4) : DIRECTING (4, INTRODUCTION Directing is defined as the process of instructing, guiding and inspiring human fictors in the organization to achieve organization objectives. It is not only issuing aders and instructions by a superior to his subordinates but also includs the process of guiding and inspiring them to work effectively. Directing includes the following elements: (i). Leadership (ii) Motivation (iii) Communication. 2. NATURE OF DIRECTING The characteristics or nature of directing are summarised as follows: Y Activiy initiation function: Directing is an important managerial function ‘hrough which the management initiates actions in the organisation.ouvrs (@2_] Principles of Managomony (ii) Pervasive function: lt is performed at all levels of management. Every manager in the organization performs his duties both as a superior and a subordinate, (ii) Continuous activity; It is a continuous process and ‘it continues throughout the life of the organisation. The managers has to give direction to his subordinates, but the process will not end with giving directions as he has to guide and motivate them continuously so that the desired goals can be achieved, (iv) Dual objective: It has dual objectives. On the one hand it aims at getting things done by the subordinates and on the other hand, it provides an opportunity for the managers to prove their leadership qualities. () Flow from top to bottom level: It basically initiates at the top level of the organisation and follows to bottom through the hierarchy. It emphasizes that a subordinate is to be directed by his own superior only. (vi) Delegate human function: It deals with human behaviour. Human behaviour is unpredictable by nature and conditioning the people’s behaviour towards the goals of an organization is what the manager does in the function. (ii) Creative activity: Ditecting function helps in converting plans into performance. A manager needs to have a creative and innovative thinking so that he can guide and motivate his subordinates with new ideas and techniques and making their performance better one. (viii) Facilitates co-ordination: It brings harmony among employees and balance between all the activities of an organization. 4.3. SCOPE OF DIRECTING The scope or importance of the directing in the organisation lies in the fact that every action is initiated through directirig. Directing informs the human beings in the organisation what he should do, how he should do and when he should do. The scope of the directing in the organisation is summarised as follows: (i) Directing conveys management perspective of the organisation to the individuals i) Di ‘ vid d motivates them to function in the desired way to meet the organizational an_ objective. Therefore, directin, as 8 initiates the actiy; such as planning, Organizing, setTng a he activity of other managerial functions B etc, (i) Directing integrates the employee's indi achieve the organisation objective ae 8 the performance of others in the orga idual efforts to make it effective to sin indivi i ee cach individual’s performance affects nisation, iii) Without having a proper motivati individ j motivation, leadership and communication, individual |, individual’s capability and potential may not be fully utili Bs ocean ers he car Ny utilized, Those motivation, leadership nts of directing. Therefore, directi i Ea : , dir the way to utilize the capability of the individual and a ee Be seihen and attempts to get maximum ( ) Any crete in the society where the organisation exists will affect the _ organisation structure and the individuals within it. Directing motivates individuals affected by these changes to incorporate and implement the changes. (y) Directing with its elements provides the stability in the organisation and maintains the balances in the different parts of the organisation. L AND GROUP BEHAVIOUR ple's thoughts, feelings, emotions dividual behaviour is in itself a ironment is a 4. FOUNDATIONS OF INDIVIDUAI! haviour is concerned with peo] a work. Understanding an inc jour in an organisational env’ : Organisational be -and actions in setting UP “challenge, but understanding gr0UP behav! _ ae = f hi behaviour in | as, “The study of human be! a _ ee e organisational Organisational behaviour © an behaviour and th ee i yen hum! _ ganisational settings, the interface ben Context, and the organisation itself”. sicting =" behaviour in the 4 . in predicts «vidual behaviour Organisational behaviow" = 1 distinction between individual 2 eal rawing 4 © es | “eanisational setting’ by 4 Nd group behaviour.4, Principles of Management - 4.4.1, Foundations of Individual Behaviour Human behavior is considered a complex phenomenon. It is very difficult to define in absolute terms. It is primarily a combination of responses to external and internal stintuli, These responses would reflect psychological structure of the person and may be results’ of the combination of biological and psychological processes, which interpret them, respond to them in an appropriate manner and learn from the result of these responses. An individual makes a variety of contributions to an organization in the form of efforts, skills, ability, time, loyalty and so forth. These contributions presumably satisfy various needs and requirements of the organization. In return for contributions, the organization provides incentives such as pay, promotion, and job security to the employee. If both the individual. and the organization consider the psychological contract fair and equitable, they will be satisfied with the relationship and are likely to continue it. If either party perceives an imbalance or iniquity in the contract, it may initiate a change. A major challenge faced by an organization; thus, is to manage the psychological contracts. : a : Job Standards of Ability Motivation requirements performance 7 Individual peoniduel Individual Pe ti : Organisation Personality behaviour and - resources Figure 4.1 Factors of individual behaviour in organization One specific aspect of managing psychological contracts is managing the person- The ‘person-job fit’ is the extent to which the contributions made by the +h the incentives offered by the organization. An organization achieves job fit. individual mate!_agertect personsjob fit when it exactly fulfills the employee's needs, Such a perfect son-job fit is rarely achieved due to various réasons such as imperfect selection ' ures, differences in individual skills, constant change in the needs and jrements of people and organization. Thus, the behavior of individuals in ization is the primary concem of Management and it is essential that the gers should have an understanding of the factors influencing the behavior of the s they manage. Five sets of factors that have an impact upon individual ‘442. Definition, Need and Types of Group A group consists of a number of individuals working together for a common tive. Groups have significant influence on an organization and are inseparable m an organization. They are useful for the organization as they form foundation of According to Marvin Shaw, “a group comprises, of two or more persons who t with one another in such a manner that each person influences and is “influenced by each other person”. The key parts of this definition are the concepts of interaction and influence, “which also limit the size of the group. It is difficult for members to interact ently in a large group. Groups or work teams are the primary tools used by "Managers. ‘Need for a group: The reasons for the need of groups are as follows: > In a group, individuals communicate with each other, discuss their work es and take suggestions from each other to make it better. perform each and every task. Group efforts are required performanc: > An individual cannot for its completion. > Group efforts affect an individual, his attitude and behavior. > Group has the ability to satisfy the needs of its members. a =.