NDT Sessional 1

MML 379 Non-Destructive Testing (3-0-0) 3 credits
Dr. Yogesh Y. Mahajan
Faculty of Department of Metallurgical and

Materials Engineering, VNIT Nagpur
Introduction
● Course Name : Non Destructive Testing

● Course No : MML379
● Slot :F
● Credit : 3-0-0
● Students Registered : 101

Text/ Reference Books
1. Practical Non-destructive Testing Book by Baldev Raj, M. Thavasimuthu,

and T. Jayakumar
2. Non-Destructive Test and Evaluation of Materials Book by C. G.
Krishnadas Nair
3. ASM Handbook, Vol. 17, Non-destructive Evaluation and quality control.
4. Non-Destructive Testing Techniques by Ravi Prakash
Lecture Plan
Unit L Topic to be covered
I 3 Introduction and scope of non-destructive testing and evaluation (NDT/NDE) methods.
Visual examination , principles and equipments ,optical aids. Liquid penetrant testing:,
principle, procedure, penetrate materials and methods, applications.
II 10 Principles of magnetic particle testing, procedures and equipment's for MPT, magnetic
field testing; limitations of MP methods ,electromagnetic testing for residual stress
measurement. Eddy current testing, principle and instrumentation, techniques like high
sensitivity, multi frequency, high area, pulsed ECT, inspection of ferro-magnetic
material, application and limitation ECT.
III 10 Radiographic inspection, principle, radiation sources, radiation attenuation's; film

effect. Radiographic imaging : geometric factors film, screens, sensitivity parameters
,exposure etc. Imaging techniques: single wall, double wall, penetration ,single image
etc., applications and case studies; limitations.
Lecture Plan (40)
Unit L Topic to be covered
IV 7 Ultrasonic Testing : Basic principles, type of sound waves and their characteristics,
ultra transducers characteristics, inspection methods, normal incident pulse echo
through transmission. Angle beam, probe selection criterion, sensitivity, penetration
and resolution. Modes of display, A,B,C types of scan, immersion testing applications,
case studies, limitations.
V 3 Special / advanced techniques of NDE /AET, thermograph, replica microscopy (in situ).
Leak testing, remote field ECT, microwave inspection, topography, holography (only
principle and applications).
VI 7 Criteria for selection of NDT methods and instruments related to metallurgical

processes / defect in cast ,forged and rolled, heat treated and fabricated items (one case
study for each category), reliability in NDT. Statistical method & quality control in
NDT codes and standard specifications.
Why NDT ?
WHERE IS NDT USED?
Depending on how broadly you define NDT you could say that it’s used in almost every industry in the world, since visual
inspections (whether formalized or casual) take place in almost every workplace in some form or other.
That being said, there are specific industries that require NDT and have formalized processes for its use, as codified by
various organizations like API (American Petroleum Institute) and ASME.
These industries include:
● Oil & Gas

● Power Generation
● Chemicals
● Mining
● Aerospace
● Automotive
● Marine
● Mining
Why NDT ?
● Non-destructive testing (NDT) is used to inspect a component in a reliable, safe and cost effective manner without the
need to shut plant operations down, lose income or damage any of the equipment.
● Non-destructive Testing techniques are used to detect, identify and/or measure the presence of anything that could
damage a component, such as corrosion or cracks.
● The testing equipment used to carry out testing is portable and tests can often be repeated many times on one
component.
● The component can also be looked at internally and externally for any flaws it might have, reports are accurate and
can give a thorough assessment of the life span of a component.
Why NDT ?
Here are the top reasons NDT is used by so many companies throughout the world:
● Savings. The most obvious answer to this question is that NDT is more appealing than destructive testing because it
allows the material or object being examined to survive the examination unharmed, thus saving money and
resources.
● Safety. NDT is also appealing because almost all NDT techniques (except radiographic testing) are harmless to
people.
● Efficiency. NDT methods allow for the thorough and relatively quick evaluation of assets, which can be crucial for
ensuring continued safety and performance on a job site.
● Accuracy. NDT methods have been proven accurate and predictable, both qualities you want when it comes to
maintenance procedures meant to ensure the safety of personnel and the longevity of equipment.
Bridges in India
Source – Indian Railway Yearbook 2012-13, Report No.24 of 2015 (Railways) Volume II Chapter 1
Bridges in India
● 1,36,728 bridges over IR network
⚫ Completed Codal life (Economical
• 36,470 bridges (26.67 %) life span)
⇨ > 100 years old
• 14,324 bridges ⚫ Present Assessment.
⇨ 81 to 100 years old ⚫ Subjective Assessment
• 15,637 bridges
⇨ 61 to 80 years old
• 70,297 bridges
⇨ < 60 years old
Source – Indian Railway Yearbook 2012-13, Report No.24 of 2015 (Railways) Volume II Chapter 1
Bridges in India
Factor of Safety = Material Strength

Design Load
Bridges Motor yacht Space Shuttle
2-4 6-10 1.25-1.4
⚫ Design Load = Maximum load the part should ever see in service
Need for Non Destructive Testing
⚫ Those testing methods in which the material under test is not destroyed.
⚫ Purpose
● Suitability of a particular part/system to satisfactorily perform its intended function.
⚫ NDT/NDI/NDE
o User/
o Service life
o During Manufacturing Product
o Quality and Reliability
● No material is perfect.
○ Lower Defects
○ Locate and assess the severity
● To develop confidence in newer advanced materials
● Better understanding of Material

○ Lower factor of ignorance
○ Lower Factor of safety
○ Lower c/s area
○ Lighter components/Material saving
● Quality and Reliability
○ Incoming material/components
○ During manufacturing
○ Service life
● Categorically state the rejection criteria

○ Harmless/harmful/beneficial Defects
● Development of instruments/soft wares

○ Quickly detect the defects
○ Identify nature/shape/size/critically
○ Lower factor of ignorance
● Continuous monitoring of high risk structures (e.g. storage tanks)
● Online monitoring (e.g. welding defects)
● Thickness measurements
● Evaluation of material behavior
○ Stages leading to ductile failure
○ Fibre reinforced composites
● Predicting fatigue behavior
● For evaluation of
○ grain size/mechanical properties
○ quantify composition of alloys
○ identification/differentiate materials
○ Measurement of fibre volume fraction
● Characterization of Newer Materials
● Increase safety and cost saving
● Surface characteristics/finish
⚫ Engineering “Postmortem”
⚫ Locate area of stress concentrations
Aloha Airlines Flight

243
Explosive decompression caused by metal
fatigue and maintenance error
Any Questions
???

Designs and Non destructive Testing
⚫ Objective of design engineer is to –
⚫ Imagine and design the shape
⚫ Visualize the functional environment
⚫ Estimate the required physical and mechanical properties
⚫ Select suitable material and a commensurate manufacturing process in a cost effective manner
⚫ Objective of design engineer is to –
⚫ Appreciate the variability of manufacturing processes
⚫ that lead to statistical variation in physical and mechanical properties and dimensions,
⚫ stipulation of tolerance margins with respect to mechanical properties and dimension.
⚫ too close the tolerance margin – leads to rejection and increases the cost of production
⚫ realize the fact that structural components undergo degradation or damage during
service
⚫ Designer approach to design is based on
⚫ Fail-safe concept – component is replaced after its design life is reached, No

defects during service life due to applied safety factors
⚫ Damage tolerant concept – It is stipulated that in the presence of defects up to a

certain limit, failure of components is very low probability ( 10-6 probability of
failure), after this time interval, the possibility of continued usage, repair or
rejection of the structure is decided by periodic inspection.
Different types of NDT techniques
NDT techniques can be broadly classified into:

a. Visual:
• Visual test
• Optical test
b. Broad/ Conventional :
• Liquid penetrant inspection (LPI)
• Magnetic particles flow detection (MPI/MPT)
• Radiography (RT)
• Ultrasonic (UT)
• Eddy current (ET)
• Acoustic emission & Acousto-ultrasonic testing ( AT/AET)
•……. Vibration tech, Leak detection, holographic interferometry, dielectric methods,,,,,,,
Comparison of NDT and DT
NDT DT
Advantages Limitations
• Testing directly on the component. • Not Possible.
• Many NDT tests on same part. • Single test may measure one or few properties.
• In service testing. • Not possible
• Repeated checks Over a period of time • Not possible
• Less preparation • Costly
• Rapid • Slow
Limitations Advantages
• Indirect test Reliability should be verified • Direct and Reliable

