Non Destructive Testing

Non-Destructive Testing
(MML 469)
Index
1. Introduction
2. Visual Inspection
3. Eddy Current Testing
4. Magnetic Particle Inspection
5. Ultrasonic Testing
6. Radiography
7. Acoustic Emission Testing
8. Liquid Penetrant Test
Introduction
Factor of Safety
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
• Factor of Safety =
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
• Factor of Safety for Bridges = 2 to 4
• Factor of Safety for Motor Yatches = 6 to 10
• Factor of Safety for Space Shuttles = 1.25 to 1.4
Non Destructive Testing (NDT)
• Those testing methods in which material under test is not destroyed.
• Purpose = Suitability of a particular part/system to satisfactorily
perform its intended function.
• NDT = Non Destructive Evaluation (NDE)/Non Destructive Inspection
(NDI)
Need for NDT
No material is perfect.
• Lower defects
• Locate and assess severity
To develop confidence in newer advanced materials.
Better Understanding of Materials.
• Lower Factor of Ignorance
• Lower Factor of Safety
• Lower c/s area
• Lighter components/material saving
Need for NDT
Quality and Reliability
• Incoming material/components
• During manufacturing
• Service life
Categorically state the rejection criteria – harmless / harmful /
beneficial defects.
Need for NDT
Development of instruments/software
• Quickly detect the defects
• Identify nature/shape/size critically
• Lower factor of ignorance
Continuous monitoring of high risk structures (e.g. storage tanks)
Online monitoring (e.g. welding defects)
Thickness Measurement
Need for NDT
Evaluation of material behavior
• Stages leading to failure
• Fiber reinforced composites
Predicting Fatigue Behavior
For evaluation of
• Grain size/mechanical properties
• Quantify composition of alloys
• Identification/differentiate materials
• Measurement of fiber volume fraction
Need for NDT
Characterization of newer materials
Increase safety and cost savings
Surface characterization/finish
Engineering “Postmortem”
Locate area of stress concentrations
Designs and NDT
OBJECTIVES OF DESIGN ENGINEER IS TO:
• Imagine and design the shape.
• Visualize the functional environment.
• Estimate the required physical and mechanical properties.
• Select suitable material and a commensurate manufacturing process
in a cost effective manner.
• Appreciate the variability of manufacturing processes that lead to
statistical variation in physical and mechanical properties and
dimensions.
Designs and NDT
• Stipulate the tolerance margins with respect to mechanical properties
and dimensions.
• Too close the tolerance margins leads to rejection and increases the
cost of production.
• Realize the fact that structural components undergo degradation or
damage during service.
Fail Safe Approach
• Component is replaced after its design life is reached, no defects
during service life due to applied safety factors.
Damage Tolerant Approach
• It is stipulated that in the presence of defects up to a certain limit,
failure of components is a very probability 10−6 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 . After
this time interval, the possibility of continued usage, repair or
rejection of the structure is decided by periodic inspections.
Different types of NDT techniques
A. VISUAL:
• Visual test
• Optical test
B. BROAD/CONVENTIONAL:
• Liquid Penetrant Inspection (LPI)
• Magnetic Particles Flow Detection (MPI/MPT)
• Radiography (RT)
• Ultrasonic (UT)
• Eddy Current (ET)
• Acoustic Emissions and Acousto – Ultrasonic Testing (AT/AET)
• Vibration Tech, Leak Detection, Holographic Interferometry
• Dielectric Method
Comparison of NDT and DT
Flaws
• Based on Stage
• Based on Position
• Based on Defects
• Casting Defects:
1. Blow Holes
2. Porosity
3. Gas Porosity
4. Misrun
5. Mismatch
6. Short Pour
7. Shrinkage/Flash/Fins
8. Inclusions
Various steps carried out to perform NDT
1. Preparation of Test Surface.
2. Application of Testing Medium/Signal.
3. Modification of Testing Medium/Signal.
4. Conversion of Signal into a Conventional Form.
5. Interpretation of Signal.
6. Verification of Test Results.
Visual Inspection
Visual Inspection
• Used for detecting and examining a variety of surface flaws, such as
corrosion, contamination, surface finish, and surface discontinuities
on joints (for example, welds, seals, solder connections and adhesive
bonds).
• Used for detecting and examining surface cracks, which are
particularly important because of their relationship to structural
failure mechanisms.
• Visual inspection often provides a useful supplement.
• The methods of visual inspection involve a wide variety of equipment.
• Examination with naked eye.
Visual Inspection
• Examination with interference microscopes for measuring the depth of
scratches in the finish of finely polished or lapped surfaces.
• Some of the equipment used to aid visual inspection includes:
1. Flexible or Rigid Borescopes for illuminating and observing internal,
closed or otherwise inaccessible areas.
2. Image sensors for remote sensing or for the development of permanent
visual records in the form of photographs, videotapes, or computer –
enhanced images.
3. Magnifying systems for evaluating surface finish, surface shapes (profile
and contour imaging), and surface microstructures.
4. Dye and fluorescent penetrants and magnetic particles for enhancing the
observation of surface cracks (and sometimes near – surface conditions
in the case of magnetic particle inspection).
Types of Designs of Borescopes
1. A rigid borescope with a lamp at the distal end.
2. A flexible fiberscope with light source.
3. A rigid borescope with a light guide bundle in the shaft.
Rigid Borescopes
• Rigid borescopes are generally limited to applications with a straight –
line path between the observer and the area to be observed.
• Lengths from 0.15 m to 30 m.
• Diameters from 0.9 mm to 70 mm.
• Magnification is usually 3 to 4× but powers up to 50× are available.
Flexible Borescopes
• Flexible borescopes are used primarily in the applications that do not
have a straight passageway to the point of observation.
• The two types of flexible borescopes are:
1. Flexible Borescopes
2. Videoscopes with a CCD image sensor at the digital tip
• Diameters from 1.7 mm to 13 mm.
• Lengths up to 12 m.
• Special quartz fiberscopes are available in lengths up to 90 m.
Magnetic Particle Inspection
Magnetic Particle Inspection Test
• MPT = Magnetic Particle Test
• MPI = Magnetic Particle Inspection
• The word magnet is derived from a place called Magnesia because
magnetic rocks are common there.
MPI
• A method of locating surface and subsurface discontinuities in
ferromagnetic materials.
• Ferromagnetic materials = Fe, Ni, Co and their alloys.
• Surface and subsurface discontinuities can be inspected using MPI.
• Cracks transverse to the applied magnetic field will have more
distortion i.e. more leakage field formed at and above the surface of
the part.
MPI
• This magnetically held collection of particles forms an outline of the
discontinuities and indicates its location, size, shape and extent.
• Magnetic particles are applied over a surface as dry particles, or as
wet particles in a liquid carrier such as water or oil.
• Depth of crack cannot be determined.
• The presence of leakage field, and hence the presence of the
discontinuity, is detected by the use of finely divided ferromagnetic
particles applied over the surface, with some of the particles being
gathered and held by the leakage field.
Principles of MPT
1. Materials in magnetic field
2. Magnetized and form continuous circuit
3. If surface or subsurface defect magnetic field is deflected
4. Leakage field
5. Attract magnetic particles/ink
6. Outline of discontinuity
7. Location/Size/Shape
• Cu, Al, Ti, Mg, Pb, SS, Ceramic, Brass, Bronze … can not be
magnetized.
Basic Procedure of MPT
Precleaning
Introduction of Magnetic Field
Application of Magnetic Media
Interpretation of Indications
Basic Procedure of MPT
Forged/Rough/Scaled
Machined Surface
Surface
Pickling/Shot Blasting
Degrease
Demagnetize
Magnetize (Circular) 0.5 – 1.5 sec
Application of magnetic particles/inspect under UV
Demagnetize
Magnetize (Longitudinal)
Inspect
Demagnetize
Application of magnetic particle/inspect under UV
Evaluate
Advantages of MPT
• Sensitive of locating small and shallow surface cracks in ferromagnetic
materials.
• Indications are produced directly on the surface and constitute
magnetic pictures of actual discontinuities.
• Quick and easy to operate.
• Little or no limitation on the size or shape of the part being inspected.
• No elaborate precleaning is necessary.
• Cracks filled with foreign materials can be detected.
Limitations of MPT
• Used only on ferromagnetic materials.
• Thin coatings of paint and other nanomagnetic coverings, such as
plating, adversely affect the sensitivity of MPI.
• For best results, the magnetic field must be in a direction that will
intercept the principal plane of the discontinuity, this sometimes
requires two or more sequential inspections with different
magnetizations.
• Demagnetization following inspection is often necessary, if not then
wear resistance will decrease.
Permanent Magnet Yoke
Description of Magnetic Field
• Alnico = 12% Al, 26% Ni, 24% Co, balance Fe.
• Alnico permanent magnet is used.
• No open poles.
• Magnetic Fields are used to reveal discontinuities.
• A horseshoe magnet will attract magnetic particles to its ends, or
poles.
• Magnetic flux flows from the south pole to the north pole.
• The magnetic lines of force forms the ringlike assembly because no
external poles exist.
• Magnetic particles dusted over the assembly are not attracted to the
magnet even though there are lines of magnetic force flowing
through it.
• A ringlike part magnetized in this manner is said to contain a circular
magnetic field that is wholly within the part.
• Horseshoe magnet forming a closed, ringlike assembly, which will not
attract magnetic particles.
• If an air gap exists between the end of the magnet and the magnetic
material, the poles will attract magnetic materials.
• Magnetic particles will cling to the poles and bridge the gap between
them.
• Any radial crack in a circularly magnetized piece will create a north
and south pole at the edges of a crack.
• Magnetic particles will be attracted to the poles created by such a
crack, forming an indication of the discontinuity in the piece.
What is Leakage Field
• The field is set up at cracks or other physical or magnetic
discontinuities in the surface are called leakage fields.
• The strength of a leakage field determines the number of magnetic
particles that will gather to form indications.
• Strong indications are formed at strong fields and weak indications at
weak fields.
• The density of the magnetic field determines its strength and is partly
governed by the shape, size and material of the part being inspected.
Description of Magnetic Fields Magnetized
Bar
• A straight piece of magnetized material (bar magnet) has a pole at
each end.
• Magnetic lines of force flow through the bar from the south to the
north pole.
• Because the magnetic lines of force within the bar run the length of
the bar, it is said to be longitudinally magnetized or to contain a
longitudinal field.
Description of Magnetic Fields
• The direction of the magnetic field in an electromagnetic circuit.
• Is controlled by the direction of the flow of magnetizing current
through the part to be magnetized.
• The magnetic lines of force are always at right angles to the direction
of current flow.
• To remember the direction taken by the magnetic lines of force
around a conductor.
• Consider that the conductor is grasped with the right hand so that the
thumb points in the direction of current flow.
• The fingers then point in the direction taken by the magnetic lines.
Description of Magnetic Fields (Circular
Magnetization)
• Electric current passing through any straight conductors such as a
wire or bar creates a circular magnetic field around the conductor.
• When the conductor of electrical current is a ferromagnetic material,
the passage of current induces a magnetic field in the conductor as
well as in the surrounding space.
• A part magnetized in this manner is said to have a circular field or to
be circularly magnetized.
Description of Magnetic Fields (Longitudinal
Magnetization)
• When electric current is passed through a coil of one or more turns, a
magnetic field is established lengthwise or longitudinally, within the
coil.
• The nature and direction of the field around the conductor that forms
the turns of the coil produce longitudinal magnetization.
Description of Magnetic Fields Effect of Flux
Direction
Description of Magnetic Fields Effect of Flux
Direction
Types of Materials
Easily magnetized
Ferromagnetic 𝜇𝜇 ≫ 1
𝑋𝑋𝑚𝑚 is very high
Difficult to magnetize
Magnetic behavior in
Paramagnetic 𝜇𝜇 > 1
magnetic field
𝑋𝑋𝑚𝑚 is in between
Very difficult to magnetize