= al Principles of Managemont > A group can judge ina better way.as compared to an individual, > While accomplishing tasks, all members of a group together use their creative and innovative ideas than a single individual. > Groups help in making participative management more effective. Groups make the environment at workplace livelier. > Groups of all kinds and types help by cooperating in all the matters related to production and human relations to work effectively in the organization, Classification of group: Groups may be classified into the following three types: @ Functional or Formal group: This type of group is defined by the organization’s structure with designated work assignments establishing tasks, The behaviors are sct and directed towards organizational goals. These groups are Permanent in nature. They have to follow - Tules, regulations and policy of the organization. A formal organizational group includes departments such as the Personnel department, the marketing department, the quality control department and the public relations department, Gi) Task group: This group is organizationally determined but it represents those working ms are Ps. The organization after specifying @ group membership, assigns a narrow set of Purposes such as developing a new product, evaluating a’ proposed grievance Procedure, ete, A. evaluating p task group's boundaries are not limited to its immediate hierarchical superior, It ‘an have cross command relationships. (iti) Command group: This group is dictated by the formal organization, Generally, the organization chart determines a command group. It is composed of direct reports to a given ; | |jzational goals. Meg are the groups formed by the employces themselves at the kplace while working together. This type of group is neither formally-structured organizationally-determined. Informal groups form when individuals are drawn er by friendship, by mutual interests or both. The organization does not take active interest in their formation. These groups are spontaneous and are very tive and powerful. For example, three employees from different departments regularly, eat lunch together is an informal group. Informal groups are of y) An interest group: People associate to attain a particular objective with which each is concerned is an interest group. Employees comin; salary, medical benefit and other facilit 1g together for payment of bonus, increase in ies are the examples of interest groups. b) Friendship group: Friendship groups tastes and opinions. These group: he form of clubs and associations. are the groups of individuals belonging to same age group, ing similar views, s can also be formed outside plant or office and can be int (c) Membership group: Membership groups ‘profession and knowing each groups of individuals’ belonging to the same re the teachers of the same faculty in a h other. For example, versity. @) Reference group? ps are the grou ym the group. re successful but others are incapable of dations are different to each other. Reference grout 1p where individuals shape their ideas, beliefs, ues etc. They want support fro} Out these groups, many groups 4 2 thieving the objectives because the fount2 cca 4.4.3, Foundations of Group Behaviour Principles of Management The study of group behavior is essential for an organization to achieve its goals, Individual and group behaviors vary from each other. In 1920, Elton Mayo and his associates conducted the Hawthome experiments and came to know that the group behavior has great impact on productivity. The importance of group behavior has been realized from time to time. Human behavior consists of individuals, who move in groups. The knowledge of group behavior as well as individual behavior is necessary for a manager. He must understand group psychology and should also understand individual behavior in the context of group behavior. Group behaviour depends on many factors such as o: group member resources, group structure, Process, rganisational conditions, » SToUp status, group composition, group Sroup tasks, group decision-making, group cohesiveness and group thinking. (Group formation and development ‘motives because of which the individuals join a group whic h are as follows: @) Organizational motives to join groups: Organizations form functional and task loupS because such groups help the orga nization in Structuring and grouping the organizational activities logically and efficiently. (b) Personal motives to join groups: Individuals also choose to join informal or interest groups for unimportant reasons, Since joining these groups is Voluntary, various personal motives affect membership. They are as follows: J. Interpersonal attraction; Individuals come together to form informal or re also attracted to each ol contribute to interpersonal attraction are Sex, similar attitudes, personality and economic standing. interest group, as they a ther. The factors thatncrest in group activities: Individuals may also be motivated to join an info playing tennis, discussing current events or contemporary literature, all these are group activities that individuals enjoy. mal or interest group because the activities of the group appeal to them. Support for group goals: The individuals may also be motivated by the other embers to join due to goal of the group. For example, a club, which group m is dedicated to environmental conservation, may motivate individuals to join. . Need, for affiliation: Another reason for individuals to join groups is to satisfy their need for attachment. Retired/old aged individuals join groups to enjoy the companionship of other individuals in similar situation. Instrumental benefits: Group membership sometimes also helpful in an individual: For example, a manager might join cls that being a member of this club will lead to providing other benefits to a Rotary / Lions club if he fe important and useful business contacts. (i) Stages of group development Members of new group are wl hesitant in their interactions. The new group must pass different stages of different stages of group development are explained as follows: nfamiliar with one another's personalities and are development. These Stage 1; Mutual acceptance During this stage, the members of the check, which interpersonal behavior is acceptable and