• Usually Qualitative • Quantitative
• Skilled judgment • Not so skilled person
Comparison of NDT and DT

L2.1

Flaws
⚫ Based on stage
⚫ Based on position
⚫ Based on defect shape
Flaws - In homogeneities in material
under-filling structure
Blow holes, Voids,
Inherent Flaws
Shrinkage,
Segregation
During welding-
Based on HAZ, Cracks,
Processing Flaws Laps, Seams,
stage Machining Marks,
Grinding Defects
Fatigue, Corrosion
Service Flaws
Wear, SCC
laps formed in subsequent
passes
Flaws – In homogeneities in material
Pits, tool marks,

Surface Flaws
Grinding marks,
Fatigue cracks
Based on Sub surface Flaws Near to surface

Position
Blow holes, Porosities,

Inclusions,
Internal Flaws delimitations,
voids, etc
Flaws – In homogeneities in material
Porosity,
Volumetric Flaws Inclusions,
Voids,
Corrosion pitting/thinning, etc
Based on
Shape
Laminations,
forging and rolling laps,
Planer Flaws fatigue and grinding cracks,
SCC, Lack of Fusion
Incomplete penetration
Defect Shape
Volumetric flaw Planar flaw

• 3- dimensional in nature • 1 or 2- dimensional
• Defect height/ width ~ 1 - 3.8 • Defect height/ width > 6
RT UT
Various steps carried out to perform NDT
Steps carried out during NDT are as follows,
• Preparation of test surface.

• Application of testing medium/signal.
• Modification of testing medium/signal.
• Conversion of signal into a conventional form
• Interpretation of signal.
• Verification of test results.
Visual Inspection?
What does it mean?
Is it really a NDT technique?
Reference: Non-Destructive Test and Evaluation of Materials by J Prasad and C G K Nair

Visual Inspection
⚫ To see if something is visible to naked eye
⚫ Study Damage/defects on surface
⚫ Strictly speaking – NOT an NDT technique but is usually the first step people
take to spot the defect externally
VISUAL INSPECTION
⚫ Used for detecting and examining a variety of surface flaws, such as

⚫ corrosion,
⚫ contamination,
⚫ surface finish, and
⚫ surface discontinuities on joints (for example, welds, seals, solder connections,
and adhesive bonds).
⚫ Used for detecting and examining surface cracks, which are particularly
important because of their relationship to structural failure mechanisms.
⚫ Visual inspection often provides a useful supplement.

Visual Inspection
1. Try and see externally on surface of part
2. Take part/component and see different portions in well illuminated area
3. Check whether defect is visible through naked eye
What if its not visible to naked eye?

How can the visibility of the surface of component be enhanced?
Visual Aids
1. Magnifying glass
2. Light Microscope
What if visual aids are also not enough?

What can be the third step in visual inspection?
Visual Aids
1. Magnifying glass
2. Light Microscope
What if visual aids are also not enough?

Physical access to the area which needs to be examined is limited or
visibility is limited?
e.g. inner diameter of bolt hole (can’t see inside it and physical access is
also not possible)

L2.2

Borescope
⚫ Tube whose diameter will depend on diameter of part or area to be inspected
⚫ Tube diameter range = 4 – 70 mm
⚫ Different types
- A rigid borescope with a lamp at the distal end.
- A rigid borescope with a light guide bundle in the shaft
- A flexible fiberscope with a light source.
VISUAL INSPECTION
VISUAL INSPECTION
Rigid Borescopes
⚫ Rigid borescopes are generally limited to applications with a straight-line path
between the observer and the area to be observed.
⚫ Lengths from 0.15 to 30 m
⚫ Diameters from 0.9 to 70 mm.
⚫ Magnification is usually 3 to 4×, but powers up to 50× are available.
VISUAL INSPECTION
Oil Quenching furnace
VISUAL INSPECTION
VISUAL INSPECTION
VISUAL INSPECTION
⚫ The methods of visual inspection involve a wide variety of equipment
⚫ Examination with the naked eye
⚫ Examination with interference microscopes for measuring the depth of scratches in the finish of finely
polished or lapped surfaces.
⚫ Some of the equipment used to aid visual inspection includes:

⚫ Flexible or rigid borescopes for illuminating and observing internal, closed or otherwise inaccessible areas
⚫ Image sensors for remote sensing or for the development of permanent visual records in the form of
photographs, videotapes, or computer-enhanced images
⚫ Magnifying systems for evaluating surface finish, surface shapes (profile and contour gaging), and surface
microstructures
⚫ Dye and fluorescent penetrants and magnetic particles for enhancing the observation of surface cracks
(and sometimes near-surface conditions in the case of magnetic particle inspection)
VISUAL INSPECTION
Fig. 1 Three typical designs

of borescopes.
(a) A rigid borescope with a

lamp at the distal end.
(b) A flexible
fiberscope with a light
source.
(c) A rigid borescope with a

light guide bundle in the
shaft
VISUAL INSPECTION
The illumination system with an incandescent lamp located at the distal tip end (Fig. 1a)
A light guide bundle made from optical fibers (Fig. 1c) that conduct light from an external source.
VISUAL INSPECTION
Flexible Borescopes
⚫ Flexible borescopes are used primarily in applications that do not have a straight
passageway to the point of observation.
⚫ The two types of flexible borescopes –
⚫ Flexible fiberscopes and
⚫ Videoscopes with a CCD image sensor at the distal tip.

VISUAL INSPECTION
Flexible Borescopes
⚫ Diameters from 1.4 to 13 mm
⚫ Lengths up to 12 m. (Special quartz fiberscopes are available in lengths up to 90 m.)
A typical fiberscope (Fig. 1b) consists of a light guide bundle, an image guide bundle, an objective lens, interchangeable viewing heads,
and remote controls for articulation of the distal tip.
VISUAL INSPECTION
VISUAL INSPECTION
Videoscopes with CCD probes

Application areas of Borescope
• Areas with limited physical access or visibility such as inner diameter of bolt holes
and similar hollow parts
• Small parts like junctions in electronic components which have lower visibility
• Visual inspection of difficult to reach areas in aircraft such as critical engine parts
Any Ques????
MML 379 Non-Destructive Evaluation (3-0-0) 3 credits

Topics covered so far
⚫ Learning Objectives
⚫ Why NDT?
⚫ Generating Information
⚫ Where are NDT methods used?
⚫ Information from NDT tests
- Design-related information
- Material and Process related information
- Service and Maintenance related Information
Topics covered so far
⚫ Objectives of NDE
⚫ Science and Technology of NDE
⚫ Factors influencing the reliability of NDE
⚫ Designer’s Approach
⚫ Comparison of NDT and DT
⚫ Flaws based on stage, position, and shape
⚫ Visual Inspection – Naked eye, Visual aids (magnifying glass. Light microscopes),
borescope (Rigid and Flexible).
⚫ Application areas of Borescope

Today’s Class
⚫ Borescope Videos
⚫ Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT/MT) or Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) or
Magnetic Flux leakage (MFL) method.
- Main principle
- Magnetization Methods
- Different ways to connect the part with electrode