Diamagnetic 𝜇𝜇 < 1
where, 𝑋𝑋𝑚𝑚 = Magnetic Susceptibility 𝑋𝑋𝑚𝑚 is very low (constant)
Magnetization Method
Depending upon
Retentivity
Residual Method
Continuous Method (Material should have
high Retentivity)
Magnetization Method
• Usually the harder the material, the higher the retentivity.
• The continuous method can be used for most parts.
Magnetizing Current
Single Phase and 3 Phase AC Current
Single Phase and 3 Phase AC Current
• Half wave rectified single – phase AC is used with dry powder as
magnetic particles.
• DC = bulky unit
• AC = handy unit
• Magnetic Yolk of single – phase AC = Handy
• DC Yolk = Bulky
Rectified Single Phase AC Current
• The pulsation of the current is useful because it imparts some slight
vibration to the magnetic particles, assisting them in arranging
themselves to form indications.
• Half wave current used in magnetization with prods and dry magnetic
particles, provides the highest sensitivity for discontinuities that are
wholly below the surface, such as those in castings and weldments.
• Magnetization employing surges of direct current are used to increase
the strength of magnetic field.
• Therefore by suitable current – control and switching devices, pass a
very high current for a short period (< a second) and then reduces the
current, without interrupting it, to a much lower value.
Alternating Current
• Single phase AC, used directly for magnetization purposes, is taken
from commercial power lines (𝑓𝑓 = 50 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 60 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻).
• When used for magnetization, the line voltage is stepped down, by
means of transformer, to the low voltages required.
• At these low voltages, magnetizing currents of several thousand
amperes are often used.
• Portable, mobile and stationary units are available.
Alternating Current
• A longitudinal magnetic field is usually established by placing the part
near or inside of a coil.
• Magnetic lines of force are parallel to the long axis of the test part.
Power Sources
• Portable, mobile and stationary equipment is currently available, and
selection among these types depends on nature and location of
testing.
Portable Unit
• Light weight (16 to 40 kg) power source units.
• Can be taken to inspection site.
• Are designed to use 115 −, 230 −, 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 460 − 𝑉𝑉 AC.
• Can supply magnetizing current outputs of 750 to 1500 A in half –
wave or AC.
• Machines capable of supplying half – wave current and AC.
• Have continuously variable (infinite) current control.
• Can be used for magnetic particle inspection in wide range of
applications.
Portable Unit
• Primary applications of this equipment is hand – held prod inspection
utilizing half – wave output in conjugation with dry powder.
• In general, portable equipment is designed to operate with relatively
short power supply cables, and the output is very limited when it is
necessary to use longer cables.
• Major disadvantages of portable equipment are:
1. Limited amount of current available.
2. For the detection of deep – lying discontinuities and for coverage of
a large area with one prod contact, a machine with high – amperage
output is required.
Portable Unit
3. Also, portable equipment cannot supply the full – wave DC
necessary for some inspections and does not have the accessories
found on large mobile equipment.
Mobile Unit
• Mounted on wheels to facilitate transportation.
• Mobile equipment usually supplies half – wave or alternating
magnetizing – current outputs.
• Inspection of parts is accomplished with flexible cables, yokes, prod
contact clamps and coils.
• Instruments and controls are mounted on the front of the unit.
• Magnetizing current is usually controlled by a remote – control switch
connected to the unit by an electric cord.
• Quick coupling connectors for connecting magnetizing cables are on
the front of the unit.
The procedure used for MPI
Magnetization of Component:
• The component is magnetized creating a magnetic field. A suitable
method is used to achieve optimum magnetization.
Application of Magnetic Particles:
• Depending upon carrying agent magnetic particles can be classified
into two types:
1. Wet Method –
• In this method the particles are suspended in liquid media (oil or
water). The concentration of particles is 2% by volume and is made
sure that particles are dispersed with proper consistency in the bath.
2. Dry Method –
• In this method the particles are carried to the surface by air. It is
made sure that the coating of dry particles is light and evenly
distributed, since heavy coatings will impede particle movement.
Viewing and Identification of Defects:
• The particle movement is viewed under proper illumination,
preferably daylight. The fluorescent powder is viewed under the
backlight inside darkened booth.
• The area under inspection is covered with transparent adhesive film.
When this film is peeled off, it comes out with magnetic particles
adhering to corresponding indications
Demagnetization:
• The residual magnetization is removed after particle inspection. This
is usually done by heating material to approximately 1033 𝐾𝐾.
Removal of Ink:
• The ink is removed from the component by paraffin oil wash by hand
brush.
Magnetic Field
DC
Penetrate
HWDC or FWDC
To Magnetize
Confined to the
AC surface
(Skin Effect)
HWDC or FWDC
HWDC FWDC
1) HWDC or Pulsating DC most often used to Depth of the subsurface magnetic field is more.
power electromagnetic yokes.
2) Good particle mobility. Particle mobility is less.
Three Phase Full Wave Form
• Mostly in industries.
• Favourable power transmission.
• For stationary magnetic particle equipment.
• Advantages of both power forms.
Electromagnetic Yokes
Coils
• The flux density passing through the interior of the coil is proportional
to the current,𝐼𝐼, in amperes, and the number of turns in the coil, N.
Central Conductor
Inspection Method for Hollow Components
Circular Magnetic Field Strength (F),
Distribution (D) and Intensity
• When current passed through conductor, F = 0, at the center and
maximum at the surface.
• F at the surface of the conductor decreases as the radius of conductor
increases.
• F outside the conductor is 𝛼𝛼 to the current strength.
• F inside the conductor depends on the current strength, magnetic
permeability of the material.
• F outside the conductor decreases with distance from the conductor.
Magnetic Particle Test Method
• Dry Method
1. Finely divided dry ferromagnetic particles/powders.
2. Gray, Black or Red.
3. Suitable for field work, rough castings.
• Wet Method
1. Fine Magnetic Particles suspended in kerosene.
2. Particle size 10 − 50 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚.
3. Suitable for fine defects.
Dry Method
Florescent Method
• Ferromagnetic particles are coated with florescent dye.
• Examined under UV light (𝜆𝜆 = 3650𝐴𝐴).̇
• Suitable for deep holes, corners, keyways.
High Carbon and Low Carbon Steels
• High Carbon Steels:
1. Hysteresis Loop area is high.
2. Retentivity is high.
3. Residual magnetization is high.
4. Residual magnetization method for MPI is used.
• Low Carbon Steels:
1. Retentivity is low.
2. Continuous Method is used.
3. Magnetic Field is on while testing.
Standardization and Calibration in MPT
KETOS RING/STANDARD TEST BLOCK:
• Purpose: Equipment should work under conditions of acceptable and
reproducible sensitivity.
• High degree of confidence.
• Artificial discontinuities.
• 12 holes of same diameter (0.07 in) at different depths.
• Maximum current that gives a satisfactory indication at each hole is
established and recorded for the specific magnetic unit.
KETOS RING/STANDARD TEST BLOCK
• Failure to obtain a satisfactory indication:
1. Concentration of magnetic particles below the optimum level.
2. Ammeter reading is incorrect.
3. Other malfunctioning.
PIPE GUAGE
• Disk of highly permeable material divided into triangular 4/6/8
sections by non – ferromagnetic material.
• Divisions act as artificial discontinuities that radiate out in different
directions from center.
• Can be used to measure:
1. Adequate field strength.
2. Orientation of magnetic field.
Application of Magnetic Media (Wet vs. Dry)
Quality and Process Control in MPI
DRY MAGNETIC PARTICLES:
• Magnetic particles come in a variety of colors. A color that produces a
high level of contrast against the background should be used.
WET MAGNETIC PARTICLES:
• Wet particles are typically supplied as visible or fluorescent. Visible
particles are viewed under normal white light and fluorescent
particles are viewed under UV light.
WET MAGNETIC PARTICLES:
• To detect concentration of particles in the suspension:
1. A sample is taken in a pear – shaped 100 mL centrifuge tube having
a stem graduated.
2. Leave it undisturbed for 30 – 60 min.
• Acceptable Ranges:
1. 0.1 to 0.4 mL for fluorescent particles.
2. 1.2 to 2.4 mL for visible particles.
Interpretation of Indications
• After applying the magnetic field, indications that form must be
interpreted. This process requires that the inspector distinguish
between relevant and non – relevant indications.
Crane Hook with Service Induced Crack
Gear with Service Induced Crack
Drive Shaft with Heat Treatment Induced
Cracks
Eddy Current Testing
Eddy Current Inspection
• Based on the principles of electromagnetic induction.
• Application:
1. Measure or identify such conditions and properties as electrical
conductivity, magnetic permeability, grain size, heat treatment
condition, hardness, and physical dimensions.
2. Detect seams, laps, cracks, voids, and inclusions.
3. Sort dissimilar metals and detect differences in their composition,
microstructure, and other properties.
4. Measure the thickness of a non – conductive coating on a
conductive metal, or the thickness of a non – magnetic metal
coating on a magnetic material.
5. Applicable to ferromagnetic and non – ferromagnetic metals.
• Electromagnetic Induction was discovered by Faraday in 1831.
Functions of a Basic System
• Part is placed within or adjacent to an electric coil.
• Alternating current (exciting current) is passed.
• It will cause eddy current to flow in the part as a result of
electromagnetic induction.
• These currents flow within closed loops in the part, and their
magnitude and timing (or phase) depends upon:
1. The primary field established by the exciting current.
2. The electrical properties of the part.
3. The presence or absence of flaws in the part.
4. The electromagnetic fields established by currents flowing within the part.
• At A – A, no crack is present, and the eddy current flow is symmetrical.
• At B – B, where a cack is present, the eddy current flow is impeded and
changed in direction, causing significant changes in the associated
electromagnetic field.
• The condition of the part can be monitored by observing the effect of the
resulting field on the electrical characteristics of the exciting coil, such as its
1. Electrical Impedance
2. Induced Voltage, or Induced Current
• The effect of the electromagnetic field can be monitored by observing the
induced voltage in one or more other coils placed within the field near the
part being monitored.
Basic Principal of Eddy Current Testing (ET)
• When AC is applied to the conductor, such as copper wire, a magnetic
field develops in and around the conductor.
• A dynamic expanding and collapsing magnetic field forms in and
around the coil as the alternating current flows through the coil.
• When an electrically conductive material is placed in the coil’s
dynamic magnetic field, electromagnetic induction will occur, and
eddy currents will be induced in the material.
• Eddy currents flowing in the material will generate their own
“secondary” magnetic field which will oppose the coil’s “primary”
magnetic field.
Eddy Current Testing (ET) – Surface NDT
Method
• Electromagnetic Induction.
• Faraday’s Law.
• If a conductor carries AC current.
𝑑𝑑𝜙𝜙
• It will have change in magnetic field
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
• It will induce emf in same or nearby conductor.
𝑑𝑑𝜙𝜙
• Induced EMF = 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 = 𝑁𝑁 ×
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤, 𝑁𝑁 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
• Electrical impedance of the coil or induced voltage of either the
excitation coil or other adjacent coil or coils is measured.
• Elements of a typical inspection system:
Generator supplies excitation current and a synchronizing signal to the