which is unacceptable by the loter members of the group. This hel er better and helps the group to move toll group get familiar with one another and Ips all the members of a group to know each the next stage easily. stave 2: Communication and decision-making During this stage, groUP members share their opinions and formulate the group's foals. Through communication a! ird stage. nd decision-making, the structure becomes clear and group moves to the thi ee — coPrinciples of Management Stage 3: Motivation and productivity This stage is characterized by a shared acceptance among members of what the group is trying to do. Each person recognizes.and accepts his role as well as. to accept and to understand the roles to others. Members also become more comfortable with each other and develop a sense of group identity and unity. Stage 4: Control and organization In this stage, the members perform the roles they have accepted and direct their group efforts toward goal attainment, In reality, from group to group, depending on the time, members and frequency of interaction, this developmental sequence varies Personal characteristics of group (iii) Characteristics of mature ‘groups AAS groups pass through the stages of development to maturity, Signs of the following four characteristies: a role structure, cohesiveness and informal leadership. they begin to show behavioral norms, (@) Role Structures: A role is the part that an individ Boals. Role structure is the set of defined roles and interrelationships among those roles that the group members define and accept. The failure in role development result in role ambiguity, role conflict and Tole overload. Managers have to take steps to avoid role ambiguity, role conflict and role overload. lual plays in a group to reach its ) Behavioral norms: ively depending on the following factors: > ‘The extent of cooperation with management, > Maintenance of an efficient communication system, » Satisfaction of the needs of group members, (c) Cohesiveness: Cohesiveness is defined as the attractiveness of group members towards the, group. It also emphasizes on the group’s ability to satisfy its asgpember’s needs. It, therefore, helps the group members to work more qunsistently and make greater contribution to the achievement of the oganizational goals. It is also Psychologically more satisfying to all of its gpembers, @ Informal leadership: Each informal, group has one or more leaders. These jeaders come forward on the basis of acceptance of all the group members. Every informal group has one primary leader apart from the secondary leaders. The primary leader has more influence on the group members than the secondary leaders. 45, CREATIVITY AND INNOVATION Creativity is defined as the ability to produce new and useful ideas through the combination of known principles and components in novel ‘and non-obvious ways. Creativity exists throughout the population, largely independent of age, sex and education. To have an effective research organisation, it requires the understanding shout creative process, identifying and acquiring creative people, and maintaining an cavironment that supports rather than inhibits creativity. 45.4. Creativity Process Creativity is a very complex process. It is unexplainable and comes out of the clear blue sky for no apparent reasons. But behavioural scientists believe that through specific process, creativity emerges- The following are the steps usually identified in describing this process. @ Saturation: It may be true that some new ideas may come just by the way but the most ight ideas is to work on a baffling problem and work hard. For uld thoroughly conversant with the problem on hand. For ly begins in thorough familiarity with a problem itself, its Jationship to other parts of the business, and its setting. It important way to get Ti example, a manager sho him, saturation stage norm®! history, its importance, its rel anePrinciples of Management 5 will provide the manager an insight in identifying the real problem and he can think for the suitable solution. (ii) Preparation: step is a period of conscious, direct, mental effort devoted to the blem. During this step, the following (b) collect all available Th ‘accumulation of information pertinent to the prol ructure the problem, Jations and effects, (d) solve sub-problems and (e) lead to a satisfactory activities are carried out (a) st information, (c) understand rel explore all possible solutions and combinations that may solution. (ili) Frustration and incubation: Failure to solve the problem satisfactorily by the analytical: process leads to frustration to the creative person. Therefore, he may engage himself i in activities totally unconnected with the problem. He may watch movie, play video games and go for other entertainment, and so on. However, the problem fortified with all facts gathered about it incubates in the subconscious mind. The subconscious mind engages continuously in gencration of ideas for the solution of problem even though people may not be aware about it. During the process of incubation, the mind will work subconsciously to create certain new ideas. (iv) Inspiration or illumination: A possible solution to the problem may occur as a spontaneous insight, often when the conscious mind is at rest during relaxation or sleep. Raudsepp states that “creative ideas may and do appear at any hour and under the strangest circumstances”. Sometimes, many ideas may come when one is not really thinking about the problem consciously. (v) Verification: It is the final stage of creative process and involves verifying, modifying of applying the ideas towards the solution of the problem under study. Intuition or insight is not always correct and the solution revealed in a flash of insight must now be tested and evaluated to assure it which is a satisfactory solution to the problem.gctually @ very critical phase in creative process because new ideas are Wes : set8S until they come into full form and they are available for consideration by pose whe can use them. 45.2. Innovation ‘A difference can be made between creativity and innovation. The term s. On the other hand, sereativity” refers the ability and power to develop new idea jmovation means the use of these ideas. In an enterprise, it can mean a new product, anew service or anew way of doing things. ations are based mainly on bright ideas. Tt is very risky and not successful exited one. Innovation is traditional Tnnov: stall times. The most successful innovations are often the not only relevant to high-tech enterprises but also ctucial for old-line, companies which may not service without the infusion of innovation. Innovation comes because of some of the following situations. () The unexpected event, failure or success. (i) The fact that the difference between what is assumed and what really is. (iii) The process or task which needs the improvement. the market or industry improvement. market or industry structure. (iv) Change int (v) Change in the (vi) Change in human jing or in the way things are perceived. populations. (vii) Change in mean! (viii) Inpovation based on knowledge. 