Borescope Videos
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oCRFqnPeW58
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MLhDUPS2RN0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gChfhRZ_pN0
Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT/MT) or Magnetic Particle
Inspection (MPI) or Magnetic Flux leakage (MFL) method.
Taking help of magnetism to detect defects
The word magnet is derived
from a place called Magnesia
because magnetic rocks are
common there
Component
Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT/MT) or Magnetic Particle
Inspection (MPI) or Magnetic Flux leakage (MFL) method.
⚫ A method of locating surface and subsurface discontinuities in ferromagnetic
materials.
surface
subsurface
discontinuities
discontinuities
Ferromagnetic materials ( include most of the iron,

nickel, and cobalt alloys)
⚫ Magnetic Field- Imaginary lines start from North pole and ends at south pole on
both sides
⚫ Anything magnetic in the field will be attracted by ferromagnetic material.

a leakage field
Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT/MT)
• When the material or part under test is magnetized, magnetic discontinuities that lie
in a direction generally transverse to the direction of the magnetic field will cause a
leakage field to be formed at and above the surface of the part.
a leakage field
The presence of leakage field, and hence the presence of the discontinuity, is detected by
the use of finely divided ferromagnetic particles applied over the surface, with some of
the particles being gathered and held by the leakage field.
a leakage field
This magnetically held collection of particles forms an outline of the discontinuity and
indicates its location, size, shape, and extent.
Magnetic particles are applied over a surface as dry particles, or as wet particles in a
liquid carrier such as water or oil.
a leakage field
outline of the discontinuity
Principle of Magnetic Particle Test
Material in Magnetic field
Magnetized and form

continuous circuit
If surface or sub surface defect

magnetic field defects
Leakage field
Attract Magnetic particles/ink
Iron, Steel (Not all), Ni, Cobalt

Out line of discontinuity
Cu, Al, Ti, Mg, Pb, SS, Ceramics, Brass, Location, Size, Shape
Bronze…. can not be magnetized
Principle of Magnetic Particle Test
Basic procedure of Magnetic Particle Test
Precleaning
Introduction of Magnetic
field
Application of Magnetic
Media
Interpretation of
indications
Forged/Rough/scaled surface
Machined surface
Pickling /Shot blasting

Degrease
Demagnetize
Magnetize (Circular)
0.5-1.5 sec
Application of Magnetic particle
/Inspect under UV
Basic procedure of Demagnetize
Magnetic Particle Magnetize (Longitudinal)

Test Application of Magnetic particle
/Inspect under UV
Demagnetize
Evaluate
Surface Cleaning
• To provide free mobility to particles

Ways to Magnetize the component…??
Permanent Magnet Yoke
Description of Magnetic Fields
Alnico ≈12% Al, ≈ 26%
Ni, ≈ 24% Co, bal Fe
⚫ If we sprinkle iron powder where

will it stick?
⚫ Magnetic fields are used to reveal
discontinuities.
⚫ A horseshoe magnet will attract magnetic

materials to its ends, or poles.
⚫ Magnetic flux flows from the south pole to

the north pole.
⚫ The magnetic lines of force forms the ringlike
assembly because no external poles exist.
⚫ Magnetic particles dusted over the assembly

are not attracted to the magnet even though
there are lines of magnetic force flowing
through it.
⚫ A ringlike part magnetized in this manner is

said to contain a circular magnetic field that is
wholly within the part.
(a) Horseshoe magnet forming a closed, ringlike
assembly, which will not attract magnetic particles.
⚫ If an air gap exists between the end of the
magnet and the magnetic material, the
poles will attract magnetic materials.
⚫ Magnetic particles will cling to the poles

and bridge the gap between them, as
shown in Fig. 1(b).
(b) Ringlike magnet assembly with an air gap, to which

magnetic particles are attracted
⚫ Any radial crack in a circularly
magnetized piece will create a
north and a south pole at the
edges of a crack.
⚫ Magnetic particles will be

attracted to the poles created
by such a crack, forming an
indication of the discontinuity
in the piece.
Radial crack
S N S N
What is Leakage fields?
⚫ The fields set up at cracks or other physical or magnetic discontinuities in
the surface are called leakage fields.
⚫ The strength of a leakage field determines the number of magnetic particles

that will gather to form indications.
⚫ Strong indications are formed at strong fields, weak indications at weak fields.
⚫ The density of the magnetic field determines its strength and is partly
governed by the shape, size, and material of the part being inspected.
Description of Magnetic Fields Magnetized Bar.
⚫ A straight piece of magnetized material (bar magnet) has a pole at each end.
⚫ Magnetic lines of force flow through the bar from the S to the N pole.
(a) Magnet pieces apart. (b) Magnet pieces together (which would (c) Leakage field at a crack in a
simulate a flaw). bar magnet
Fig. 2 Leakage fields between two pieces of a broken bar magnet.

⚫ Because the magnetic lines of force within the bar magnet run the length of the bar, it is said to be
longitudinally magnetized or to contain a longitudinal field.

⚫ Because the magnetic lines of force within the bar magnet run the length of the bar, it is said to be
longitudinally magnetized or to contain a longitudinal field.

The direction of the magnetic field in an electromagnetic circuit
⚫ is controlled by the direction of the flow of magnetizing current through the

part to be magnetized.
⚫ The magnetic lines of force are always at right angles to the direction of
current flow.
Magnetizing current
Magnetic lines of force

The direction of the magnetic field in an electromagnetic circuit
⚫ To remember the direction taken by the magnetic lines of force around a conductor,
⚫ consider that the conductor is grasped with the right hand so that the thumb points in
the direction of current flow.
⚫ The fingers then point in the direction taken by the magnetic lines
Magnetizing current
Magnetic lines of force
Right-hand rule
Description of Magnetic Fields Circular
Magnetization
⚫ Electric current passing through any straight
conductor such as a wire or bar creates a circular
magnetic field around the conductor.
⚫ When the conductor of electric current is a

ferromagnetic material, the passage of current
induces a magnetic field in the conductor as well as
in the surrounding space.
Fig. 3 Magnetized bars showing directions
of magnetic field. (a) Circular. ⚫ A part magnetized in this manner is said to have a
circular field or to be circularly magnetized,
Description of Magnetic Fields Longitudinal
Magnetization
⚫ When electric current is passed through a
coil of one or more turns, a magnetic field is
established lengthwise or longitudinally,
within the coil.
⚫ The nature and direction of the field around

the conductor that forms the turns of the
Fig. 3 Magnetized bars showing directions coil produce longitudinal magnetization.
of magnetic field. (b) Longitudinal
Effect of Flux Direction.
Flaw A - no indication of its
presence, because it is regular in shape
and lies parallel to the magnetic field.
Irregular Flaw B - Good possibility that a

weak indication would form.
Flaw C D and E – Good indication
Flaw FG and H- Pronounced

indications
Fig. 4 Effect of direction of magnetic field or flux flow on the detectability of discontinuities with
various orientations. (a) Circular magnetization.
Effect of Flux Direction.
Magnetization Methods
• Contact Method – Magnetic current directly flows through the part

- Connect the part in between two electrodes and then switch on
the current and it will magnetize the part
Magnetization Methods
• Contact Method – Magnetic current directly flows through the part

- Connect the part in between two electrodes and then switch on
the current and it will magnetize the part
• Non-contact Method – Use of solenoids, coils to induce magnetic current in the part
AC (Alternating current) vs DC (Direct current)
• AC – shows skin effect

- current will be primarily limited on the surface
- not recommended for sub-surface analysis
• DC – can penetrate the entire cross-section

Different ways to connect the part with the electrode
• Directly connect part with electrodes

• Use prods
• Use induced fields
• Use Yoke (U-shaped electromagnet)
⚫ Any Questions
43

Let us Summarize…
Magnetic field
•To Magnetize
•AC
•Confined to the surface
•Skin effect
•DC
• HWDC or FWDC
•Penetrate
360 pulses/sec
HWDC or FWDC ??
• HWDC or Pulsating DC most • Depth of the subsurface

often used to power magnetic field is more
electromagnetic yokes
• Good particle mobility • Particle mobility is less