phase shift.
Part modulates the electromagnetic field of the coil.
The output of the inspection coil is fed to the amplifier and detected or
demodulated by the detector.
• Excitation of the inspection coil.
• Modulation of the inspection coil output signal by the part.
• Processing of the inspection coil signal prior to amplification.
• Amplification of the inspection coil signals.
• Detection or demodulation of the inspection coil signal.
• Display of signals on a meter, an oscilloscope, an oscillograph, or a
strip chart recorder; or recording on magnetic tape.
Operating Variables
1. Coil Impedance
2. Electrical Conductivity
3. Magnetic Permeability
4. Lift – Off and Fill Factors
5. Edge Effect
6. Skin Effect
Coil Impedance
• When DC is flowing in a coil, the magnetic field reaches a constant
level, and the electrical resistance (R) of the wire is the only limitation
to current flow.
• In AC current in coil, two limitations are imposed :
1. The AC resistance of the wire, R
2. Inductance resistance, 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿
• The AC resistance of an isolated or empty coil operating at low
frequencies or having a small diameter is very nearly the same as the
DC resistance of the wire of the coil.
Coil Impedance
• The ratio of AC resistance to DC resistance increases as either the
frequency increases or the wire diameter increases.
• In the discussion of eddy current principles, the resistance of the coil
wire is often ignored, because it is nearly constant. It varies mainly
with wire temperature and the frequency and spatial distribution of
the magnetic field threading the coil.
• Inductive reactance, 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 , is the combined effect of :
1. Coil Inductance
2. Test Frequency
Coil Impedance
• Total resistance to the flow of AC in a coil is called impedance, Z, and
comprises of both:
1. AC Resistance, R
2. Inductive Impedance, 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿
• 𝑍𝑍 = 𝑅𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿2
• 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝐿𝐿0
• 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤, 𝑓𝑓 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻)
• 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤, 𝐿𝐿0 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻)
Coil Impedance
• When a metal part is placed adjacent to or within a test coil, the
electromagnetic field threading the coil is changed as a result of eddy
current flow in the test object.
• Both the AC resistance and the inductive reactance of the coil are
affected.
• The resistance of the loaded coil consists of two components, namely,
1. The AC Resistance of the Coil Wire
2. The Apparent, or Coupled Resistance caused by the presence of the
test object.
Coil Impedance
• Changes in these components reflect conditions within the test
object.
• Typical impedance – plane diagram derived by placing an inspection
coil sequentially on a series of thick pieces of metal, each with a
different IACS electrical resistance or conductivity rating. The
inspection frequency was 100 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘.
Impedance Components
• The coil is assumed to have inductance, 𝐿𝐿0 , and negligible resistance.
• The part being inspected consists of a very thin tube having shunt
conductance, G, closely coupled to the coil.
• When an AC is applied, some energy is stored in the system and
returned to the generator each cycle and some energy is dissipated or
lost as heat per cycle.
• The inductive reactance component, 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 , is directly proportional to the
energy stored per cycle.
• The resistance component, R, of the impedance is directly
proportional to the energy dissipated per cycle.
• The impedance, Z, is equal to the complex ratio of the applied
voltage, E, to the current, 𝐼𝐼.
• The term complex is used to indicate that, in general, the AC and
voltage do not have the same phase angle.
• Figure (b) to (d) show three impedance diagrams for three conditions.
• When only the coil is present, the circuit impedance is purely
reactive, that is, Z = 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 (Figure(b)).
• When only the conductance of this equivalent circuit is present ( a
hypothetical condition for an actual combination of inspection coil
and part being inspected), the impedance is purely resistive, that is,
1
𝑍𝑍 = = 𝑅𝑅 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑐𝑐 .
𝐺𝐺
• When both coil and conductance are connected (Figure (d)), the
impedance has both reactive and resistive components in the general
instance, and the impedance.
• 𝑍𝑍 = 𝑅𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿2
• An angle, 𝜃𝜃, is associated with the impedance, Z. This angle is a
function of the ratio of the two components of the impedance, R and
XL.
• Points and loci on impedance – plane diagrams can be displayed using
phasor representation because of the close relationship between the
impedance diagrams and the phasor diagrams.
• In a given circuit with input impedance, Z, applying an impressed
fixed circuit, 𝐼𝐼, will produce a signal voltage, E in accordance with
Ohm’s Law (𝐸𝐸 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼). This signal voltage can be displayed as a phasor.
• With 𝐼𝐼 fixed, the signal voltage E is directly proportional to the
impedance, Z. Thus, the impedance plane can be readily displayed
using the phasor technique.
Phasor Representation of Sinusoids
• In Figure, three vectors, A, B, and C which are rotating
counterclockwise with radian velocity, 𝜔𝜔𝐿𝐿 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋.
• The equations that describe these vectors are of the form:
• 𝐾𝐾 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙
• 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤, 𝐾𝐾 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝐴𝐴, 𝐵𝐵, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐶𝐶.
• 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤, 𝜙𝜙 = 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
• These equations are plotted in Figure (b). The length of these vectors
A, B, and C determine the amplitude of the sinusoids generated in
Figure (b).
• The physical angle between, the vectors A and B, or between A and C,
determines the electrical phase angle, between sinusoids.
• In Figure (b), these angles are +90° 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 − 45°, respectively.
• The three vectors, A, B, and C are considered to be rotating at
frequency, 𝑓𝑓, generating three rather monotonous sinusoids.
• This system of three vectors rotating synchronously with the
frequency of the sinusoids is not very useful, because of its high rate
of rotation. However, if rotation is stopped, the amplitudes and phase
angles of the three sine waves can be easily seen in a representation
called a phasor diagram.
• In eddy current inspection equipment, the sine wave signals are often
expanded in quadrature components and displayed as phasors on an
x-y oscilloscope, shown in Fig. (c). Usually, only the tips of the phasors
are shown
• Thus, A and B in Fig. (c) show the cathode ray beam position
representing the two sinusoids of Fig. (b).
• Point C represents a sinusoid 𝐴𝐴 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 having the same amplitude as
Asinωt, but which lags or follows it in phase by an electrical angle
equal to 45°.
• The points indicated as C' represent sinusoids having the same phase
angle as C sin t, but with different amplitudes.
• The concept of a phasor locus is introduced by varying the amplitude
gradually from the maximum at C to zero at the origin O.
• This results in the beam spot moving from C to O, producing a locus.
• In contrast, a shift of the phase angle of a sinusoid causes a
movement of the phasor tip around the origin O as shown by the arc
DE. Here, D represents a sinusoid having the same amplitude as the
sinusoid represented by A but leading it by 30°. Increasing this phase
angle from 30 to 60° results in the phasor locus DE.
• When both amplitude and phase changes occur, more complicated
loci can be formed as shown at F and G.
• Resistance Depends on:
1. Type of Material (Resistivity) = 𝜌𝜌
2. Length and cross section area
3. Temperature
1
• 𝜎𝜎 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 =
𝜌𝜌
𝑙𝑙 1
• 𝑅𝑅 = 𝜌𝜌 → 𝑅𝑅 ∝ 𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅 ∝
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴
The International Annealed Copper Standard
• Resistivity is a unique value for a specific material and is temperature
dependent.
• International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS) indicates relative
conductivity of a material compared to that of Cu.
• Conductivity value in Siemens/meter can be converted to %IACS by
multiplying the conductivity by 1.7241 × 10−6 .
1.7241×10−6
• = %𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
• 1.7241 × 10−6 × 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = %𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
Eddy Currents
• Closed loops of induced current circulating in planes perpendicular to
the magnetic field.
• Travel parallel to the coil’s windings and flow is limited to the area of
the inducing magnetic field.
• Concentrate near the surface adjacent to an excitation coil.
• Their strength decreases with distance.
• Eddy current density decreases exponentially with depth. This
phenomenon is called skin effect.
Depth of Penetration and Current Density
• The depth that eddy current penetrates into a magnetic field is
affected by:
1. The frequency (f) of the excitation current.
2. Electrical Conductivity 𝜎𝜎 .
3. Magnetic permeability of the material 𝜇𝜇 .
• There is a decrease in the depth of penetration with increase in
1. frequency
2. electrical conductivity
3. magnetic permeability
1
• 𝛿𝛿 = , 𝛿𝛿 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚)
𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝐻𝐻
• 𝜎𝜎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 %𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝜇𝜇 (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 )
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Why SDP is low in high conducting material
Strong Eddy Currents Generated
Strong Secondary Magnetic Fields Generated
Restrict the penetration of primary magnetic field
Hence SDP is low