4.6, MOTIVATION orkdone by the subordinates in order to attain Management is the art of getting w Getting workdone is a difficult task. For this goals of the organisation. the common should inspire and , motivate the people for the purpose, the management accomplishment of ‘organisational objectives, MN esles of Management ‘The force of motivation is a dynamic force setting a person into motion or action, ‘The word ‘motivation’ is derived from ‘motive’ which is an active form of a desire or mead which must be satisfied. All motives are directed towards goals, and the needs, ‘The desires affect or change the behavior of a person. According to Koon and O'Donnell, “Motivation is a general term applying to Se entre class of drives, desires, needs, wishes and similar forces induce an SpSividaal or 2 group of people to work”. Scorn defines “Motivation means a process of stimulating people in action to ch the desired goals”. Ewin BFlippo states “Motivation is the process of attempting to influence echess © do your will through the possibility of reward”. Duis bes defined motivation as “motivation is the complex forces starting and S2e = person at work in an organisation. Motivation is something which moves ‘Se person to action end continues him in the course of action already initiated”. 5 te view of Dolton E. McFarland, “The concept of motivation is mainly psychological It relates to those forces operating within the individual employee or s=bocGinzte which impel him to act or not to act in certain ways”. 5s Smple words, motivation is the process of inducing people’s inner drives and 2ctons towards certain goals and committing his energies to achieve these goals. 46.1. Nature of Motivation From above definitions, the following characteristics can be understood: > , Motivation is an unending process because human needs are unlimited, * Motivation is a psychological concept which generates within‘an individual. It is ax inducement of inner feeling of an individual and it cannot be forced upon from outside.F preci 5 > Motivation is a behavioural concept that directs the human behaviour towards certain goals. > A person cannot be partially motivated because he is a self-centered and inseparable unit. > Frustrated man who fails in satisfying his basic needs cannot be further motivated until his basic needs are fulfilled. > Motivation can be either positive or negative. Positive motivation implies use of incentives, rewards etc. to satisfy human needs while the negative motivation emphasize penalties, threatening etc. > Motivation is a complex process because of the nature of needs and the type of behaviour which are attempted to satisfy those néeds. > Motivation is system Oriented. Motivation is the result of three group of factors. (a) It influences to operate within an individual i.e., his needs, goals etc. (0) It influences to operate within the organisation i.c., organisation structure, physical facilities, nature of job etc. (©) It forces to operate in the external environment e.g. Culture, norms etc. v Motivation and satisfaction are different. Motivation refers to the drive and effort to satisfy a want or goal, Satisfaction refers the contentment experienced when a want is satisfied. It is experienced when the outcome has been achieved. 4.6.2. Importance of Motivation Motivation is one of the important functions of the management without which organisational objectives are difficult to achieve. It is the integral part of the "management process and every manager must motivate his subordinates to create them the will to work. Motivation is necessary for the better performance. The importance of motivation is briefly diseussed below: sa a>rr (i) (iii) (iv) Principles of Management Motivation creates a willingness on the part of workers to do the work in a better way. A proper motivation improves the efficiency of operation. A-proper utilization of human resources is possible since it inspires the employees to make the best possible use of different factors of production, Higher motivation leads to job satisfaction. As a result of this, labour absentecism and turnover are low. Motivation helps to solve the labour problems and it maintains good labour relations. : Motivation is the basis of co-operation to get the best results out of the efforts of the men on the job. Efficiency and output are increased through co-operation. (vii) Higher motivation helps to reduce resistance to change. (viii) By providing the proper motivation, all members. will try to be as efficient (ix) &) as possible and to improve upon their skill and knowledge. Financial and non-financial incentives not only retain the existing employees but also attract the competent employees from outside the enterprise, A’ proper motivation scheme promotes a closer relationship between enterprise and workers, 4.6.3. Motivation Process According to Michael J. Jucius, the following steps can be adapted in the motivation process: (i) Analysis of situation: The situation which needs motivational inducement must be created so as to ascertain the motivational needs. Since the needs of different employees differ both in nature as well as intensity, a composite view of the collective needs of the group is established with appropriate recognition of differences in individual needs.lecting and applyii set See plying a set of appropriate motivating tools: A list of all devices of motivation is drawn and a selection is made of such ayativators which motivate different types of people under different circumstances. ai Follow-up: It is important to know that the motivators selected are indeed by providing the desired motivation. It can be accomplished by getting and evaluating the feedback. If these motivators are not showing the optimum effect, then alternative motivators should be selected and applied, 4.6.4, Types of Motivation The following are some of the types of motivation: (i) Positive motivation: Positive motivation involves a proper recognition of employee’s efforts and appreciation of employee contribution towards the goal achievement. Economic benefits, participation in decision-making process, pride and delegation of authority and responsibility are some of the methods of positive motivation. Such motivations improve the standard of performance and it lead to good team spirit, a sense of co- operation and feting of belonging and happiness. (ii) Negative motivation: / This motivation is based on force, fear and threats. The fear of punishment or unfavourable consequences affects the behavioral changes. If the worker fails to complete the work, they may be threatened with demotion, dismissal, lay-off, pay cut etc. The negative motivation gives maximum benefits in the short run. (iii) Extrinsic motivation: This motivation is induced by external factors which are primarily financial in nature, These incentives and rewards have been subjected to debate whether they Teally motivate the employees oF simply move them to work or perform. These motivations include higher pay, retirement benefits, rest periods, holidays, profit sharing schemes, health and medical insurance, vacation etc. =.448 Principles of Management (iv) Intrinsic motivation or power motive: Intrinsic motivation is available at the time of performance of work. These motivations provide a satisfaction during the performance of the work itself. Some of the intrinsic motivations are praise, recognition, responsibility, esteem, power, status, participation ete. 4.7, MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES 4.7.4. Carrot and Stick Approaches of Motivation The carrot and stick approaches are based on the old belief that the best way to get work a person is to put a reward (carrot) in front of him or to hold out the threat of punishment (stick) from behind. The ‘carrot’ is the reward for working and the ‘stick’ is the punishment for not working. Under this approach, employees who perform the task well are given rewards in the form of bonus, pay raise, promotion etc. While employees avoid work, punishment such as demotion, termination from work, transfer to an unpleasant job, etc.