Three phase Full wave form
• Mostly in industries
• Favorable power transmission
• For stationary magnetic particle equipment
• Advantage of both current form
Electromagnetic yokes
DC or AC
Electromagnetic yoke for the detection of discontinuities parallel

to a weld bead.
Coils
the longitudinal magnetization of components
The flux density passing through the interior of the coil is proportional to the product of the
current, I, in amperes, and the number of turns in the coil, N
Central Conductors
Use of central conductors for the circular magnetization of long, hollow cylindrical parts (a) and short, hollow
cylindrical or ringlike parts (b) for the detection of discontinuities on inside and outside surfaces
Central Conductors
Inspection method for hollow components
Circular Magnetic Field strength (F)
Distribution and Intensity
When current passed through conductor
…….F is 0 at the center and maximum at the surface
…..F at the surface of the conductor decreases as the radius of the

conductor increases
….. F outside the conductor is α to the current strength.
….. F Inside the conductor dependents on the current strength,

magnetic permeability of the material
conductor …… F outside the conductor decreases with distance from the

conductor.
Distribution (D) and Intensity
D in and around a solid conductor of a nonmagnetic D in and around a solid conductor of a magnetic
material carrying DC material carrying DC
Distribution and Intensity
D in and around a solid conductor of a magnetic material carrying AC.

D in and around a hollow conductor of a D in and around a hollow conductor of a magnetic

nonmagnetic material carrying DC material carrying DC
D in and around a hollow conductor of a magnetic material carrying AC

D in and around a nonmagnetic central conductor carrying DC inside a hollow conductor of a

magnetic material .
Better method to magnetize hollow components
Good for ID and OD defects
Magnetic Particle test method
• Dry Method
• Finely divided dry ferromagnetic particles/ powder
• Gray , black or red
• Particle size coarser
• suitable for field work, rough castings
• Wet Method
• Fine magnetic particles suspended in kerosene
• Particle size 10-50 microns
• Suitable for fine defects
Dry Method
Indication of cracks in a weldment
Indication of cracks running between attachment holes

in a hinge
• Florescent Method
• Ferromagnetic particles coated with fluorescent dye
• Examined under ultraviolet light (λ =3650 0A)
• Suitable for deep holes, corners, key ways
High carbon and low carbon steels
Permeability .. low ,
retentivity … high,
Coercively … high,
residual magnetism … high
• Residual Method
• Suitable for components with high retentivity
• Continuous Method
• Magnetic field is on while testing
Standardization and calibration
Purpose-
• Equipment should work under conditions of acceptable and reproducible sensitivity
• High degree of confidence
• Artificial discontinuities
Artificial discontinuities
Standard Test block
• 12 holes of same diameter (0.07 inch) at

different depth
• Maximum current that gives a satisfactory

indication at each hole is established and
recorded for the specific magnetic unit.
Standard Test block
❑ Failure to obtain a satisfactory indication
• Concentration of magnetic particles below

the optimum level
• Ammeter reading is incurrent
•Other malfunctioning
Pie gauge
❑ Disk of highly permeable material divided

into triangular 4 /6/8 sections by
non-ferromagnetic material
❑ Divisions serve as artificial defects that

radiate out in different directions from
center
Pie gauge
❑ Adequacy of field strength
❑ Orientation of magnetic field

Application of Magnetic Media (Wet Versus Dry)
With the dry method, the particles are

With the wet method, the part is flooded with a lightly dusted on to the surface.
solution carrying the particles.
The wet method is generally more sensitive since

the liquid carrier gives the magnetic particles The dry method is more portable.
additional mobility.
Quality and Process control
Dry Magnetic Particles
Magnetic particles come in a variety of colors. A color that produces a high level of
contrast against the background should be used.
Wet Magnetic Particles
Wet particles are typically supplied as visible or fluorescent.

Visible particles are viewed under normal white light and
fluorescent particles are viewed under UV light.
•To detect concentration of particles in the
Particle Concentration
suspension
•A sample is taken in a pear-shaped 100 ml

centrifuge tube having a stem graduated
• Undisturbed for 30- 60 minutes (min)
•Acceptable ranges –
• 0.1 to 0.4 ml for fluorescent particles
• 1.2 to 2.4 ml for visible particles
Interpretation of Indications
After applying the magnetic field, indications that form must interpreted. This
process requires that the inspector distinguish between relevant and
non-relevant indications.
Crane Hook with
Service Induced Crack
Fluorescent, Wet Particle Method

Gear with
Service Induced Crack

Drive Shaft with
Heat Treatment Induced Cracks

• Any Questions????

Eddy Current Testing (ET)
What is an Eddy Current?

How can we use them to detect surface discontinuities?
• Basic Principal –
• What is Eddy current???
• Why name Eddy??
• Induced current
• Path is same as eddies and hence name….

History of ET
• Eddy current testing has its origins with Michael Faraday's discovery of electromagnetic
induction in 1831. Faraday was a chemist in England during the early 1800's and is credited
with the discovery of electromagnetic induction, electromagnetic rotations, the magneto-optical
effect, diamagnetism, and other phenomena.
• In 1879, another scientist named Hughes recorded changes in the properties of a coil when
placed in contact with metals of different conductivity and permeability. However, it was not until
the Second World War that these effects were put to practical use for testing materials.
Eddy Current
• Electromagnetic induction
– Discovered by Faraday (1831)
Galvanometer
Cell
Calico is a plain-woven textile made from unbleached, and

often not fully processed, cotton
ET Basics
• When alternating current is applied to the conductor,
such as copper wire, a magnetic field develops in and
around the conductor.
• This magnetic field expands as the alternating current
rises to maximum and collapses as the current is
reduced to zero.
• If another electrical conductor is brought into the
close proximity to this changing magnetic field,
current will be induced in this second conductor.
⚫ Part is place within or adjacent to an electric coil
⚫ Alternating current (exciting current) is passed
⚫ It will cause eddy currents to flow in the part as a

result of electromagnetic induction
ET Basics
• These currents flow within closed loops in the part, and

their magnitude and timing (or phase) depend on:
- The Primary field established by the exciting currents
- The electrical properties of the part, or
- The presence or absence of flaws in the part
- The electromagnetic fields established by currents

flowing within the part
ET Basics
• At A-A , no crack is present
and the eddy current flow is
symmetrical.
• At B-B, where a crack is

present, the eddy current flow
is impeded and changed in
direction, causing significant
changes in the associated
electromagnetic field.
The change in flow of eddy

currents caused by the
presence of a crack in a pipe
ET Basics
The condition of the part can be
monitored by observing the effect of
the resulting field on the electrical
characteristics of the exciting coil, such
as its
- Electrical impedance,
- Induced voltage, or
- induced currents.
The change in flow of eddy

currents caused by the
presence of a crack in a pipe
Eddy Current
A dynamic expanding and When an electrically conductive Eddy currents flowing in the material
collapsing magnetic field forms in material is placed in the coil’s will generate their own “secondary”
and around the coil as the AC dynamic magnetic field magnetic field which will oppose the
flows through the coil. electromagnetic, induction will occur coil’s “primary” magnetic field.
and eddy currents will be induced in
the material.
Eddy Current
• Closed loops of induced current circulating in planes

perpendicular to the magnetic flux.
• Travel parallel to the coil's winding and flow is limited to

the area of the inducing magnetic field.
• Concentrate near the surface adjacent to an excitation coil
• Their strength decreases with distance.
• Eddy current density decreases exponentially with depth.

This phenomenon is known as the skin effect.
Eddy Current
Eddy Current
• Created by electromagnetic induction.