• The depth at which eddy current density has decreased to 1/e, or
37% of surface density, is called SDP (𝛿𝛿).
• Although eddy currents penetrates deeper than one SDP, they
decrease rapidly with depth.
• At 2 SDP, the eddy current density is 13.5% that of the surface
density.
• At 3 SDP, the eddy current density is 5% that of the surface density.
• Sensitivity of an eddy current inspection depends on the eddy current
density at the defect location.
• When attempting to locate flaws, a frequency is often selected which
places the expected flaw within 1 SDP.
• This helps to assure that the strength of the currents will be
sufficiently to produce a flaw indication.
• Alternately, when using eddy currents to measure the electrical
conductivity of a material, the frequency is often set so that it
produces 3 SDP within the material.
• This helps to assure that the eddy currents will be so weak at the back
side of the material that changes in the material thickness will not
affect the eddy current measurement.
1
• 𝛿𝛿 =
𝜋𝜋𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
• For a fixed material, frequency determines the depth of penetration.
• For conducting material – we use frequencies of lower range.
• To characterize thin material/coating/surface flaws we prefer higher
frequencies.
Circuits and Phase
• The simple circuit below consists of a voltage source and a resistor.
• As the voltage increases, the current does the same.
• The voltage and the current are said to be “in phase” since their zero,
peak and valley points occur at the same time.
Circuits and Phase
• The resistive component has been replaced with an inductor.
• When inductance is introduced into a circuit, voltage and current will
be out of phase.
• When a circuit has an inductive component, current 𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿 will lag the
voltage by one quarter of a cycle.
• One cycle is often referred to as 360°, so it can be said that the
current lags the voltage by 90°.
• The phase shift occurs because the inductive reactance changes with
changing current.
Eddy Current Probe
• Available in large variety of shapes and sizes.
• Major advantage of eddy current inspection is that probes can be
custom designed for a wide of applications.
• Eddy current probes are classified by the configuration and mode of
operation of test coils.
• The configuration of the probe generally refers to the way the coil or
coils are packaged to best “coupled” to the test area of interest.
Eddy Current Probe
• An example of different configurations of probes would be:
1. Bobbin Probe, which are inserted into a piece of pipe to inspect
from the inside out.
2. Encircling Probe, in which the coil or coils encircle the pipe to
inspect from the outside in.
Eddy Current Probe
• The mode of operation refers to the way the coils are wired and
interface with the test equipment. The mode of operation of a probe
generally falls into one of four categories:
1. Absolute
2. Differential
3. Reflection
4. Hybrid
Absolute Probes
• It has a single test coil used to generate the eddy currents and sense
changes in the eddy current field.
• AC is passed through the coil and it sets up an expanding and
collapsing magnetic field in and around the coil.
• When the probe is positioned next to a conductive material, the
changing magnetic field generates eddy current within the material.
• The generation of eddy currents take energy from the coil and this
appears as an increase in the electrical resistance of the coil.
• The eddy currents generate their own magnetic field that opposes the
magnetic field of the coil and this changes the inductive reactance of
the coil.
Absolute Probes
• By measuring the absolute change in the impedance of the test coil,
much information can be gained about the test material.
• They are used for :
1. Flaw Detection
2. Conductivity Measurement
3. Thickness Measurement
Eddy Current Probes
Differential Probes
• Differential Probes have two active coils usually wound in opposition,
although they could be wound in addition with similar results.
• When two coils are over a flaw free area of test samples, there is no
differential signal between the coils since they are both inspecting
identical material.
• However, when one coil is over a defect and the other is over good
material, a differential signal is produced.
Differential Probes
• Advantages:
1. Very sensitive to defect yet relatively insensitive to slowly varying
properties such as gradual dimensional or temperature variations.
2. Probe wobble signals are also reduced with this probe type.
• Disadvantages:
1. Most notably, the signals may be difficult to interpret, example, if a
flaw is longer than the spacing between the coils, only the leading
and trailing edges will be detected due to signal cancellation when
both coils sense flaw equally.
Eddy Current Probes
Reflection Probes
• Reflection probes have two coils similar to a differential probe, but
one coil is used to excite the eddy currents and the other is used to
sense changes in the test material.
• Probes of this arrangement are often referred to as driver/pickup
probes.
• The advantage of reflection probes is that the driver and pickup coils
can be separately optimized for their intended purpose.
• The driver coil can be made so as to produce a strong and uniform
flux field in the vicinity of the pickup coil, while the pickup coil can be
made very small so that it will be sensitive to very small defects.
Conductivity Measurement for the
Verification of Heat Treatment
• Electrical conductivity is affected by:
1. Material Composition
2. Cold Working (Dislocations Restrict Electron Flow)
3. Heat Treatment (Annealing Removes Dislocations; Solution Heat
Treatment changes the Atomic Structure)
• Solution Treatment (ST) freezes copper alloying atoms in the lattice
structure of the Aluminium. This distorts and stresses the structure
making electron travel more difficult.
• Aging and annealing allow the copper atoms to precipitate out of the
structure which results in an increase in conductivity.
Properties of Alclad 2024 Aluminium
Thickness Measurement of Thin Materials
• Eddy current testing can be used to perform a number of dimensional
measurements.
• The ability to make rapid measurements without the need of
couplant or, in some cases even surface contact, makes eddy current
techniques very useful.
• The type of measurements that can be made include:
1. Thickness of thin metal sheet and foil, and of metallic and nonmetallic
substrates
2. Cross – section dimensions of cylindrical tubes and rods
3. Thickness of non – metallic coatings on metallic substrates
Thickness Measurement of Non – Conducting
Coatings on Conductive Materials
• The thickness of nonmetallic coatings on metal substrates can be
determined simply from the effect of liftoff on impedance.
• This method has widespread use for measuring thickness of paint and
plastic coatings.
• The coating serves as a spacer between the probe and conductive
surface.
• As the distance between the probe and the conductive base
increases, the eddy current field strength decreases because less of
the probe’s magnetic field can interact with the base metal.
Thickness Measurement of Non – Conducting
Coatings on Conductive Materials
• Thickness between 0.5 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 25 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 can be measured to an accuracy
between 10% for lower values and 4% for higher values.
Factors Affecting Detection Sensitivity
• Besides frequency, electrical conductivity and magnetic material, the
other factors are:
1. Influence of variation in geometry.
2. Edges, corners, ends and radii obstruct the circular pattern of eddy
current – edge effect (term used in inspection of sheets/plates) and
end current (term used in inspection of bar/tubes).
3. Electromagnetic Coupling.
Magnetic Coupling
• Interaction of varying magnetic field of the test coil with the test
object.
• Depends on the distance of the coil from the specimen surface.
• Lift – off is the distance between the coil and the conductive material,
and this distance affects the mutual inductance.
• Lift – off can be used to make measurements of the thickness of non
– conductive coatings, such as an oxide layer, that holds the probe a
certain distance from the surface of the conductive material.
Magnetic Coupling
• Increasing the lift – off, decreases the eddy current probe signal
because the magnetic flux interacts less with the conductive material.
• Decreasing the lift – off, increases the eddy current probe signal
because the magnetic flux interacts more with the conductive
material.
• Fill Factor
• It is used to determine the correct allowance between the inspection
coil and the tubular sample to ensure freedom of movement during
scanning while maintaining the proximity of the coil to the sample to
generate sufficient eddy currents to perform the inspection.
Applications of Eddy Current Testing
• Two major applications of Eddy Current Testing are:
1. Surface Inspection
2. Tubing Inspection
• Surface inspection is used extensively in aerospace industry.
• The technique is very sensitive and can detect tight cracks.
• Surface inspection can be performed both on ferromagnetic and non
– ferromagnetic materials.
• Tubing inspection is generally limited to non – ferromagnetic tubing.
• It is used for inspecting steam generator tubing in nuclear plants and
heat exchangers tubing in power and petrochemical industries. The
technique is very sensitive to defects and size pits. Wall loss or
corrosion can be detected.
• Absolute and differential probe recording/display.
Heat Exchanger Tube Inspection
Q1)What is the standard depth of penetration when performing an
Eddy Current testing on a piece of 304 Corrosion Resistant Steel? The
material has a relative permeability of 1.05 and a conductivity of 2.5%
IACS. The frequency used to drive Eddy Current probe is 50 kHz. Given
that the thickness of sample is 4 mm.
1
Ans1) 𝛿𝛿 =
1 𝑆𝑆
𝜎𝜎 = 2.5 × = 1.45003 × 106 𝑆𝑆/𝑚𝑚
1.7241×10−6 𝑚𝑚
𝜇𝜇𝑟𝑟 = 1.05 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝜇𝜇 = 1.31985 × 10−6 𝐻𝐻/𝑚𝑚
𝑓𝑓 = 50 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 50000 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆, 𝛿𝛿 = 1.8 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑓𝑓 = 10 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘, 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝛿𝛿 = 4.07 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚.
Interaction of Magnetic Fields from a coil at
different test conditions
• For example:
1. 𝛿𝛿 of eddy currents, in other words, interaction of electromagnetic
fields, is very low in highly conducting (Example, Copper) material.
2. As compared to that of Austenitic Stainless Steel which is less
conducting due to the skin effect, with eddy current test one can
readily detect the surface – breaking defects as compared to the
sub – surface defects or buried defects.
Q2)Determine the frequency needed to achieve a depth of
penetration of 2 mm in 7075 – T76 aluminium plate. Aluminium is
nonmagnetic so its relative permeability is 1 and its permeability is
the same as that of free space (𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔 𝑯𝑯/𝒎𝒎). The conductivity
for this material is 8.5% IACS.
1
Ans2) 𝛿𝛿 =
2 1
𝛿𝛿 =
1
𝑓𝑓 = 2
𝜋𝜋𝛿𝛿 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇
𝜎𝜎 = 4.930108 × 106 𝑆𝑆/𝑚𝑚
𝑓𝑓 = 12.84 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic Testing
• Ultrasonic Testing (UT) uses high frequency sound energy to conduct
examinations and make measurements.
• Ultrasonic Inspection used for:
1. Flaw Detection/Evaluation
2. Dimensional Measurements
3. Material Characterization, and more
• How does it work??
• Example: A typical pulse/echo inspection configuration
Ultrasonic Testing
• Vertical cracks can be detected as the sound waves are reflected and
distortion does not occur like in the case of Eddy Current Testing.
• A typical UT inspection system consists of several functional units,
such as:
1. Pulser/Receiver
2. Transducer
3. Display Devices
Ultrasonic Testing
• A pulser/receiver is an electronic device that can produce high
voltage electronic pulses.
• Driven by the pulser, the transducer generates high frequency
ultrasonic energy.
• The sound energy is introduced and propagates through the material
in the form of waves.
• When there is a discontinuity (crack) in the wave path, part of the
energy will be reflected back from the flaw surface.
Ultrasonic Testing
• The reflected wave signal is transformed into an electrical signal by
the transducer and is displayed on a screen.
• Signal travel time can be directly related to the distance that the
signal traveled.
• From the signal, information about the reflector location, size,
orientation and other features can be sometimes be gained.
Advantages of Ultrasonic Testing
• It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface defect.
• The depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is
superior to other NDT methods.
• Only single – sided access is needed when pulse – echo technique is
used.
• It is highly accurate in determining reflector position and estimating
size and shape.
• Minimal part preparation is required.
Advantages of Ultrasonic Testing
• Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
• Detailed images can be produced with automated systems.
• It has other uses, such as thickness measurement, in addition to flaw
detection.
Limitations of Ultrasonic Testing
• Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.
• Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods.
• It normally requires a coupling medium to promote the transfer of
sound energy into the test specimen.
• Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small, exceptionally
thin or not homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
• Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to inspect
due to inspect due to low sound transmission and difficult to inspect.
Limitations of Ultrasonic Testing
• Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go
undetected.
• Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration and
the characterization of flaws.
History of Ultrasonic
• Sonar, the technique of sending waves through water and observing
the returning echoes to characterize submerged objects.
• In 1929 and 1935, Sokolov studied the use of ultrasonic waves in
detecting metal objects.
• Mulhauser, in 1931, obtained a patent for using ultrasonic waves,
using two transducers to detect flaws in solids.
• Firestone (1940) and Simons (1945) developed pulsed ultrasonic
testing using a pulse – echo technique.
Ultrasonic Testing
• Ultrasonic Testing is based on time varying deformations or vibrations
in materials, which is generally referred to as acoustics.
• All materials comprise of atoms, which may vibrate about their
equilibrium position.
• When the particles of a medium are displaced from their equilibrium
positions, internal (electrostatic) restoration forces arise.
• In these elastic restoring forces between particles, combined with
inertia of the particles, that leads to the oscillatory motions of the
medium.
Ultrasonic Testing
• Probe consists of :
1. Cable to supply power to piezoelectric material
2. Backing Material
3. Piezoelectric Material
Types of UT
• Immersion UT
• Direct Contact UT
Four Principle Modes
• In solids, sound waves can propagate in four principle modes that are
based on the way the particles oscillate :
• Sound waves can propagate as :
1. Longitudinal Waves
2. Shear Waves
3. Surface Waves
4. In thin materials as Plate Waves
• Longitudinal and shear waves are the two modes of propagation most
widely used in ultrasonic testing.
Four Principle Modes
• Particle movement responsible for the propagation of longitudinal
and shear waves is illustrated below.
Longitudinal Waves
• In longitudinal waves, the oscillation occurs in the longitudinal
direction or the direction of wave propagation.