-are given. Employers who adopt this approach believe that a person seeks for employment because he expects to eam money. At the same time, he knows that if he does not perform his job satisfactorily, he will loose his job. Therefore, Carrot and Stick approach are reward and punishment system for motivating employees. The following are some of the measures to make Carrot and Stick to be approached more effective: » Reward is 2 more effective motivator when it is directly linked with performance. Accurate appraisal of performance, consistent reward structure and prompt payment of reward are helpful in improving the effect of reward. > Punishment is more effective when the undesirable behaviour actually occurs. v Punishment should be used to modify the behaviour and to force the person to adapt the desirable behaviour. Punishment should not become a reward for undesirable behaviour. Vvyp The mu ture of reward ‘an pun reinforce desirable behay: hme ; nt shou : Hour patterns, Mid be judiciously applied to | wn. Mc-Gregor's Theory X and Thoory Y rf. 7 Prof. Douglas McGregor has developed a s nthe basis of set of theories o eses relating to chavi wy pot a - human behaviour, These theories are commonly known as «theory X” and “Theory Y’. Accordi ; Th y PY. According to McGregor, the function of motivating involves certain asst i people a : ‘ain assumptions about the human nature. A brief explanation of “theory X” and “Theory Y” is given below, 1, Theory-X. According to McGregor, theory X is based on the following assumptions of human nature and behavior: > The average human dislikes to work. He will avoid work if it is possible. > Therefore, people must be controlled, directed and threatened with punishment to make them work. > The average human being prefers to be directed. He avoids the responsibility. fants only the job security. ed and indifferent to organisational He has no ambition in life. He w: > An average man is inherently self-center goals. > He is resistance to change by nature. eative in nature. So, ff subordinates. Theory ‘X’ is pessimistic, The above assumptions are ne! a manager must take effective ¢ activities 0! tative Or autocratic type of management. 2. Theory °Y? theory-Y, mptions are made about the human According to theory" "> the following ass nature and behavior: est, The average being has the tendency 7 s play oF rest, The average human > Work is as natural as Pl to work. a MmPrinciples of Management > External control and threat of punishment are not only the means of Teaching the objectives of organisation. Man will have self-direction and control. By this, organisational objectives can be achieved. > People will be committed to the objectives, if they are properly rewarded, > Under proper conditions, the average human being accepts the Tesponsibility. Large numbers of people are capable of solving organisational problems in an organisation with high degree of. imagination, ingenuity and creativity, Jnder modem industrial life, the intelligence capacity of average human being is only partially utilized, A worker may exhibit his efficiency even for non-monetary rewards such as Participation in decision-making, increased Tesponsibility etc. Theory Y represents a modem and dynamic nature of human beings. It is based on positive motivation. So, the management does not need to apply much direction and control on the employees. If the employee’s needs are satisfied, they will be ‘ganisation. Theory Y is optimistic, flexible, : Comparison between theory X and theory Y: S. No Theory X Theory ¥ 1. | The average human dislikes to Work is as natural as play or rest, work, 2. | People are unambiguities and Ambitious and capable of prefer to be directed by other. directing their own. 3. | They avoid the responsibility. | They accept the responsibil under proper conditions, 4, | External control, threatening and Self-directed and selfcontrolled close supervision required. 5. | People lack self-motivation. People are self-motivated,The authority is centralized and it leads to autocratic leadership, Decentralization and participation in decision-making. Demooratic ea leadership is followed. They have less creativity and resist They have high degree of to change. imaginati imagination. Itis pessimistic, static and rigid, | It is optimistic, dynamic and flexible, 73. Ouchi's Theory Z William Ouchi developed Theory Z after making a comparative study ‘of Jnanese and American management practices. Theory Z has been called a al description of the humanistic organisations. Theory Z is an integrated sociologicé ed upon @ el of motivation. Theory Z is an approach to management bas combination of American and Japanese management philosophies. Srpporters of Theory Z suggest that it leads to improvements in organisational performance. The Japanese management style popularized in the 1980s that assumes ement and other st in good working relationships with manag' employees. Management generally has high confidence in employees, who are te in the management decision making. Employees are viewed encouraged to, participa 6 will stay with the same firm throughout their careers. long-term assets wh ryle based on the following assumptions: employees have an intere: Japanese consensus management st t to build cooperative employees in the firms; (a) Employees want relationships with their employers, peers, and other (0) For this they require high degree of support in the form of Cae employment and facilities for development of multiple skills through training and job rotation, ere ‘al institutions as much : ct ai © They value family life, culture and traditions, and socl as material success,Principles of Me (a) acne ae ep! a (@) They have well sdlevelopedt sense ot dodivation, moral obligations, and self. Aiseipling, and (e) They can make collective decisions through consensus, ee Ouchi modified American approach to management with the best characteristics s while retaining aspects of management that are de ‘of Japanese organisations while retaining aspects of manag deeply | rooted in U.S, traditions of individualism, | Ouchi's proposed Theory Z management