• When alternating current is applied to the conductor, such as copper wire, a magnetic field
develops in and around the conductor.
• This magnetic field expands as the alternating current rises to maximum and collapses as the
current is reduced to zero.
• If another electrical conductor is brought into the close proximity to this changing magnetic field,
current will be induced in this second conductor.
• Eddy currents are induced electrical currents that flow in a circular path.
• Eddies - When a liquid or gas flows in a circular path around obstacles
https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/Graphics/Flash/WheelMovie.html
Eddy Current
Probe (electrical conductor material which is formed into a coil) is used to
genetrate eddy currents for an inspection
• Available in a large variety of shapes and sizes.

• Major advantages of eddy current inspection is that probes can be custom
designed for a wide variety of applications.
• Eddy current probes are classified by the configuration and mode of operation of
the test coils.
• The configuration of the probe generally refers to the way the coil or coils are
packaged to best "couple" to the test area of interest.
Applications of ET
• Crack detection
• Material thickness measurements
• Coating thickness measurements
• Conductivity measurements for:

- Material identification
- Heat damage detection
- Case depth determination
- Heat treatment monitoring
Any Questions

How we can detect such a small change?
• Faraday’s Law of Induction

• Lenz’s Law
How we can detect such a small change?
• The electromotive force around a closed path is equal to the negative of the time rate of change
of the magnetic flux enclosed by the path
• If a conductor carries a varying current, it will have changing magnetic field around it and that
changing magnetic field can induce a current or e.m.f. either in same conductor or to the
second conductor close to it.
Induced e.m.f., VL = - dφ/dt

e.m.f. = electromagnetic work that would be done on an electric charge if it travels once around the loop
Faraday’s Law of Induction
• For coils with no. of turns = N
Induced e.m.f., VL = - N (dφ/dt)
e.m.f. = electromagnetic work that would be done on an electric charge if it travels once around the loop
What about direction of induced current?
Lenz’s Law
• Direction of the electric current which is induced in a conductor by a changing magnetic field is
such that the magnetic field created by the induced current opposes the initial changing
magnetic field.

Lenz’s Law
• Direction of the electric current which is induced in a conductor by a changing magnetic field is
such that the magnetic field created by the induced current opposes the initial changing
magnetic field.

Inductance
When induction occurs in an electrical circuit and affects the flow of electricity it is called
inductance, L.
Self-inductance, or simply inductance, is the property of a circuit whereby a change in current

causes a change in voltage in the same circuit.
When one circuit induces current flow in a second nearby circuit, it is known as mutual-inductance.
Self-inductance
Circuits and Phase
A circuit can be thought of as a closed path in which current flows through the components that
make up the circuit. It follows Ohm’s Law.
Circuit with AC voltage source and resistor
As the voltage increases, the current does the same.
The voltage and the current are "in-phase" since
their zero, peak, and valley points occur at the same
time. They are also directly proportional to each
other.
I =V/R
Resistor = electrical device which has a property to

oppose the flow of electric current through it
What if we replace resistor with inductor?
Inductor = Converts electrical energy flowing through it

into magnetic energy and creates a magnetic field.
Circuit with AC voltage source and inductor
Voltage and the current will be "out-of-phase“.
Voltage and current do not cross zero or reach their
peaks and valleys at the same time.
One cycle is often referred to as 360o, so it can be

said that the current lags the voltage by 90o.
This phase shift occurs because the inductive

reactance changes with changing current.
https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/cc_ec_index.php
Test probe – Resistor or Inductor?
Test probe – Resistor or Inductor?
Coil of wire, which will have both resistance and inductive reactance.
When there is both resistance and inductive reactance in a circuit, the combined opposition to
current flow is known as impedance
Eddy Current Inspection System
The eddy current probe is a coil of wire with

resistance and inductive reactance.
The solid line in the graph below shows the circuit's

total current, which is affected by the total impedance
of the circuit.
https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/EddyCurrents/cc_ec_index.php
Eddy Current Inspection System
Circuit has both inductance and resistance component.
Total Resistance to the flow of current = Z = Impedance (used to construct impedance plane).
Phase lag
What is monitored?
1. Electrical impedance of the coil

OR
2. The induced voltage of either the exciting coil or other adjacent coil or coils.
Induced e.m.f.
VL = - dφ/dt (Faraday’s Law)

(Flux cannot be easily measured but current can, Hence)
Now, φ = LI (L =Inductance I = current)
Therefore,
dφ/dt = L dI/dt + I dL/dt
(For a given conductor/inductor, L= constant)
Thus,
dφ/dt = L dI/dt
Induced e.m.f.
dφ/dt = L dI/dt
VL = - L dI/dt
Ohm’s Law, potential difference, V-VL = IR

V- L dI/dt = I o sinωt R (assuming I as sinusoidal function)
V- L Io ω cosωt = Io R sinωt
V = Io (R sinωt + ωL cosωt)
Induced e.m.f.
V = Io (R sinωt + ωL cosωt)
(R sinωt + ωL cosωt) = Z
ωL = XL = Inductive reactance
(Resistance due to current flow due to inductance)
Z = R sinωt + XL cosωt
|Z| = (R2 + XL2)1/2 = (R2 + ω2L2)1/2

Impedance
θ = Phase lag between impedance and resistance
Impedance Plane – for eddy current testing
tan θ = XL/R
θ
Lift off
● Distance between probe & sample surface.
○ When close – eddy currents flow
○ Energy is taken away from the coil
○ Thus, increase In resistance.

Lift off
● Distance between probe & sample surface.

Air ○ When close – eddy currents flow
XL ○ Energy is taken away from the coil
○ Thus, increase In resistance.
R
Lift off curve
● If no defect
Air ○ Signal will move back and forth in this
pattern only
XL
R
Lift off curve
If there is some defect on the surface
Air - Change in impedance
XL Crack signal - Resistance in the coil will reduce
- XL will increase
R
Air What will happen to lift off curve if test
XL
material changes?
If it is nonmagnetic in nature…..
?
The International Annealed Copper Standard
➔ Resistivity
◆ Unique value
◆ Temperature dependent
➔ IACS indicates relative conductivity of a material

compared to that of Cu
➔ Conductivity values in Siemens/meter can be

converted to % IACS by multiplying the
conductivity value by 1.7241 x10-6
1.7241 x 10-6 / resistivity = % IACS
1/R = conductance = S = A/V
-6 Conductivity = 1 S/m (siemens/meter) = 1 /(Ωm) = 1 ℧m
1.7241 x 10 * Conductivity = % IACS
(℧= mho)
How much resistance will increase?
Will depend on:

1. Conductivity of the specimen
Ti-6Al-4V
For higher conductivity sample
,
- Larger increase in resistance
- Coil will become resistive
Will depend on:

For higher conductivity sample
Will depend on:

Low Frequency
XL For higher conductivity sample

Moderate Frequency - Coil will become resistive
High Frequency 2. Frequency of AC current
Higher frequency – More resistance
R
Frequency range for eddy current testing

– 1 kHz to 5 MHz
Will depend on:

Low Frequency
XL For higher conductivity sample

Bronze 100 KHz - Larger increase in resistance
Bronze 1 MHz
2. Frequency of AC current
Higher frequency – More resistance
R
Frequency range for eddy current testing

– 1 kHz to 5 MHz
Inspection System
1. Source of varying magnetic
field
- Coil carrying alternating
current
2. Sensor
- to detect change in magnetic
field
3. Electronic circuit
- to aid the interpretation of
magnetic field change since indications
are indirect
Inspection System
Lift off too high (Air) Lift off curve for flaw-less Lift off curve for material
material with flaws/discontinuities
Represented by a dot
Probes for Eddy Current Testing
• Available in a large variety of shapes and sizes.
• Major advantages of eddy current inspection is that probes can be custom designed for a wide variety of
applications.
• Eddy current probes are classified by -

– mode of operation of the test coils
– the configuration/ Geometries and
• The configuration of the probe generally refers to the way the coil or coils are packaged to best "couple"
to the test area of interest.
Probes for Eddy Current Testing - mode of operation
• The mode of operation refers to the way the coil or coils are wired and interface with the test equipment.
• The mode of operation of a probe generally falls into one of four categories:
– Absolute,
– Differential,
– Reflection
1. Absolute Probe
- only one current carrying coil
2. Differential Probe
(2 coils in the same house/box)
If one coil is over the defect and other
is not
- differential signal is generated
and crack will be shown in the display
3. Reflection Probe
(2 coils in same housing)
- One coil to excite the eddy current
- second coil as a receiver to sense any
change in the magnetic field
1. Absolute Probe
is not
3. Reflection Probe
1. Absolute Probe
is not
3. Reflection Probe
1. Absolute Probe
is not
3. Reflection Probe
Probes – Based on Geometries
1. Surface Probe
- to inspect flat surfaces
2. Outer Diameter (OD) or Encircling Probe
- to inspect outer diameter of the part
3. Inner Diameter (ID) or Bobbin Probe
- to inspect inner diameter of the part
Example - Balance bridge circuit
The most widely used circuitry for eddy current coil sensors is the bridge mode to sense the change in magnetic field
Vab
(a) Unbalanced bridge connection. (b) Balanced bridge connection.