• Since compressional and dilation forces are active in these waves,
they are also called pressure or compressional waves.
• They are also sometimes called density waves because their particle
density fluctuates as they move.
• Compression waves can be generated in :
1. Liquid
2. Solids
Transverse or Shear Waves
• In transverse or shear waves, the particles oscillate at a right angle or
transverse to the direction of propagation.
• Shear waves require an acoustically solid material for effective
propagation, and therefore, are not effectively propagated in
materials such as liquids and gases.
Modes of Sound Wave Propagation
• In air, sound travels by the compression and rarefaction of air
molecules in the direction of travel.
• However, in solids, molecules can support vibrations in other
directions, hence, several different types of sound waves are possible.
• The propagation of waves is often described in terms of what are
called “wave modes”.
• As previously mentioned, longitudinal and shear waves are most
often used in UT.
Modes of Sound Wave Propagation
• However, at surfaces and interfaces, various types of elliptical or
complex vibrations of the particles make other waves possible.
• Some of these other wave modes such as Rayleigh and Lamb waves
are also useful for ultrasonic inspection.
Surface and Plate Waves
• Surface (or Rayleigh) waves travel the surface of a relatively thick solid
material penetrating to a depth of one wavelength.
• Surface waves combine both a longitudinal and transverse motion to
create an elliptical orbit motion.
• The major axis of the ellipse is perpendicular to the surface of the
solid.
• As the depth of an individual atom from the surface increases the
width of its elliptical motion decreases.
Surface and Plate Waves
• Surface waves are generated when a longitudinal wave intersects a
surface near the second critical angle.
• They travel at a velocity between 0.87 and 0.95 of a shear wave.
• Rayleigh waves are useful because they are very sensitive to surface
defects (and other surface features) and they follow the surface
around curves.
• Because of this, Rayleigh waves can be used to inspect areas that
other waves might have difficult reaching.
Properties of Acoustic Plane Waves
• Properties of waves propagating are wavelength, frequency and
velocity.
• 𝜆𝜆 ∝ 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 (𝑣𝑣)
1
• 𝜆𝜆 ∝
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 (𝑓𝑓)
𝑣𝑣
• 𝜆𝜆 =
𝑓𝑓
Wavelength and Defect Detection
• In ultrasonic inspection, the inspector must make a decision about
the frequency of the transducer that will be used.
• Changing the frequency when the sound velocity is fixed will result in
a change in the wavelength of the sound.
• The wavelength of the ultrasound used has a significant effect on the
probability of detecting a discontinuity.
• A general rule of thumb is that a discontinuity must be larger than
one – half of the wavelength to stand a reasonable chance of being
detected.
Q1) You are given that the longitudinal velocity in Al is 𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊/𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁
𝟎𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄/𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁𝝁 . Using a 2.25 MHz transducer, what wavelength of
sound produced in the material? What is the minimum detectable
flaw size that can be detected in Al sample in this setup?
𝑣𝑣
Ans1) 𝜆𝜆 = = 0.1111 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑓𝑓
The minimum detectable flaw size is 0.0556 inches.
Q2)If a transducer of 1 MHz frequency is used for a sample of carbon
steel. What is the wavelength of sound produced in the sample and
what is the minimum detectable flaw size in carbon steel sample for
this setup?
𝑣𝑣
Ans2) 𝜆𝜆 = = 0.13 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑓𝑓
The minimum detectable flaw size is 0.065 inches.
Ultrasonic Testing
Sensitivity
• The ability of a system (or method) to detect small discontinuities.
• Increases with higher frequencies and shorter wavelengths.
Resolution
• Resolution (Resolving Power) is the measure of the capability of a
system to separate two discontinuities that are close together in the
part of near the part surface.
• As with sensitivity, resolution increases with an increase in frequency
and decreases in wavelength.
Velocity
• Depends on both the density of the material and its elastic
properties.
• Also depends on the type of sound wave.
• Longitudinal waves travel at twice the speed of shear/transverse
waves.
• Surface waves travel at 90% of the speed of the shear waves.
Attenuation
• The loss in acoustic energy which occurs between any two points of
travel.
• Primarily due to scattering and absorption.
• Scatter = dispersion of ultrasonic waves.
• Absorption = conversion of sound waves into another energy form
(heat).
• Higher frequencies produce more scatter so penetrating power is
reduced (depth of penetration of the sound into the material).
Acoustic Impedance of a Material (Z)
• The factor which controls the propagation of an ultrasonic wave at a
boundary interface (its transmission and reflection).
• 𝑍𝑍 = 𝜌𝜌 × 𝑣𝑣 (𝜌𝜌 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣).
• An important factor in the calculation of acoustic transmission and
reflection at boundary of two different materials.
• Ultrasonic waves are reflected at boundaries where there is a
difference in acoustic impedance ( difference is called “impedance
mismatch”). The greater the “mismatch” the greater the sound
reflection (and therefore less penetration).
Reflection vs. Transmission
• Reflection Coefficient = R = Fraction of waves reflected.
• Transmission Coefficient = T = Fraction of waves transmitted through
the part.
𝑍𝑍2 −𝑍𝑍1 2
• 𝑅𝑅 =
𝑍𝑍2 +𝑍𝑍1 2
• 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑇𝑇 = 1
Acoustic Impedance Data
• Depends on type of material as well as type of wave (longitudinal or
shear wave).
• Example Impedance values,
𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴 𝒈𝒈
𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰, 𝒁𝒁 𝟐𝟐
× 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟓
𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 , 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
Water 1.48
Air 0.0004
Aluminium 17
Stainless Steel 45.4
Q3) How much sound is reflected at the interface between water and
stainless steel?
Ans3) 𝑍𝑍𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 𝑍𝑍2 = 1.48 × 105
𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝑍𝑍1 = 45.4 × 105
𝑍𝑍2 −𝑍𝑍1 2
𝑅𝑅 = = 0.878
𝑍𝑍2 +𝑍𝑍1 2
87.8% of sound is reflected.
Q4) How much sound is transmitted at the interface between air and
aluminium?
Ans4) 𝑍𝑍𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑍𝑍2 = 0.0004 × 105
𝑍𝑍𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑍𝑍1 = 17 × 105
𝑅𝑅 = 0.9999 → 𝑇𝑇 = 1 − 𝑅𝑅 = 0.0001
Only 0.01% of sound wave is transmitted.
Therefore we use a couplant at the interface of transducer and part.
Snell’s Law
• Describes the relationship between the angle and velocity of waves.
sin 𝜃𝜃1 sin 𝜃𝜃2
• =
𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿𝐿
• 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤, 𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿𝐿 = Longitudinal velocities in material 1 and 2
respectively.
• 𝜃𝜃1 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
• 𝜃𝜃2 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
Refraction
• Refraction is the bending of the wave at the interface of two
materials.
• If the angle of incidence is 0° i.e. wave is perpendicular to the
material, then there is no refraction.
Mode of Conversion
• Definition : Change from one wave form to another, for example, from
a longitudinal wave to a shear wave.
• Occurs when a longitudinal wave hits an interface at an angle to
surface (not perpendicular) which leads to formation of a shear wave.
• When the angle of refraction of the longitudinal wave becomes
90°, the angle of incidence is called the first critical angle.
• All energy from the reflected longitudinal wave is converted into a
surface – following longitudinal wave (called a creep wave).
• Only a shear wave now propagates into the material.
Mode of Conversion
• When the angle of refraction of the shear wave becomes 90°, the
angle of incidence is called the second critical angle.
• All wave energy is converted into a surface following shear wave
(called a shear creep wave).
• At an angle of incidence greater than the second critical angle,
surface waves are generated.
• V(shear) = 0.55V(longitudinal)
Block Diagram Ultrasonic Testing
Sound Reflection at Flaw
Wall Thickness Measurement
Reception of Ultrasonic Waves
• A sound wave hitting a piezoelectric crystal induces crystal vibration
which causes electrical voltages at crystal surfaces.
Ultrasonic Probes
Sound Field
• Crystal vibrates and generates mechanical vibrations, i.e. the crystal
starts vibrating the medium.
• The sound waves travel along the acoustical axis.
• We find that the sound waves also diverge as they travel.
• The pressure of the sound waves is highest at the central axis i.e.
acoustical axis and the pressure decreases as the angle of the beam
from the acoustical axis increases. It finally becomes zero at the angle
of divergence 𝛾𝛾6 .
Sound Field
• Angle of divergence determines the quality of the sound beam.
• When the angle of divergence is less then the pressure variation is
less i.e. the pressure in the beam is more uniform but the scanning
area is reduced.
• Near Field Zone and Far Field Zone.
• Near Field Zone is also known as the Zone of Confusion, as lot of
interference is present in the Near Field Zone.
• The Far Field Zone is interference free zone.
• Highest interference is present at the crystal surface.
Sound Field
• When we give an electrical pulse to the crystal, the atoms on the
crystal surface start vibrating and will try to vibrate the near by
medium. So there are N number of nucleating sites which try to
vibrate the media. Therefore there are a number of waves and all
these waves are generated by the crystal surface.
• All these waves are crossing each other and interfering with each
other. So the amplitude relation with distance is not linear in the Near
Field Zone.
Sound Field
• The interference reduces down subsequently at the focus and finally
in the Far Field Zone the beam is more or less interference free.
• The intensity (pressure) goes on decreasing as distance increases in
the Far Field Zone.
• We can’t find out the defects in the Near Field Zone. So ideally the
defects should be present in the Far Field Zone.
Ultrasonic Instrument
Through Transmission Technique
Pulse Echo Technique
How does UT Work
• Functions of Piezoelectric Element :
1. Piezoelectric Element Converts Electrical Signals into Vibrations to
Transmit Sound to the Part (acts as a Transmitter).
2. Also Converts the Mechanical Vibrations of the Echoes back into
Electrical Signal (acts as a receiver).
• Transducer have a wear plate to protect the active element from
being scratched.
• A damping material is placed behind the active material.
• Damping improves resolution and sensitivity.
How does UT Work
• Sound originates from most of the surface of the piezoelectric
element.
• Active element of most acoustic transducers today is a piezoelectric
ceramic sometimes referred to as a crystal (quartz crystals were
originally used as transducers).
• Lead Zirconate Titanate most common transducer material.
Types of Transducers
1. Contact Transducers :
• Used for direct contact inspections (hand manipulated).
• A shoe can be added to a contact transducer to a given curvature.
• Medium Pressure is used.
2. Immersion Transduce :
• Is not in contact with the component.
• Designed to operate in a Liquid Environment.
• In immersion UT either or both the part and transducer are immersed
in water.
• Air bubbles must be eliminated through the use of a surfactant.
Single vs. Dual Element Transducer
Single – Element Transducer
• Transmits a Signal, Stops, then Receives a Signal.
Dual – Element Transducer
• Both Transmits and Receives the Sound.
• No need for the element to stop transmitting to “listen” for a
response.
• Better for Detecting Surface Defects.
Other Type of Transducers
Angle – Beam Transducer
• Introduces Refracted Shear Waves into a Part Commonly used for
Inspection of Welds.
Paint Brush Transducer
• A Type of Immersion Transducers used for Scanning Wide Areas.
EMAT
• Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer – Does not need a Couplant.
• It is not based on Piezoelectric Effect.
Sound Field
Near and Far Field
• Extensive “noise” in the near field where sound originates. This makes
it difficult to accurately evaluate flaws in this region.
• Near Field = Fresnel Field.
• Far Field = Fraunhofer Field.
𝐷𝐷2 𝐷𝐷2 𝐹𝐹
• 𝑁𝑁 = 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑁𝑁 =
4𝜆𝜆 4𝑣𝑣
• 𝑁𝑁 = near field length or transition from near field to far field zone.
• D = diameter of the transducer.
• F = frequency of the transducer.
• 𝜆𝜆 = 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤.
• 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 of sound in material.
Far Field
• The sound becomes more uniform at the start of the far field.
• Desire to have the detection area in the far field, so no flaws are
missed during an inspection.
• Smaller diameter transducer have shorter distances to travel before
transition to the far field.
• Can also move start of far field to surface of the part by adding a
delay line.
Q 5)Calculate N, when F = 5 MHz , D = 0.375 inches, and v = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ×
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊/𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔.
𝐷𝐷2
Ans 5)𝑁𝑁 =
4𝜆𝜆
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆, 𝑁𝑁 = 1.04 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
In this region it is hard to predict the signal amplitude from a
reflector.
Q 6)Calculate Beam Spread when F = 2.25 MHz , D = 0.375 inches, and
𝒗𝒗 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 × 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟔 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊/𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔.
𝑣𝑣
Ans 6)sin 𝜃𝜃 = 1.2
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = 𝜃𝜃 = 13.86°.
Beam Spread = 2×Beam Divergence = 27.73°.
Straight Beam Inspection Techniques
Immersion Testing
An Immersion Inspection of a Steel Block
• If reflection and transmission at interfaces is followed through the
component, only a small percentage of the original energy is makes it
back to the transducer, even when loss by attenuation is ignored. For
example, consider an immersion inspection of steel block.
• The sound energy leaves the transducer, travels through the water,
encounters the front surface of the steel block, encounters the back
surface of the block and reflects back through the front surface on its
way back to the transducer.
An Immersion Inspection of a Steel Block
• At the steel – water interface (front surface), 12% of the energy is
transmitted.
• At the back surface of the steel block, 88% of the 12% that made it
through the front surface is reflected. This is 10.6% of the intensity of
the initial incident wave.
• As the wave exits the steel block back through the front surface, only
12% of 10.6 or 1.3% of the original energy is transmitted back to the
transducer.
Q 7)Find out the percentage of the original energy of the sound beam
which is received by the transducer in the case of Aluminium sample
immersed in water. WATER
70.53%
Ans 7)𝑍𝑍𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 𝑍𝑍2 = 1.48 × 105 100% 6.12%
𝑍𝑍𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑍𝑍1 = 17 × 105
𝑍𝑍2 − 𝑍𝑍1 2
𝑅𝑅 = = 0.7053 14.65%
𝑍𝑍2 + 𝑍𝑍1 2
𝑅𝑅 + 𝑇𝑇 = 1
29.47%
𝑇𝑇 = 0.2947
Aluminium Sample can be better 20.78%
detected using UT as more energy
goes in the material and more
percent of the original energy goes to ALUMINIUM
the receiver than Stainless Steel.

8.68%
Propagation of Sound
• Sound energy introduced in the part propagates (travels) through the
material in the form of waves.
• A discontinuity, such as a crack, will reflect some of the sound wave
back to the transducer.
• Size of reflected signal depends on both size discontinuity and its
distance from the sound.
• Smaller discontinuities and greater distances results in smaller
signals.
• Larger discontinuities and nearer distances results in larger signals.
Sound Propagation in Elastic Medium
• Sound waves propagate due to the vibrations or oscillatory motions
of particles within a material.
• An ultrasonic wave may be visualized as an infinite number of
oscillating masses or particles connected by means of elastic springs.
• Each individual particle is influenced by the motion of its nearest
neighbor and both inertial and elastic restoring forces act upon each
particle.
• A mass on a spring has a single resonant frequency is determined by
its spring constant 𝑘𝑘 and its mass 𝑚𝑚.
• The spring constant is the restoring force of a spring per unit of
length.
• Within the elastic limit of any material, there is a linear relationship
between the displacement of a particle and the force attempting to
restore the particle to its equilibrium position. This Linear
dependency is described by Hooke’s Law.
• In terms of the spring model, Hooke’s Law says that the restoring
force due to a spring is proportional to the length that the spring is
stretched, and acts in the opposite direction.
• Mathematically, Hooke’s Law is written as : 𝐹𝐹 = − 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘.
• 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
• 𝑘𝑘 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
• 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
The Speed of Sound
• Hooke’s Law when used along with Newton’s Second Law, can explain
a few things about the speed of sound.
• The speed of sound within a material is a function of the properties of
the material and is independent of the amplitude of the sound wave.
• Newton’s Second Law says that the force applied to a particle will be
balanced by the particles mass and the acceleration of the particle.
• Mathematically, Newton’s Second Law is given by :
• 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
The Speed of Sound
• Hooke’s Law then says that this force will be balanced by a force in
the opposite direction that is dependent on the amount of
displacement and the spring constant.
• 𝐹𝐹 = −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
• Therefore, since he applied force and the restoring force are equal.
• 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = −𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
• Since mass 𝑚𝑚 and the spring constant 𝑘𝑘 are constant for any given
material, it can be seen that the acceleration 𝑎𝑎 and the displacement
𝑥𝑥 are the only variables.
The Speed of Sound
• It can also be seen that they are directly proportional.
• If the displacement of the particle increases, so does its acceleration.
• It turns out that the time that it takes a particle to move and return to
its equilibrium position is independent of the force applied.
• So within a given material, sound always travels at same speed no
matter how much force is applied when other variables like
temperature are held constant.
What Properties of Material Affect the Speed
of Sound
• Sound does travel at different speeds in different materials.
• This is because the mass of the atomic particles and the spring
constants are different for different materials.
• The mass of the particles is related to the density of the material, and
the spring constant is related to the elastic constant of a material.
• The general relation between the speed of sound and its density and
elastic constant is given by the following equation :
𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
• 𝑣𝑣 =
𝜌𝜌
of Sound
• 𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
• 𝜌𝜌 = 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
• 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
• This equation may take a number of different forms depending on the
type of wave (longitudinal or shear) and which of the elastic constants
that are used.
• The typical elastic constants of a material include Young’s Modulus,
Poisson’s Ratio, Bulk Modulus, Shear Modulus, Lame’s Constant.
of Sound
• Young’s Modulus 𝐸𝐸 = Proportionality Constant between Uniaxial
Stress and Strain.
• Poisson’s Ratio 𝜈𝜈 = The Ratio of Radial Strain to Axial Strain.
• Bulk Modulus 𝐾𝐾 = A Measure of the Incompressibility of a Body
subjected to Hydrostatic Pressure.
• Shear Modulus 𝐺𝐺 = Also called Rigidity, a Measure of Substance’s
Resistance to Shear.
• Lame’s Constant 𝐼𝐼 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚 = Material Constants that are derived
from Young’s Modulus and Poisson’s Ration.
Examples
• Examples of approximate compressional sound velocities in materials
are :
1. Aluminium = 0.632 cm/microsecond
2. 1020 Steel = 0.589 cm/microsecond
3. Cast Iron = 0.480 cm/microsecond
• Examples of approximate shear velocity in materials are :
1. Aluminium = 0.313 cm/microsecond
2. 1020 Steel = 0.324 cm/microsecond
3. Cast Iron = 0.240 cm/microsecond
• When comparing compressional and shear velocities, it is noted that
he shear velocity is approximately one half that of compressional
velocities.
Weld Joints
• Areas having defects in weld joints are Fusion Joints.
• Surface is not plane, so we cannot use straight beam probe.
• Material is casted so it contains many defects like pores and
inclusions.
• So angle beam is used.
• Beam enters the material with an inclination.
• If the beam enters the material at 60° then it is called a 60° probe.
• Scanning motion of probe is required.
• Mostly the defects are parallel to the fusion joint and in the heat
affected zone.
Angle Beam Transducers
• Angle beam transducers and wedges are typically used to introduce a
refracted shear wave into the test material.
• Transducers can be purchased in a variety of fixed angles or in
adjustable versions where the user determines the angles of
incidence and refraction.
• In a fixed angle version, the angle of refraction that is marked is only
accurate for a particular material, which is usually steel.
• The angled sound path allows the sound beam to be reflected from
the backwall to improve the detectability of flaws in and around
welded areas.
• They are also used to generate surface waves for use in detecting
defects on the surface of a component.
Difference Between Conventional and Phased
Array Ultrasonic Testing (PUAT)
• The biggest difference between conventional UT and phased array UT
is the transducer.
• Conventional UT’s use single – element transducer or paired element
transducers, one for transmitting and one for receiving, to generate
and receive ultrasonic sound waves.
• Phased Array UT transducers have 16 to 256 individual elements, a
substantial increase.
• With computer – controlled firing of element groups, focal depth,
incident angle, and the very physics of the inspection process can
differ between these two NDT techniques.
Phased Array Probes
• Phased array probes contain a large number of individually
controllable transducers.
• This allows the transmission characteristics to be specifically
influenced.
• Phased array probes are basically made up of a multitude of
individual transducers.
• Such probes are therefore referred to as group transducers.
• In a group there are 16, 32, 64 or more oscillators.
• The individual transducers can be controlled separated in time.
Phased Array Probes
• This allows a wide range of applications since the transmission
characteristics can be specifically influenced.
• Phased array probes can only be used with special testing devices
that have the appropriate software and hardware to control the
probes.
• The animations below show different timing controls.
• If the transducers are controlled one after the other, an angular
acoustic irradiation is obtained.
• The sound field can also be permanently swiveled during the test.
Phased Array Probes
• The flaw (also called discontinuity) then becomes visible at different
angles and allows a limited indication of the flaw size.
• This is usually not easily possible with simple probes.
• Furthermore, with phased array probes the ultrasonic waves can be
focused to a certain depth.
• The focus can also change over time, so that it moves permanently
through the test sample.
A Cut Away of Typical Contact Transducer
• The piezoelectric element is cut to 1/2 the desired wavelength.
• To get as much energy out of the transducer as possible, an
impedance matching is placed between the active element and the
face of the transducer.
• Optimal impedance matching is achieved by sizing the matching layer
so that its thickness is 1/4 of the desired wavelength.
Optimal Impedance Matching
• Optimal impedance matching is achieved by sizing the matching layer
so that its thickness is 1/4 of the desired wavelength.
• This keeps waves that were reflected within the matching layer in
phase when they exit the layer.
• For contact transducers, the matching layer is made from a material
that has an acoustical impedance between the active element and
steel.
• Immersion transducers have a matching layer with an acoustical
impedance between the active element and water.
• Contact transducers also incorporate a wear plate to protect the
matching layer and active element from scratching.
Couplant
• A couplant is a material (usually liquid) that facilitates the
transmission of ultrasonic energy from the transducer into the test
specimen.
• Couplant is generally necessary because the acoustic impedance
mismatch between air and solids (i.e. such as the test specimen) is
high.
• Therefore, nearly all of the energy is reflected and very little is
transmitted into the test material.
• Couplant displaces the air and makes it possible to get more sound
energy into the test specimen so that a usable ultrasonic signal can be
obtained.
Couplant
• In a contact UT a thin film of oil, glycerin or water is generally used
between the transducer and the test surface.
• When scanning over the part or making precise measurements, an
immersion technique is often used.
• In immersion UT both the transducer and the part are immersed in
the couplant, which is typically water.
• This method of coupling makes it easier to maintain consistent
coupling while moving and manipulating the transducer and/or the
part.
Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducers (EMATs)
• As discussed on the previous page, one of the essential features of
ultrasonic measurements is mechanical coupling between the
transducer and the solid. Whose properties or structure are to be
studied.
• This coupling is generally achieved in one of two ways.
• In immersion measurements, energy is coupled between the
transducer and sample by placing both objects in a tank filled with a
fluid, a generally water.
Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducers
(EMATs)
• In a contact measurements, the transducer is pressed directly against
the sample, and coupling is achieved by the presence of a thin fluid
layer inserted between the two. When shear wave are to be
transmitted, the fluid is generally selected to have a significant
viscosity.
• EMAT act through totally different physical principles and do not need
couplant.
• When a wire is placed near the surface of an electrically conducting
object and is driven by a current at the desired ultrasonic frequency,
eddy currents will be induced in a near surface region of the object.
(EMATs)
• If a static magnetic field is also present, these eddy currents will
experience Lorentz Forces of the form
• 𝐹𝐹 = 𝐽𝐽 × 𝐵𝐵
• 𝐽𝐽 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
• 𝐵𝐵 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
• 𝐹𝐹 = 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
• The most important application of EMATs has been in NDE
applications such as flaw detection or material property
characterization.
(EMATs)
• Couplant free transduction allows operation without contact at
elevated temperatures and remote locations.
• The coil and magnetic structure can also design to excite complex
wave patterns and polarizations that would be difficult to realize with
fluid coupled piezoelectric probes.
• In the interference of material properties from precise velocity or
attenuation measurements, using EMATs can eliminate errors
associated with couplant variation, particularly in contact
measurements.
• A number of practical EMAT configurations are shown below.
(EMATs)
• In each, the biasing magnet structure, the coil, and the forces on the
surface of the solid are shown in an exploded view.
• The first three configurations will excite beams propagating normal to
the surface of the half – space and produce beams with
1. Radial,
2. Longitudinal, and
