook gibbon Nilgiri langur

Desert cat
Dugong Red panda

Golden langur
Rhododendron Cycas beddomei

orchids
Green sea turtle Hornbill

pelican
salamander varanus

Nectophryne
 Conservation of biodiversity
• The enormous value of biodiversity due to
their genetic, commercial medical, aesthetic
importance emphasize the need to conserve
biodiversity.

• There are two approaches of biodiversity

conservation
– In situ conservation
– Ex situ conservation
 In Situ conservation
• This is achieved by protection of wild flora and fauna
in nature itself.eg Biosphere reserves, National parks,
Sancturies, Reserve forests etc
• The Biosphere reserves conserve some representative
ecosystems as a whole for long term in situ
conservation. Gulf of mannar, Nilgiri, Sunderbans,
Nanda devi are few biosphere reserves
• A National park is an area dedicated for the
conservation of wildlife along with its environment.
• Each park aims at conservation of some particular
species of wildlife along with others
Important national parks in India
Name of the national park Important wildlife
Kaziranga One horned Rhino
Gir national park Indian Lion
Dachigam Hangul
Bandipur Elephant
Periyar Elephant, Tiger
Kanha Tiger
Corbett Tiger
Dudwa Tiger
Ranthambore Tiger
Sariska Tiger
 Wild life sanctuaries
• These are protected areas where killing, hunting,
shooting or capturing of wildlife is prohibited except
under control of highest authority
Name of Sanctuary Major wild life
Ghana Bird Sanctuary 300 species of birds
Hazaribagh Sanctuary Tiger, Leopard
Sultanpur Bird Sanctuary Migratory birds
Nal Sarovar Bird Sanctuary Water birds
Abohar wildlife Sanctuary Black buck
Mudumalai wildlife Sanctuary Tiger, elephant, Leopard
Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary Water Birds
Jaldapara Wildlife Sanctuary Rhinoceros, elephant, Tiger
Wild Ass Sanctuary Wild ass, Wolf, nilgai, chinkara
 Ex situ conservation

• This type of conservation is mainly done for

conservation of crop varieties, the wild
relatives of crops and all the local varieties
• In this the conservation in captivity under
human care
• The objective is to conserve the total genetic
variability of the crop species for future crop
improvement or afforestation programmes
 Important gene bank/seed banks
1) National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources
(NBPGR) - Located in New Delhi
Here agricultural and horticultural crops are cryo
preserved
2)National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources
(NBAGR) - Located in Haryana
Preserves semens of domesticated bovine animals
3) National Facility for Plant Tissue Culture Repository
(NFPTCR) - within NBPGR
Conservation of crop plants / trees by tissue culture
 Project (Save) Tiger
• Project Tiger Scheme has been under implementation
since 1973 as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme of
Government of India
• The main objective of Project Tiger is to ensure a viable
population of tiger in India for scientific , economic ,
aesthetic , cultural and ecological values and to preserve
for all time, areas of biological importance as a natural
heritage for the benefit, education and enjoyment of the
people
• Main objectives under the scheme include wildlife
management, protection measures and site specific eco
development to reduce the dependency of local
communities on tiger reserve resources
 Project Tiger
• Initially, the Project started with 9 tiger reserves,
covering an area of 16,339 sq.km., with a population
of 268 tigers. At present there are 27 tiger reserves
covering an area of 37761 sq.km., with a population
of 1498 tigers
• Project Tiger has put the tiger on an assured course of
recovery from the brink of extinction, and has
resurrected the floral and faunal genetic diversity in
some of our unique and endangered wilderness
ecosystem.
 Project Elephant
• Project Elephant (PE), a centrally sponsored scheme, was
launched in February 1992 to provide financial and technical
support to major elephant bearing States in the country for
protection of elephants, their habitats and corridors
• The Project Elephant in India also aimed to decrease the
human-elephant battles and help in the welfare of domesticated
elephants in India
• Aims:
1) Ecologically restoring the natural habitats and migratory
routes of the elephants
2) Resolution of the increasing conflicts between man and
elephants in important habitats and moderating the pressures
of human and domestic stock activities in
important elephant habitats
 Various aims of Project Elephant
4)Developing scientific and planned management measures for
conservation of elephants and controlling the population of
wild Asiatic elephants, which are almost on the verge of
extinction.
5) Protecting the elephants from poachers and other unnatural
causes of death and illegal ivory trade is also one of the
major concerns of the Elephant Project in India
6) Researching on issues related to elephants and creating
public awareness and education programs for it
7) Eco-development and Veterinary care for the elephants
8) Project Elephant also aims at maintaining health care and
breeding of tame elephants
 Current status of Project Elephant
• The project elephant has still not led to as much
increase in the number of elephants as it was
expected
• Wildlife conservationists state that the progress has
been real slow and people in charge of the project are
themselves not very clear of the causes of decline in
the number of elephants
• Project Elephant tries to ensure a free movement for
the elephants and thus conserve large areas for them
that are called „elephant reserve range‟
 BIODIVERSITY CONVENSIONS
 The first convention on biodiversity organized at Rio De
Janerio, capital of Brazil from June 5 to 16, 1992 named as
United Nation Conference On Environment and Development
(UNCED), batter known as Rio Summit to maintain ecological
balance and enrich biodiversity. The agreement on biodiversity
signed by 150 countries including three programmes-
 To ensure conservation of biodiversity
 Sustainable use of biodiversity
 Rational and equitable share of profit to accrue from use of
genetic resources.
 The second convention organized at Johannesburg in 2002
called World Summit On Sustainable Development (WSSD)
where the Biodiversity and Sustainable Ecosystem
Management was the issue.
The International Conference held on Biodiversity
in Relation to Food & Human Security in a warming
planet 15-17 February, 2010 in Chennai.

International Conference on Wildlife &

Biodiversity Conservation held on 3 to 5 June, 2010
at Dal lake, Srinagar, Kashmir.

Indian Biodiversity Congress (IBC) & Indian

Biodiversity Expo (IBE) will be held on 27-31
December 2018 at Thriuvananthapuram, Kerala.
 CONCLUSION
Biodiversity is our life. If the Biodiversity got lost at
this rate then in near future, the survival of human
being will be threatened. So, it is our moral duty to
conserve Biodiversity as well our Environment. Long-
term maintenance of species and their management
requires co-operative efforts across entire landscapes.
Biodiversity should be dealt with at scale of habitats or
ecosystems rather than at species level.