Till what thickness eddy currents can penetrate?
Eddy Current
Depth
(δ)
Depth of penetration
Eddy Current Depends on:
(Relative Intensity, I/Io) 1. Frequency of current.
0.37 1.0
2. Magnetic and Electrical properties
of materials on which eddy
1δ currents are induced
Depth of
penetration Standard depth of penetration:
(δ) - depth where eddy currents reduce
by the factor of 1/e or 36.8%
δs = 1/ (π υ σ µo µr )1/2
υ = frequency of current
µo = Permeability of vacuum
µr = Relative permeability of the material
σ = conductivity
Depth of penetration
Depends on:
1. Frequency of current.
2. Magnetic and Electrical properties
of materials on which eddy
currents are induced
Standard depth of penetration:

- depth where eddy currents reduce
by the factor of 1/e or 36.8%
δs = 1/ (π υ σ µo µr )1/2
υ = frequency of current
σ = conductivity
Depth of Penetration & Current Density
● The depth that eddy currents penetrate into a

material is affected by
○ the frequency (f) of the excitation current and
○ the electrical conductivity (σ) and
○ magnetic permeability (µ) of the specimen
ᵟ
● The depth of penetration decreases with
increasing
○ frequency
○ conductivity
○ magnetic permeability.
δ = Standard Depth of Penetration ,d (mm)
∏ = 3.14
f = Test Frequency (Hz)
µ = Magnetic Permeability (H/mm)
σ = Electrical Conductivity (% IACS)
● Why SDP is low in high conducting material?
● Strong eddy current at surface
● Strong magnetic field

ᵟ
● Restrict the penetration of primary Magnetic field
● Hence SPD is low

⚫ The depth at which eddy current density has

decreased to 1/e, or about 37% of the surface
density, is called the standard depth of
penetration (d).
⚫ Although eddy currents penetrate deeper

than one standard depth of penetration, they
decrease rapidly with depth.
⚫ At two standard depths of penetration (2d),

- eddy current density has decreased to 1/e
squared (13.5% of the surface density)
5%
2d ⚫ At three depths (3d),

3d - the eddy current density is down to only
5% of the surface density.
Till what thickness eddy currents can penetrate?
Till the point where impedance does not vary with thickness OR
Impedance becomes independent of thickness (usually > 3 δs )
At such thicknesses – magnetic field induced by eddy current will be

entirely trapped by thickness of the material
● Sensitivity of an eddy current inspection depends on the eddy current density at the defect location
● When attempting to locate flaws, a frequency is often selected which places the expected flaw depth
within 1d.
● This helps to assure that the strength of the eddy currents will be sufficient to produce a flaw
indication.
● Alternately, when using eddy currents to measure the electrical conductivity of a material, the
frequency is often set so that it produces 3d within the material.
● This helps to assure that the eddy currents will be so weak at the back side of the material that
changes in the material thickness will not affect the eddy current measurements.
Effect of frequency on eddy current penetration
Lower frequency - Penetration is high but sensitivity to detection of flaws is less

High frequency - Penetration is low but sensitivity to detection of flaws is high
δs = 1/ (π f σ µo µr )1/2
f = frequency of current
σ = conductivity
•For a fixed material

• Frequency determines the depth of penetration
•For conducting material

• which frequency you will prefer?
•To characterize thin material / coating /surface flaws

• which frequency you will prefer?
Test Frequency
Ferrous Sorting Crack detection Coating/ Cladding
1 Hz 10 Hz 100 Hz 1 KHz 10 KHz 100KHz 1 MHz 10 MHz

Numerical 1
• What is the standard depth of penetration when performing an eddy current
inspection on a piece of 304 Corrosion Resistant Steel? The material has a
relative permeability of 1.05 and a conductivity of 2.5% IACS. The frequency
used to drive the eddy current probe is 50 kHz.
50 kHz
304 Corrosion Resistant Steel
Air, 50 kHz
standard depth of penetration
• When electrical conductivity (siemens/meter) and absolute permeability are known.
Standard Depth of Penetration
Solution 1
• First, since relative permeability is given, it must be converted to an absolute
permeability value.
• Given the equation and the permeability of free space (u0) of 1.257x10-6 H/m
Rearranging this equation to solve for absolute permeability results in:
1.05 1.257x10-6 H/m

Data for conductivity for copper
107
Solution 1
• Conductivity is expressed in %IACS, it must be converted to siemens/meter

Solution11
Solution
304 Corrosion Resistant Steel
Steel, 50 kHz
standard depth of penetration
304 Corrosion Resistant Steel ᵟ =2.95 mm

Steel, 50 kHz Steel , 10 kHz
Interaction of magnetic fields from a coil at different test conditions
● For example,
○ depth of penetration of eddy currents, in other words, interaction of
electromagnetic fields, is very low in highly conducting (e.g. Copper) material,
○ As compared to that of austenitic stainless steel which is less conducting.
○ Due to the skin effect, with EC test one can readily detect the surface-breaking
defects as compared to the sub-surface defects or buried defects.
Standard depth of penetration
Problem 2
• Determine the frequency needed to achieve a depth of penetration of 2mm in
7075-T76 aluminum plate.
• Aluminum is nonmagnetic so its relative permeability is 1 and its permeability is
the same as that of free space (1.257x10-6 H/mm).
• The conductivity value for this material is 8.5%IACS (it must be converted to
Siemens/m)
• Any Questions
Summary : Eddy Current Testing
• Introduction and basic principle
• Applications, Advantages, and Limitations
• History and present state
• Faraday’s and Lenz’s law
• Current-voltage phase diagrams
• Lift-off curve and impedance plane
• Inspection system
• Calibration
• Depth of penetration
• Type of probes
• Factors affecting results
Factors affecting Eddy Current Testing
1. Frequency
2. Material Properties
- Permeability, Conductivity
- Alloy composition, heat treatment
3. Part Dimension /Geometry

- Thickness,
- Specimen eccentricity (variation in geometry),
- Edges, corners, ends and radii obstruct the circular pattern of eddy currents
Edge effect (term used in inspection of sheets/plates)
End effect (term used in inspection of bars/tubes)
4. Electromagnetic coupling
Air What will happen to lift off curve if test
XL
material changes?
If it is magnetic in nature…..
Cu
Nonmagnetic material
?
● When a probe is placed on a magnetic material such as steel eddy
currents form, taking energy away from the coil, which shows up as
Magnetic material an increase in R.
● As the magnetic permeability of the steel is high, it concentrates the

coil's magnetic field.
Air
● This increase in the magnetic field strength completely overshadows
the magnetic field of the eddy currents.
XL ● Results in XL increases.
● The presence of a crack or a change in the conductivity will produce a

reactance change in the eddy current signal similar to that seen with
Nonmagnetic material aluminum.
Cu
R
Coils resistance
Steel
● When a probe is placed on a magnetic material such as steel eddy
currents form, taking energy away from the coil, which shows up as
an increase in R.
● As the magnetic permeability of the steel is high, it concentrates the

coil's magnetic field.
● This increase in the magnetic field strength completely overshadows

the magnetic field of the eddy currents.
● Results in XL increases.
● The presence of a crack or a change in the conductivity will produce a

change in the eddy current signal similar to that seen with
aluminum.
1. Frequency
2. Material Properties
- Permeability, Conductivity
- Alloy composition, heat treatment
3. Part Dimension /Geometry