3. Transverse Polarizations, Respectively
• The final two use spatially varying stresses to excite beams
propagating at oblique angles or along the surface of a component.
(EMATs)
• Although a great number of variations on these configurations have
been conceived and used in practice, consideration of these three
geometries should suffice to introduce the fundamentals.
• Practical EMAT designs are relatively narrowband and requires strong
magnetic fields and large currents to produce ultrasound that is often
weaker than that produced by piezoelectric transducers.
• Rare – Earth Materials like Samarium – Cobalt and Neodymium – Iron
– Boron are often used to produce sufficiently strong magnetic fields,
which may also be generated by pulsed electromagnets.
(EMATs)
• The EMAT offers many advantages based on its couplant – free
operation.
• These advantages include abilities to operate in remote environments
at elevated speeds and temperatures, to excite polarizations not
easily excited by fluid coupled piezoelectric, and to produce highly
consistent measurements.
• These advantages are tempered by low efficiencies, and careful
electronic design is essential to applications.
Types of UT Presentation
• Ultrasonic data can be collected and displayed in a number of
different formats.
• The three most common formats known in the NDT world are :
1. A Scan
2. B Scan
3. C Scan
• Each presentation mode provides a different way of looking at and
evaluating the region of material being inspected.
• Modern computerized ultrasonic scanning systems can display data in
all three presentation forms simultaneously.
A Scan Presentation
• The A Scan presentation displays the amount of received ultrasonic
energy as a function of time.
• The relative amount of received energy is plotted along the vertical
axis and the elapsed time (which may be related to the sound energy
travel time within the material) is displayed along the horizontal axis.
• Most instruments with an A Scan display allow the signal to be
displayed in its natural radio frequency form (RF), as a fully rectified
RF signal, or either as the positive or negative half of the RF signal.
• In the A Scan presentation, relative discontinuity size can be
estimated by comparing the signal amplitude obtained from an
unknown reflector to that from a known reflector.
A Scan Presentation
• Reflector depth can be determined by the position of the signal on
the horizontal sweep.
• In the A scan presentation, the Initial Pulse generated by the
transducer is represented by the signal 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼, which is near time zero.
• As the transducer is scanned along the surface of the part, four other
signals are likely to appear at different times on the screen.
• When the transducer is in its far-left position, only the 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 signal and
signal A, the sound energy reflecting from surface A, will be seen on
the trace.
A Scan Presentation
• As the transducer is scanned to the right, a signal from the backwall
(BW) will appear later in time, showing that the sound has travelled
farther to reach this surface.
• The 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 signal corresponds to the front surface of the material, this
indicates that flaw B is about halfway between the front and the back
surfaces of the sample.
• When the transducer is moved over flaw C, signal C will appear earlier
in time since the sound travel path is shorter and signal B will
disappear since sound will no longer be reflecting from it.
B – Scan Presentation
• The B Scan presentation is a profile (cross – sectional) view of the test
specimen.
• In the B Scan, the time – of – flight (travel time) of the sound energy is
displayed along the vertical axis and the linear position of the
transducer is displayed along the horizontal axis.
• From the B Scan, the depth of the reflector and its approximate linear
dimensions in the scan direction can be determined.
• The B Scan is typically produced by establishing a trigger gate on the
A Scan.
• Whenever the signal intensity is great enough to trigger the gate, a
point is produced on the B Scan.
• The gate is triggered by the sound reflecting from the sound reflecting
from the backwall of the specimen and by smaller reflectors within
the material.
• In the B Scan image, line A is produced as the transducer is scanned
over the reduced thickness portion of the specimen.
• When the transducer moves to right of this section, the backwall BW
is produced.
• When the transducer is over flaws B and C, lines that are similar to
the to the length of the flaws and at similar depths within the
material are drawn on the B Scan.
• It should be noted that a limitation of this display technique is that
reflectors may be masked by larger reflectors near the surface.
C Scan Presentation
• The C Scan presentation provides a plan – type view of the location
and size of test specimen features.
• The plane of the image is parallel to the scan pattern of the
transducer.
• C Scan presentations are produced with an automated data
acquisition system, such as a computer – controlled immersion
scanning technique.
• Typically, a data collection gate is established on the A Scan and the
amplitude or the time – of – flight of the signal is recorded at regular
intervals as the transducer is scanned over the test piece.
C Scan Presentation
• The relative signal amplitude or the time – of – flight is displayed as a
shade of gray or a color for each of the positions where data was
recorded.
Calibration Methods
• Calibration refers to the act of evaluating and adjusting the precision
and accuracy of measurement equipment.
• It is necessary for the operator to perform a “user calibration” of the
equipment.
• This user calibration is necessary because most ultrasonic equipment
can be reconfigured for use in a large variety of applications.
• The user must calibrate the system, which includes the equipment
settings, the transducer and the test setup, to validate that the
required levels of precision and accuracy are achieved.
Calibration Methods
• The term calibration standard is usually only used when an obsolete
value is measured and, in many cases,, the standards are traceable
back to the standards at the National Institute for Standards and
Technology.
• In UT, there is a need for reference standards.
• Reference standards are used to establish a general level of
consistency in measurements, and to help interpret and quantify the
information contained in the received signal.
• Reference standards are used to validate that the equipment and the
setup provide similar results from one day to the next and that similar
results are produced by different systems.
Calibration Methods
• Reference standards also help the inspector to estimate the size of
flaws.
• In a pulsed – echo type setup, signal strength depends on both the
size of flaw and the distance between the flaw and the transducer.
• The inspector can use a reference standards with an artificially
induced flaw of known size and at approximately the same distance
away for the transducer to produce a signal.
• By comparing the signal from the reference standard to that received
from the actual flaw, the inspector can estimate the flaw size.
Calibration Methods
• This section will discuss some of the more common calibration and
reference specimens that are used in ultrasonic testing.
• Some of these specimens are shown in the figure below. Be aware
that there are other standards available and that specially designed
standards may be required for many applications.
• The information provided here is intended to serve a general
introduction to the standards and not to be instructions on the
proper use of the standards.
TOFD in the Field
• TOFD combined with the specific acceptance criteria, has been used
in the field for the inspection of thousands of welds in several major
construction and replacement projects in the petrochemical industry
and the power generation industry.
• These projects have proven that the use of TOFD can save precious
time.
• For Example, a project at a refinery in Rotterdam was finished two
weeks earlier than planned because they used TOFD instead of
Radiography.
Time – of – Flight Diffraction
• TOFD = Time – of – Flight Diffraction.
• TOFD is a highly accurate ultrasonic inspection technology, principally
intended for weld inspection.
History of TOFD
• TOFD originated from tip diffraction techniques which were first
published by Silk and Liddington in 1975 which paved way for TOFD.
• Gained wider acceptance in the 1980/90’s by the efforts of Sonomatic
and others.
• Equipment more portable and efficient in the 90’s – technological
design leads the way.
• The use of TOFD enabled crack sizes to be measured more accurately,
so that expensive components could be kept in operation as long as
possible with minimal risk of failure.
‘A – Scan’ to ‘Gray – Level Plot’
How does TOFD Work
• Measuring the amplitude of reflected signal is a relatively unreliable
method of sizing defects because the amplitude strongly depends on
the orientation of the crack.
• Instead of amplitude, TOFD uses the time – of – flight of an ultrasonic
pulse to determine the position and size of a reflector.
• In a TOFD system, a pair of ultrasonic probes sit on opposite sides of a
weld.
• One of the probes, the transmitter, emits an ultrasonic pulse that is
picked by the probe on the other side, the receiver.
How does TOFD Work
• In undamaged pipes, the signals picked up by the receiver probe are
from two waves :
1. One that Travels along the Surface.
2. One that Reflects off the Far Wall.
• When a crack is present, there is a diffraction of the ultrasonic wave
from the tip(s) of the crack.
• Using the measured time – of – flight of the pulse, the depth of crack
tip can be calculated automatically by simple trigonometry.
How does TOFD Work
• A TOFD setup with transmitter and receiver probes.
• In this case the receiver probe sees four indications :
1. One from the lateral wave that has travelled along the upper
surface,
2. One from the wave that has reflected off the far surface, and
3. Two from the defect in the test object.
Data Collection
Grayscale Image Presentation
• The depth between the upper end, 𝑑𝑑1 and the lower end, 𝑑𝑑2 can be
calculated as follows :
𝑣𝑣∆𝑡𝑡 2 +4𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣∆𝑡𝑡
• 𝑑𝑑 =
2
• 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤, 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤.
• ∆𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤.
• 𝐿𝐿 = 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝.
Applications of TOFD
• Critical plant items in construction and in – service.
• Pressure Systems – Vessels, Pipelines, Pipework.
• Storage Facilities – tanks and spheres.
• Tubed vessels – boilers, heat exchangers and condensers.
• Service induced defects and structural damage.
• Stress/Chemically assisted microcracking – SCC.
• Corrosion/Erosion Profiling – Especially weld root erosion.
• Thick wall Component > 300 mm.
• Clad/Lining Interface Bond/Cracking.
• Fabrication QC – includes “in – situ” construction.
Advantages of TOFD
• Highly accurate and sensitive
• Increased evidence
• Fast
• Comprehensive coverage
• Meaningful presentation
• Fast Reporting/Decision Making
• Permanent Record of All Parameters
• Offline Interpretation and Measurements
Advantages of TOFD
• Objective Assessment
• Excellent Repeatability
Challenges of TOFD
• Reduced near surface resolution (approximately 3 – 5 mm)
• Additional B scans necessary for transverse positioning.
• Sees everything (down to grain structure) so interpretation can be
complicated if material/weld quality is poor.
• Should not be used with conventional ultrasonic acceptance criteria.
TOFD as an Inspection Tool is:
• Fast
• Proven
• Cost Effective
TOFD Provides
• High POD and Low FCR
• Accuracy
• Real Time Sentencing
• Transparent Recording of Results
• Permanent Record
• Repeatability
Radiography
Introduction
• This module presents information on the NDT method of radiographic
inspection or radiography.
• Radiography uses penetrating radiation that is directed towards a
component.
• The component stops some of the radiation.
• The amount that is stopped or absorbed is affected by material
density and thickness differences.
• These differences in “absorption” can be recorded on film, or
electronically.
Electromagnetic Radiation
• The radiation used in Radiography testing is a higher energy
(shorter wavelength) version of the electromagnetic waves that we
see every day. Visible light is in the same family as x-rays and
gamma rays.
General Principles of Radiography
The part is placed between the radiation source and a piece
of film. The part will stop some of the radiation. Thicker
and more dense area will stop more of the radiation.
The film darkness (density) will