approach could lead to: faction (i) Greater employee job sati (i) Lower rates of absenteeism and tumover (iii) Higher quality products (iv) Better overall financial performance for US firms, Theory Z suggests that large complex organisations are human systems and their | effectiveness depends on the quality of humanism used, A type Z organisation has three major features: trust, subtlety and intimacy, Ss § Mutual trust betiveen: members of an organisation reduces conflict and leads to | 5 8 eam work. Subtlety requires sensitivity towards others and yields higher e Productivity. Inimacy implies concer, support and disciplined unselfishness, i f Features of Theory Z: ! E i The distinguishing features of Theory Z ate as follows: | : (a) Mutual trust: } According of Ouchi, trust, integrity and openn effective organisation. When trust and openness ¢: Are essential ingredients of an ist between, employees, work the minimum and employees: groups, union and management, conflict is reduced to cooperate fully to achieve the organisation's objecti S. i (6) Strong bond between organisation and employees Several methods can be used to establish a Strong bond between the enterprise and its employees. Employees may be granted lifetime employment whieh leads tosalty cowards the enterprise, During adverse business conditions shareholders ma fifice dividends (0 avoid retrenchment of workers, Promotions my be Tee wo ‘As against vertical movement of employees greater cmphasis should be placed h horizontal movement which reduces stagnation, A carcer planning for employces ould be done so that every employee is properly placed, This would result in a more able and conducive work environment, 7 io) Employee involvement: “Theory Z suggests that involvement of employees in related matters improves ir commitment and performance, Involvement implies meaningful participation of rectly affecting mployces in the decision-making process, particularly in matters di a sense of responsibility and increases enthusiasm them. Such participation generates Top managers serve as facilitators rather than in the implementation of decisions, ion-makers. (@) Integrated organisation: Under Theory Z, focus is on sharing of information ‘ons or any formal structure. An integrated organisation puts emphasis on erdependence of tasks, Such and resources rather than on chart, divisi job rotation which improves understanding about int understanding leads to group spirit. (¢) Coordination: . . The leader’s role should develop common culture and class feelin tion, debate and analysis. be to coordinate the efforts of human beings. In order to in the organisation, the leader must use the ‘processes of communica Informal control system: Organisational control system should be made informal, For this purpose ~ emphasis should be on mutual trust and cooperation rather than on superior- © subordinate relationships. | (g) Human resource development: Managers ‘should develop new skills among employees. Under Theory Z, » potential of every person is recognized and attempts are made to develop and utilise itPrinciples of Management through job enlargement, career planning, training, etc. Thus, Theory Z is a hybirg system which incorporates the strengths of American management (individua, freedom, risk taking, quick decision-making, etc.) and Japanese management (job security, group decision-making, social cohesion, holistic concern for employees, etc.) systems. Japanese companies operating in the United States have successfully used Theory Z. After collaboration between Japanese and Indian companies, some experts have suggested application of this theory in India, in Maruti Udyog, which has collaboration with Suzuki motors of Japan an attempt has been made to apply Theory Zz. ! The workplace has been designed on the Japanese pattern, which involves open offices. The same uniform has been introduced for all employees irrespective of their a a designation. Similarly, there is a common canteen for all. These practices are if expected to avoid status differentials and class feeling among employees and thereby facilitate teamwork in the company. Limitations of Theory Z: Theory Z suffers from the following limitations: (a) Provision of lifetime employment to employees to develop a strong bond between organisation and employees may fail to motivate employees with higher level needs. It merely provides job security and may fail to develop loyalty among employees. An employee may leave the organisation whet better employments are offered to him by some other enterprise. Moreovet, complete security of job may create lethargy among many employe Employers also do not like to retain inefficient employees permanently. (b) Participation of employces in the decision-making process is very difficult Managers may dislike participation as it may hurt their ego and freedom Employees may be reluctant to participate due to fear of criticism and ick of motivation. Even if they sit along with management they may contribute tittle“unless they unders iss unles 'y understand the issues and take initiative. Involvement of all employees may also slow down the decision-making process. _(o) Theory Z suggests organisation without any structure, But without structure there may be chaos in the organisation as nobody will know who is responsible to whom, (a) It may not be possible to develop a common culture in the organisation because people differ in their attitudes, habits, languages, religions, customs, ete. (e) Theory Z is based on Japanese management practices. These practices have been evolved from Japan’s unique culture. Therefore, the theory may not be applicable in different cultures. mplete solution to motivational problems of Thus, Theory Z does not provide co1 ull organisations operating under different types of environment. However, it is not srely a theory of motivation but a philosophy of managing. 7.4. Dual-Model Theory (Miles theory) "According to Raymond E.Miles, the managerial task isto integrate organisational ry and: structure) with human variables (capabilities, ariable (goals, technolog: ffective and eds and demographic characteristics) into an ¢ attitudes, values, ne t known as fraditional, Miles identified three theories of management icient system. e ns and human resources models. The traditional model is similar to rees model is closely related to Theory Y. The as Theory X with participation. human relatio Theory X, while the human resout relations model may be seen. model: s is on controlling and directing, According to this model, the fic goals if tasks and procedures are @) Traditional Its emphasi mbers of the enterprise will meet speci! ecified and members are properly selected, trained and paid.unless they understand the issues and take initiative, Involvernent of all employees may also slow down the decision-making process, (c) Theory Z suggests organisation without any structure, But without structure there may be chaos in the organisation as nobody will know who is responsible to whom. [ (qd) It may not be possible to develop a common culture in the organisation because people differ in their attitudes, habits, languages, religions, customs, etc. _ (c) Theory Z is based on Japanese management practices. These practices have been evolved from Japan’s unique culture. Therefore, the theory may not be applicable in different cultures. Thus, Theory Z does not provide complete solution to motivational problems of ill organisations operating under different types of environment. However, it is not jercly a theory of motivation but a philosophy of managing. (7.4. Dual-Model Theory (Miles theory) _ According to Raymond E.Miles, the managerial task is to integrate organisational fable (goals, technology and structure) with human variables (capabilities, ittitudes, values, needs and demographic characteristics) into an effective and fficient system. Miles identified three theories of management known as fraditional, i and human resources models. The traditional model is similar to fuman relations Theory X, while the human resources model is closely related to Theory Y. The yman relations modebmay be seen as Theory X with participation. @ Traditional model: = ts emphasis is on controlling and directing. According to this, pode, the smbers of the enterprise will meet specific goals if tasks and procedures are -scified and members are properly selected, trained and paid.Princlplos of Managemen (ii) Human relations model: This model gives an attention to social and egoistic needs. It is recognized that fair treatment and pay are not only cnough, There should be a sufficient control and preventive steps are also taken to obtain the desired contributions of enterprize members. (iii) Human resource model: It is different that of above two. Under this model, the manager is seen as 4 developer, well-wisher and facilitator who helps the subordinates achieve performance aims. In this model, self-direction and self-control are important. There is a great deal of participation in goal setting. 4.7.5, Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory Maslow’s hicrarchy of need theory is one of the most popular theories of motivation in the management. This theory was developed by an eminent American Psychologist Dr. Abraham H.Maslow, Dr.Maslow was the pioneer in the proper classification of human-needs. Some of the salient features of this theory are as follows: (i) Human likings are innumerable and never ending if one liking is satisfied and another liking emerges in that place, (ii) Adult motives are complex. No single motive determines the behaviour, rather a number of motives Operate at the same time, (ii) Human needs form a hierarchy. Lower level ni satisfied before the higher level needs emei needs is essentially satisfied, leeds must atleast partly be rge. In other Words, a higher order (iv) Satisfied needs do not motivate the workers, Only unsatisfied needs induce the man to work hard, (v) Various levels of needs are inter-dependent and overlapping,order needs, Maslow proposed that basic needs are structured in 42. These needs are further explained in detail as follow: a hierarchy shown in Figure Ss i physiological needs Physiological needs are the biological needs Tequited to preserve the human life. these needs include needs for food, clothing and shelter. These needs must be met at tas partly before the higher level needs emerge. These needs are the most powerful notivating force than others, Safety needs: Once the physiological needs are satisfied, the safety or security needs become predominant, They include: @ Protection from physiological dangers (fire, accident, tte), (i) Economic security (fringe benefits, health, insurance), (iii) Desire for an «iderly, predictable environment, and (iv) The desire to know the limits of acceptable kehaviour. These safety needs are really provisions against deprivation in future. It 2soinvolves in.a sense of protection against danger and threats. 5. Self-actualisation needs 4, Esteem needs 3, Social needs R 2, Safety needs 1. Physiological needs or basic needs Figure 4.2 Maslow 5 hierarchy of needs(ee) rine Mangement 3. Social needs After the needs of the body and security are satisfied, then a sense of belonging and acceptance becomes predominant in motivating behaviour. These needs are for love, friendship, exchange of feelings and grievances, recognition, conversation, belongingness, companionship etc. Social needs tend to be stronger for some people than for others and stronger in certain situations, 4, Esteem needs There are two types of esteem needs such as self-esteem and esteem of others. Self-esteem needs include those for self-confidence, achievement, competence, self- tespect, knowledge and for independence and freedom. The second group of esteem needs is those which related to one’s reputation needs for status, recognition, appreciation and deserved respect of one fellow. 5. Self-actualisation needs These needs are also called as self-realisation needs, Self-actualisation refers the desire to become everything that one is capable of becoming. For example, thinks that he is capable of saving the life of a Patient. A teacher thinks capable of giving best teaching to students, What a man CAN be and he Self-actualisation is a ‘growth’ need, a doctor that he is MUST be? isation needs) are Tegarded as higher fied by monetary and non-monetary fon includes love, recognition, good working conditions etc. The higher level needs are satisfied through Participation in 'Y and responsibility, more freedom, level needs. The lower level needs can be satist compensation. The non-monetary compensati decision-making process, delegation of authority self-development etc, Critical appraisal of Maslow’s theory: Maslow’s need priority model helps the management to understand the behaviour of workers and motivates them. It presents the nature and priority order of needs. Hisiple, direct and pr «very ; pach is VerY at Everyone hos some priority of needs but nay not be necessarily in the priority order as deseribed by Maslow, Maslow sell accepted that the hierarchy level of needs is not rigid one and it can be aged from ‘one person to another person, he following are some of the problems which are not adequately solved by this hon? @ Maslow’s hierarchy of needs may not apply at all times in all places and under all circumstances. (ii) Some people do not require social needs because they might have lost love during their childhood, (iii) Need of recognition and fulfillment do not always follow the specific sequence or hierarchy suggested by Maslow, Because the theory gives an over simplification of human needs and motivation, Therefore, the theory may not have universal validity. (iv) There are many determinant of behaviour other than needs and desires such as aspirations, expectations, experience etc. Thus, the behaviour of a man is not a result of his needs only. (\) A single need cannot motivate any individual, There is a need of several needs to constitute a proper motivation. (vi) People differ in their expectation significantly. The same need may not lead to the same response in all individuals. (vii) There is no practical evidence that once need is satisfied it looses its motivating force. It is also doubtful that satisfaction of one need activates automatically the next head in the hierarchy. 