- Thickness,
- Specimen eccentricity (variation in geometry),
- Edges, corners, ends and radii obstruct the circular pattern of eddy currents
Edge effect (term used in inspection of sheets/plates)
End effect (term used in inspection of bars/tubes)
Factors affecting Eddy Current Testing/detection sensitivity
Defect Reaction
Distortion of Eddy current flow at the edge of the part
May remain
undetected
4. Electromagnetic coupling/Magnetic Coupling
● Distance of the coil form specimen surface
○ Interaction of varying magnetic field
● Lift off-
○ the distance between the coil and the
conductive material is called lift off
■ affects the mutual inductance
● Magnetic Coupling
○ Liftoff can be used to make measurements of the

thickness of nonconductive coatings, such as an oxide
layer, that hold the probe a certain distance from the
surface of the conductive material.
○ Increasing the lift off, decreases the eddy current probe

signal because the magnetic flux interacts less with the
conductive material.
○ Decreasing the lift off, increases the eddy current probe

signal because the magnetic flux interacts more with the
conductive material.
● Fill factor
○ It is used to determine the correct
allowance between the inspection coil
and the tubular sample to ensure freedom
of movement during scanning while
maintaining the proximity of the coil to
the sample to generate sufficient eddy
currents to perform the inspection
○
Calibration of Equipment
Why? Because indications are indirect
Reference standard?
- reference standard should be of same material as the material to be inspected.
e.g. Aluminium alloy reference standard for aluminium alloy specimens
Steel reference standard for steel specimens

Reference Standards
Reference Standards
• In order to give the eddy current inspector useful data while conducting an
inspection, signals generated from the test specimen must be compared with
known values.
• Reference standards are typically manufactured from the same or very similar
material as the test specimen.
• Many different types of standards exist for due to the variety of eddy current
inspections performed.
• The following slides provide examples of specific types of standards.
Reference Standards
Material thickness standards used to help determine such things as material

thinning caused by corrosion or erosion.
Reference Standards
Crack Standards:
Reference Standards
ASME Tubing Pit Standard:
Reference Standards
Nonconductive coating (paint) standard with various thickness of paint on aluminum
substrate.
Eddy Current
• Based on the principles of electromagnetic induction

• Application
○ Measure or identify such conditions and properties as
■ electrical conductivity, magnetic permeability, grain size, heat treatment
condition, hardness, and physical dimensions
○ Detect seams, laps, cracks, voids, and inclusions
○ Sort dissimilar metals and detect differences in their composition,
microstructure, and other properties
○ Measure the thickness of a nonconductive coating on a conductive metal,
or the thickness of a nonmagnetic metal coating on a magnetic metal
○ Applicable to ferromagnetic and nonferromagnetic metals
•
Application of Eddy current testing
● The two major applications of eddy current testing are

○ surface inspection
■ used extensively in the aerospace industry
■ performed both on ferromagnetic and non-ferromagnetic materials
○ tubing inspections
■ generally limited to non-ferromagnetic tubing
■ used for inspecting steam generator tubing in nuclear plants and
■ heat exchangers tubing in power and petrochemical industries.
■ The technique is very sensitive to detect and size pits.
■ Wall loss or corrosion can be detected
● The technique is very sensitive and can detect tight cracks.

The technique is very sensitive and can detect tight cracks.

Heat Exchanger tube

inspection
● Absolute and differential probe recording/display
Standard sample
Heat Exchanger tube

inspection
● Results
Heat Exchanger tube

inspection
Conductivity Measurements for the Verification of Heat Treatment
38 % IACS
30 50
Properties for Alclad 2024 Aluminum

Heat Treatment Condition Ultimate Strength Yield Strength Electrical Conductivity
Annealed (O) 26 ksi (180 MPa) 11 ksi (75 MPa) 50 % IACS
Solution Heat Treated and Naturally Aged (T42) 64 ksi (440 MPa) 42 ksi (290 MPa) 30 % IACS
Solution Heat Treated, Cold Worked and

70 ksi (485 MPa) 66 ksi (455 MPa) 38 % IACS
Artificially Aged (T861)
Thickness Measurements of Thin Material
● Eddy current techniques can be used to perform a
number of dimensional measurements.
● The ability to make rapid measurements without the
need for couplant or, in some cases even surface
contact, makes eddy current techniques very useful.
● The type of measurements that can be made include:
○ thickness of thin metal sheet and foil, and of metallic
coatings on metallic and nonmetallic substrate
○ cross-sectional dimensions of cylindrical tubes and rods
○ thickness of nonmetallic coatings on metallic substrates
●
Corrosion Thinning of Aircraft Skins
Thickness Measurements of Nonconducting Coatings on Conductive Materials
Non conductive coatings on electrically conductive substrates can be measured very accurately with eddy current inspections.
The coating displaces the eddy current probe from the conductive base material and this weakens the strength of the eddy currents.
This reduction in strength can be measured and related to the coating thickness
Thickness Measurements of Nonconducting Coatings on Conductive Materials
● The thickness of nonmetallic coatings on metal substrates can be determined simply from the effect
of liftoff on impedance.
● This method has widespread use for measuring thickness of paint and plastic coatings.
● The coating serves as a spacer between the probe and the conductive surface.
● As the distance between the probe and the conductive base metal increases, the eddy current field
strength decreases because less of the probe's magnetic field can interact with the base metal.
● Thicknesses between 0.5 and 25 µm can be measured to an accuracy between 10% for lower values
and 4% for higher values.
Advantages of ET
• Sensitive to small cracks and other defects

• Detects surface and near surface defects
• Inspection gives immediate results
• Equipment is very portable
• Method can be used for much more than flaw detection
• Minimum part preparation is required
• Test probe does not need to contact the part
• Inspects complex shapes and sizes of conductive materials
Limitations of ET
• Only conductive materials can be inspected

• Surface must be accessible to the probe
• Skill and training required is more extensive than other techniques
• Surface finish and and roughness may interfere
• Reference standards needed for setup
• Depth of penetration is limited
• Flaws such as delaminations that lie parallel to the probe coil winding and probe scan direction
are undetectable
Present state of ET
• Eddy current equipment and probes can be purchased in a wide variety of configurations.
• Eddyscopes and a conductivity tester come packaged in very small and battery operated units
for easy portability.
• Computer based systems are also available that provide easy data manipulation features for
the laboratory.
• Signal processing software has also been developed for trend removal, background
subtraction, and noise reduction.
• Impedance analyzers are also sometimes used to allow improved quantitative eddy-current
measurements.
Any Questions
Effect of frequency on eddy current penetration
How to select test frequency ?