vary with the amount of radiation
reaching the film through the test
object.
X-ray film
= less exposure
= more exposure
Top view of developed film
General Principles of Radiography
• The energy of the radiation affects its penetrating power.
Higher energy radiation can penetrate thicker and more
dense materials.
• The radiation energy and/or exposure time must be
controlled to properly image the region of interest.
Thin-Walled Area
Low Energy Radiation High energy Radiation

IDL 2001
Flaw Orientation
Optimum
Radiography has
sensitivity limitations
Angle = easy to
when detecting cracks. detect
= not easy
to detect
X-rays “see” a crack as a thickness variation and the larger the variation, the
easier the crack is to detect.
When the path of the x-rays is not parallel to a crack, the thickness variation is less,
and the crack may not be visible.
IDL 2001
Flaw Orientation (cont.)

Since the angle between the radiation beam and a crack or other linear defect is so
critical, the orientation of defect must be well known if radiography is going to be used
to perform the inspection.
0o 10o 20o
Radiation Sources
Two of the most commonly used sources of radiation in
industrial radiography are x-ray generators and gamma ray
sources. Industrial radiography is often subdivided into “X-
ray Radiography” or “Gamma Radiography”, depending on
the source of radiation used.
Gamma Radiography
• Gamma rays are produced by
a radioisotope.
• A radioisotope has an
unstable nuclei that does not
have enough binding energy
to hold the nucleus together.
• The spontaneous breakdown
of an atomic nucleus resulting
in the release of energy and
matter is known as
radioactive decay.
Gamma Radiography (cont.)
• Most of the radioactive
material used in industrial
radiography is artificially
produced.
• This is done by subjecting
stable material to a source
of neutrons in a special
nuclear reactor.
• This process is called
activation.
Unlike X-rays, which are produced by
a machine, gamma rays cannot be
turned off. Radioisotopes used for
gamma radiography are
encapsulated to prevent leakage of
the material.
The radioactive “capsule” is

attached to a cable to form what
is often called a “pigtail.”
The pigtail has a special
connector at the other end that
attaches to a drive cable.
A device called a “camera” is used to store, transport and
expose the pigtail containing the radioactive material. The
camera contains shielding material which reduces the
radiographer’s exposure to radiation during use.
A hose-like device called a
guide tube is connected
to a threaded hole called
an “exit port” in the
camera.
The radioactive material

will leave and return to
the camera through this
opening when performing
an exposure.
A “drive cable” is connected to the
other end of the camera. This cable,
controlled by the radiographer, is
used to force the radioactive
material out into the guide tube
where the gamma rays will pass
through the specimen and expose
the recording device.
X-ray Radiography
Unlike gamma rays, x-rays are produced by an X-ray generator
system. These systems typically include an X-ray tube head, a
high voltage generator, and a control console.
X-ray Radiography (cont.)
• X-rays are produced by establishing a very high voltage between
two electrodes, called the anode and cathode.
• To prevent arcing, the anode and cathode are located inside a
vacuum tube, which is protected by a metal housing.
X-ray Radiography (cont.)
• The cathode contains a small filament High Electrical Potential
much the same as in a light bulb.
• Current is passed through the Electrons
filament which heats it. The heat + -
causes electrons to be stripped off.
• The high voltage causes these “free” X-ray Generator
electrons to be pulled toward a target or Radioactive
Source Creates
material (usually made of tungsten) Radiation
located in the anode.
• The electrons impact against the
target. This impact causes an energy
exchange which causes x-rays to be Radiation
Penetrate
created. the Sample
Exposure Recording Device

Imaging Modalities
Several different imaging methods are available to display the final
image in industrial radiography:
• Film Radiography
• Real Time Radiography
• Computed Tomography (CT)
• Digital Radiography (DR)
• Computed Radiography (CR)
Film Radiography
•One of the most widely used and
oldest imaging mediums in industrial
radiography is radiographic film.
•Film contains microscopic material

called silver bromide.
•Once exposed to radiation and
developed in a darkroom, silver
bromide turns to black metallic
silver which forms the image.
Film Radiography (cont.)
• Film must be protected from visible light.Light, just like x-rays
and gamma rays, can expose film. Film is loaded in a “light
proof” cassette in a darkroom.
• This cassette is then placed on the specimen opposite the
source of radiation. Film is often placed between screens to
intensify radiation.
• In order for the image to be viewed, the film must be
“developed” in a darkroom. The process is very similar to
photographic film development.
• Film processing can either be performed manually in open
tanks or in an automatic processor.
Once developed, the film is typically referred to as a
“radiograph.”
Digital Radiography
• One of the newest forms of radiographic imaging is “Digital
Radiography”.
• Requiring no film, digital radiographic images are captured using
either special phosphor screens or flat panels containing micro-
electronic sensors.
• No darkrooms are needed to process film and captured images can be
digitally enhanced for increased detail.
• Images are also easily archived (stored) when in digital form.
Digital Radiography (cont.)
There are a number of forms of digital radiographic imaging including:
• Computed Radiography (CR)
• Real-time Radiography (RTR)
• Direct Radiographic Imaging (DR)
• Computed Tomography
Computed Radiography
Computed Radiography (CR) is a digital imaging process that
uses a special imaging plate which employs storage
phosphors.
Computed Radiography (cont.)
X-rays penetrating the specimen stimulate the phosphors. The
stimulated phosphors remain in an excited state.
CR Phosphor Screen Structure

X-Rays
Protective Layer
Phosphor Layer
Phosphor Grains Substrate

After exposure:
The imaging plate is read

electronically and erased for reuse
in a special scanner system.
As a laser scans the imaging plate, light is emitted where X-rays
stimulated the phosphor during exposure. The light is then
converted to a digital value.
Optical
Scanner Photo-multiplier Tube
Laser Beam
A/D
Converter
Imaging
Plate 110010010010110
Motor
Digital images are typically sent to a computer
workstation where specialized software allows
manipulation and enhancement.
Examples of computed radiographs:
Real-Time Radiography
• Real-Time Radiography (RTR) is a term used to describe a form
of radiography that allows electronic images to be captured and
viewed in real time.
• Because image acquisition is almost instantaneous, X-ray
images can be viewed as the part is moved and rotated.
• Manipulating the part can be advantageous for several reasons:
It may be possible to image the entire component with one
exposure.
Viewing the internal structure of the part from different
angular prospective can provide additional data for analysis.
Time of inspection can often be reduced.
Real-Time Radiography (cont.)
• The equipment needed for an RTR includes:
•X-ray tube • Computer with frame

•Image intensifier or grabber
software
board and
other real-time detector
•Camera • Monitor
• Sample positioning
system (optional)
• The image intensifier is a device that
converts the radiation that passes
through the specimen into light.
• It uses materials that fluoresce when
struck by radiation.
• The more radiation that reaches the
input screen, the more light that is
given off.
• The image is very faint on the input
screen, so it is intensified onto a small
screen inside the intensifier where the
image is viewed with a camera.
•A special camera which • A monitor is then connected
captures the light output to the camera to provide a
of the screen is located viewable image.
near the
intensifying screen.
image • If a sample positioning
system is employed, the part
•The camera is very can be moved around and
sensitive to a variety of rotated to image different
different light intensities. internal features of the part.
Comparing Film and Real-Time Radiography
Real-time images are lighter Film images are darker in

in areas where more X-ray areas where more X-ray
photons reach and excite the photons reach and ionize
fluorescent screen. the silver molecules in the
film.
Direct Radiography
• Directradiography (DR) is a form of real-time
radiography that uses a special flat panel detector.
• The panel works by converting penetrating
radiation passing through the test specimen into
minute electrical charges.
• The panel contains many micro-electronic
capacitors. The capacitors form an electrical
charge pattern image of the specimen.
• Each capacitor’s charge is converted into a pixel
which forms the digital image.
Computed Tomography
Computed Tomography (CT) uses a real-time inspection
system employing a sample positioning system and
special software.
Computed Tomography (cont.)
•Many separate images are saved (grabbed) and complied into
2-dimensional sections as the sample is rotated.
•2-D images are them combined into 3-dimensional images.
Real-Time Compiled 2-D Compiled 3-D

Captures Images Structure
Image Quality
• Image quality is critical for accurate assessment of a test specimen’s
integrity.
• Various tools called Image Quality Indicators (IQIs) are used for this
purpose.
• There are many different designs of IQIs. Some contain artificial holes of
varying size drilled in metal plaques while others are manufactured from
wires of differing diameters mounted next to one another.
Image Quality (cont.)
• IQIs are typically placed on or
next to a test specimen.
• Quality typically being
determined based on the
smallest hole or wire diameter
that is reproduced on the image.
Radiation Safety
Use of radiation sources in industrial radiography
is heavily regulated by state and federal
organizations due to potential public and
personal risks.
Radiation Safety (cont.)
There are many sources of radiation. In general, a person receives
roughly 100 mrem/year from natural sources and roughly 100
mrem/year from manmade sources.
X-rays and gamma rays are forms of ionizing radiation, which means
that they have the ability to form ions in the material that is penetrated.
All living organisms are sensitive to the effects of ionizing radiation
(radiation burns, x-ray food pasteurization, etc.)
X-rays and gamma

rays have enough
energy to liberate
electrons from
atoms and damage
the molecular
structure of cells.
This can cause
radiation burns or
cancer.
Technicians who work with radiation must wear monitoring devices that
keep track of their total absorption, and alert them when they are in a
high radiation area.
Survey Meter Pocket Dosimeter Radiation Alarm Radiation Badge

There are three means of protection to help reduce
exposure to radiation:
Radiographic Images
Radiographic Images
• Can you determine what object was radiographed in this
and the next three slides?
Radiographic Images
Radiographic Images
Radiographic Images
Advantages of Radiography
•Technique is not limited by material type or density.
•Can inspect assembled components.
•Minimum surface preparation required.
•Sensitive to changes in thickness, corrosion, voids, cracks, and
material density changes.
•Detects both surface and subsurface defects.
•Provides a permanent record of the inspection.
Disadvantages of Radiography
• Many safety precautions for the use of high intensity radiation.
• Many hours of technician training prior to use.
• Access to both sides of sample required.
• Orientation of equipment and flaw can be critical.
• Determining flaw depth is impossible without additional angled
exposures.
• Expensive initial equipment cost.
Glossary of Terms
• Activation: the process of creating radioactive material from stable
material usually by bombarding a stable material with a large number
of free neutrons. This process typically takes place in a special nuclear
reactor.
• Anode: a positively charged electrode.
• Automatic Film Processor: a machine designed to develop film with
very little human intervention. Automatic processors are very fast
compared to manual development.
Glossary of Terms
• Capacitor: an electrical device that stores an electrical charge which
can be released on demand.
• Cathode: a negatively charged electrode.
• Darkroom: a darkened room for the purpose of film development.
Film is very sensitive to exposure by visible light and may be ruined.
• Exposure: the process of radiation penetrating and object.
• Gamma Rays: electromagnetic radiation emitted from the nucleus of
some radioactive materials.
Glossary of Terms
• Phosphor: a chemical substance that emits light when excited by
radiation.
• Pixel: Short for Picture Element, a pixel is a single point in a graphic
image. Graphics monitors display pictures by dividing the display
screen into thousands (or millions) of pixels, arranged in rows and
columns. The pixels are so close together that they appear connected.
• Photo-multiplier tube: an amplifier used to convert light into
electrical signals.
Glossary of Terms
Radioactive: to give off radiation spontaneously.
Radiograph: an image of the internal structure of and object produced
using a source of radiation and a recording device.
Silver Bromide: silver and bromine compound used in film emulsion to
form the image seen on a radiograph.

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Introduction of Magnetic Field

Application of Magnetic Media

Magnetize (Circular) 0.5 – 1.5 sec

Application of magnetic particles/inspect under UV

Very difficult to magnetize

Generator supplies excitation current and a synchronizing signal to the

Part modulates the electromagnetic field of the coil.

Why SDP is low in high conducting material

Strong Eddy Currents Generated

Strong Secondary Magnetic Fields Generated

Restrict the penetration of primary magnetic field

Hence SDP is low

the receiver than Stainless Steel.

The film darkness (density) will

Low Energy Radiation High energy Radiation

Flaw Orientation (cont.)

The radioactive “capsule” is

The radioactive material

Exposure Recording Device

•Film contains microscopic material

CR Phosphor Screen Structure

Phosphor Grains Substrate

The imaging plate is read

•X-ray tube • Computer with frame

Real-time images are lighter Film images are darker in

Real-Time Compiled 2-D Compiled 3-D

X-rays and gamma

Survey Meter Pocket Dosimeter Radiation Alarm Radiation Badge

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