2r
Cylindrical sample
δs = 1/ (π f σ µo µr )1/2
Characteristic frequency
f = frequency of current
fc= 1/(2πr2 σ µo µr) µr = Relative permeability of the material
σ = conductivity
Any Questions
107

Ultrasonic testing
Ultrasonic testing
• Bulk NDT testing as well as surface testing

• What are the ultrasonic waves?
What is Ultrasonic waves?
Ultrasonic waves
• Ultrasonic waves are sound waves with frequencies > 20KHz

○ Wavelength is 1 to 10 mm
○ Frequency - 20 KHz to 10 MHz (0.1 to 15 MHz)
UT waves travel at different speeds in different medium

Ultrasonic waves


Ultrasonic waves


Ultrasonic waves
• 2 types of waves
○ Longitudinal and
○ Transverse
○ ………
Longitudinal waves
● Movement of particles in the medium is parallel to the Wave Propagation direction.
● Movement of the particles are coordinated and help each other when the sound waves moves through the
medium.
Ultrasonic waves
• 2 types of waves
○ Longitudinal and
○ Transverse
○ ………
Transverse waves
● Movement of particles in the medium is perpendicular to the Wave Propagation direction
● Movement of the particles are not coordinated and hence the velocity of the transverse wave is less than the
longitudinal waves.
Ultrasonic waves
• Velocity of sound related to elastic modulus and density

V= Cij/⍴
Cij = Young's Modulus .. Longitudinal waves
Shear Modulus … Transverse waves
⍴ = medium density
Ultrasonic waves
● Other waves
○ Surfaces or Interfaces - various types of movement of particles
■ In thick samples - Surface or Rayleigh waves
■ Elliptical Or other complex vibration …
Ultrasonic waves
● Other waves
○ In thin plates - Plate waves
■ Lamb component of vibration which is perpendicular to the surface

■ Love wave is parallel to the plan and perpendicular to the direction of
waves
■ Generated in thin samples
Ultrasonic waves
Plate waves
Lamb waves Love waves
Symmetrical or Antisymmetrical or
Extensional lamb Flexural lamb
waves waves
How Ultrasonic waves are used in NDT?
• Sound waves
○ Reflection of sound waves
○ In Room ……. is the Reflector
○ Defects acts as reflector
How Sound waves travel through the media?
• Sound waves
○ Mechanical vibrations create pressure
○ Mechanical vibrations create pressure
P 𝞪 Q
P
● P = Local pressure created by sound P
(above atmospheric pressure)
Q
● Q = Velocity to the particles Q
P =ZQ
Z = P/Q
= Acoustic impedance
= Total resistance to the movement of sound waves
○ Energy in the transmitted wave =E
E = P2/2⍴V P
● P = Local pressure created by sound Q

(above atmospheric pressure)
● ⍴ = density of medium
● V = velocity of sound waves
○ Energy in the transmitted wave =E

○ It should be sufficient to capture defects
Y = Y0Sin(⍵t-kx)
Y0
● Y0 = amplitude
● t = time
● ⍵ = 2𝝅f t
● k = wave number =2𝝅/𝛌 𝛌
Q = dy/dt
= ⍵Y0cos(⍵t-kx)
Ques
Acoustic Impedance
• Z = P/Q
= Acoustic impedance
= Total resistance to the movement of sound wave
Discontinuities or boundaries will give rise to change in Z
● This change can be detected.
● Energy in the reflected beam ∝ (Z2-Z1)

Acoustic Impedance
Incident wave, i
Qi
Qi + Qr = Qt
Q= velocity given to the atom

Transmitted wave, t
Reflected wave, r Qt Pi + Pr = Pt
Qi
Fraction of energy Reflected = RE=
((Z2-Z1)/(Z1+Z2))2
Interface/boundary/Defect
Ultrasonic Transducer
Ultrasonic Transducer
Pulse shape and beam shape
0.8 MHz
1MHz
1 MHz
This Pulse is the resultant of different frequencies
1.2 MHz
Side Lobes
Side Lobes Side Lobes
Main Lobe
Main Lobe Main Lobe
d
d d
L
L
𝛌 >> d 𝛌=d 𝛌 << d

act as single point
source Beam becomes directional with increase in diameter because
● Source act as multiple point sources
● create constructive interference due to multiple sources (is known as

diffraction effect of sound)
d >> 𝛌 in actual practice

Near field and Far field
Calculate the end of the near field when using a 5 MHz, 0.375 inch (or
⅜ inch) diameter transducer to inspect a component made of brass.
The sound velocity in brass is 0.1685x106 inch/second.

N= d2/4𝛌= d2f/V
Sin ɑ = 1.22𝛌/d
N = d2/4𝛌= d2f/V
= 0.3752 (Inch2) . 5x106(cycles/sec)/ 0.1685x106 (inch/second)

N =1.04 (inches)
The near field will extend into the material 1.04 inch from the transducer face. Within this near field area, it
is hard to predict the signal amplitude from a reflector.
● Near Field Fresnel zone

● Far field is Fraunhofer zone
● In Far field, Intensity varies as the square of distance
N= d2/4𝛌= d2f/V
Sin ɑ = 1.22𝛌/d
Size of V in
Frequency N
probe steel
(MHz) (inch) ɑ
inch (in/sec)
3/8 234375 1 0.15 48°10’
1/2 234375 1 0.27 34°
1 234375 1 1.1 16°10’

● Near Field Fresnel zone

● Far field is Fraunhofer zone
● In Far field, Intensity varies as the square of distance
d 48°10’ N= d2/4𝛌= d2f/V

Sin ɑ = 1.22𝛌/d
Size of V in
Frequency N
probe steel
(MHz) (inch) ɑ
d 34° inch (in/sec)
3/8 234375 1 0.15 48°10’

N
1/2 234375 1 0.27 34°
d 16°10’
1 234375 1 1.1 16°10’
Questions
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MML 379 Non-Destructive Testing (3-0-0) 3 credits

Dr. Yogesh Y. Mahajan

Faculty of Department of Metallurgical and

● Course Name : Non Destructive Testing

● Students Registered : 101

1. Practical Non-destructive Testing Book by Baldev Raj, M. Thavasimuthu,

III 10 Radiographic inspection, principle, radiation sources, radiation attenuation's; film

VI 7 Criteria for selection of NDT methods and instruments related to metallurgical

These industries include:

● Oil & Gas

Factor of Safety = Material Strength

Bridges Motor yacht Space Shuttle

2-4 6-10 1.25-1.4

● To develop confidence in newer advanced materials

● Better understanding of Material

● Categorically state the rejection criteria

● Development of instruments/soft wares

Aloha Airlines Flight

Dr. Yogesh Y. Mahajan

Faculty of Department of Metallurgical and

⚫ Objective of design engineer is to –

⚫ Imagine and design the shape

⚫ Visualize the functional environment

⚫ Estimate the required physical and mechanical properties

⚫ Objective of design engineer is to –

⚫ Appreciate the variability of manufacturing processes

⚫ stipulation of tolerance margins with respect to mechanical properties and dimension.

⚫ Designer approach to design is based on

⚫ Fail-safe concept – component is replaced after its design life is reached, No

⚫ Damage tolerant concept – It is stipulated that in the presence of defects up to a

NDT techniques can be broadly classified into:

• Indirect test Reliability should be verified • Direct and Reliable

Dr. Yogesh Y. Mahajan

Faculty of Department of Metallurgical and

Pits, tool marks,

Based on Sub surface Flaws Near to surface

Blow holes, Porosities,

Volumetric flaw Planar flaw

Steps carried out during NDT are as follows,

• Preparation of test surface.

Reference: Non-Destructive Test and Evaluation of Materials by J Prasad and C G K Nair

⚫ Used for detecting and examining a variety of surface flaws, such as

⚫ Visual inspection often provides a useful supplement.

What if its not visible to naked eye?

What if visual aids are also not enough?

What if visual aids are also not enough?

Dr. Yogesh Y. Mahajan

Faculty of Department of Metallurgical and

⚫ Some of the equipment used to aid visual inspection includes:

Fig. 1 Three typical designs

(a) A rigid borescope with a

(c) A rigid borescope with a

⚫ Videoscopes with a CCD image sensor at the distal tip.

Videoscopes with CCD probes

Dr. Yogesh Y. Mahajan

Faculty of Department of Metallurgical and

Reference: Non-Destructive Test and Evaluation of Materials by J Prasad and C G K Nair

Reference: Non-Destructive Test and Evaluation of Materials by J Prasad and C G K Nair