426, Herzberg's Theory - Hygiene Approach to Motivation In the late 1950's, Frederick Herzberg and his associate have conducted a study y of work motivation which has broad ©n motivati " Motivation, They have developed a theor;| | | Prince — : on . s effort towards effective utilization of human + the management and it: implications fot ood es eee! 1 theory developed out of these studies is known ale Motivation maintenance theory ot Motivation Hygiene theory ot Two-facto! ry motivation. + Dissatisfaction Not dissatisfied Satisfied and but Sj > and demotivation not motivated motivated ; Hygiene factors Motivational factors 1, Company policy and 1, Achievement administration 2. Recognition 2. Technical supervision 3. Growth potential 3. Salary 4. Advancement 4, Working conditions 5. Responsibility 5. Sob,security 6, Work itself 6. Personal life 7, Status 8. Interpersonal relations Figure 4.3 Herzberg’s two-factor model Herzb i i i i ve ere in his associates interviewed 200 engineers and a m ries i ite anauemies in Pittsburg area of USA. These men were asked eee incident in their experience which made them feel good eee aes good o1 ba ir j analysis of their answers revealed that feelings of unhappiness ; 7 ee or dissatisfaction wer re : 5 5 working responsible for, job satisfaction are quite different from ee pace Ose respon: sible for job- related to the environment in which people w ere dissatisfaction. These two feelings were not opposite of f + . . responsible for job satisfaction, the absence of such a ae ane 7 . . + : im. dissatisfaction but it might be called no job-satisfaction. Simil, te : » Similarly, If a factor is ‘ot mean job- the opposite ofaisfaction is not job satisfaction but it might be no job-dissatisfaction. ‘Thus, .s are based on two factors such as motivational factors and hygiene or factor. x ¢ theorie einer - -gccording. 10 Herzberg, maintenance or hygiene factors are necessary 10 siti a reasonable level of satisfaction among employees. These factors do not “vide satisfaction to the employees but their absence will dissatisfy them. these factors are called dissatisfiers. Herzberg identified some ygiene factors as (i) Company policy and administration, (ii) (iii) Interpersonal relations with subordinates, (iv) Salary, (v) (ix) Inter -erefore, maintenance OF h Technical supervision, job security, (vi) Personal life, (vii) Working conditions, (viii) Status, ions with superiors and (x) Interpersonal relations with peers. ly are related to environment, outside the job. pesonal relati Maintenance factors most! tors create the satisfaction to the workers at On the other hand, motivational fa dissatisfaction. Herzberg the time of presence but their absence does not cause Achievement, (ii) Recognition, (iii) (vi) Work itself. Since they can be used in identified some motivational factors as (i) ‘Advancement, (iv) Opportunity for growth, (v) Responsibility, these factors increase the level of satisfaction among employees, motivating them for higher output. Critical appraisal of Herzberg theory: Herberg’s theory was subjected to several serious. criticisms. Some of the tticisms are as follows: > This theory is based on small sample of 200 engineers and accountants which is not representative of the workforce in general. ‘Therefore, it has no universal applications. n two factors theory of motivation. It suggests job qualitative factors. It was objected v This theory is based © satisfiers and dissatisfiers a8 'W0 different by others on the ground that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are two opposite points on a single continuum.(2) we > Merzberg's model is a ‘method bound’ and a number of others used for similar study have shown different results, Thus, the theory finite its applicability for general use, > The distinction between motivation factors and maintenance factors is not fixed, Herzberg noted that these two factors are unidimensional, Sut it is nos true, they are not wholly unidimensional, They operate primarily in one direction but also partly in the other direction, > The theory focuses too much attention on satisfaction rather than the performance level, Comparison between Maslow and Herzberg models: Herzberg’s theory is an extension of Maslow’s need hierarchy theory. The Herzberg’s two factor model is tied-in with Maslow’s basic model as shown in Figure 4.4. Maslow's model is helpful in identifying needs but Herzberg model provides us with directions and incentives that tend to satisfy these needs. The hygiene factors in Herzberg’s model satisfy the first three levels of Maslow’s model of physiological needs, safety needs and social needs. The motivational factors satisfy the last two higher level needs of esteem and self-actualisation, 4. Motivational factors Achievement Work itself. Recognition Growth potential Advancement Responsibility 3. Maintenance factors and interpersonal relations 2. Peers, supervisors, subordinates company policy, security 1. Work conditions, job salary and personal life Figure 4.4 Comparison between Maslow and Herzberg models Both Maslow and Herzberg models tend to oversimplify the motivational process. Maslow’s model is formulated in terms of human needs while Herzberg’s ~ model is in terms of rewards or goals, baitsDrei between Maslow's and Herzberg's theorlen we | Maslow's need hlerarchy - GN. Topic islow's need hierarchy | Hercherg'n two-factor theory —Taaevance | Alltypes of peoplein | it 7 | Relevan ypes of people in It in the mont relevant to whiter society and in retirement, | collar workers and professional employees, 2, | Impact of | All nceds can motivate Only few intrinsic needs serve needson | behaviour, ay motivators, behaviour 3, | Role of Financial reward can Financial reward in not a key financial | motivate, motivator, rewards 4, | Type of Descriptive. Perspective, theory 5, | Perspective | It applics to kinds of people, | It works centrally, 41.7. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory One of the most recent: models of motivation has been developed by Victor Vroom. Expectancy theory represents @ comprehensive, valid and useful approach to understand motivation. It is a theory based on self-interest wherein cach individual seeks to maximize his expected satisfaction. This approach assumes that motivation _ 19 work is strongly determined by an individual’s perception that a certain type of” behaviour will lead to a certain type of outcome and his personal preference for that tYpe of outcome. There are three important elements in this model. These are explained below: Valance: People have preferences (valances) for various outcomes or incentives that are Potentially available to them. Valance refers the importance or personal value that an dividual places on the rewards which can be achieved on the job, For example, aGa] Principles of Management person may be motivated to work hard, not to get pay raise but to get recognition and status, Another person may be more interested in job security than with status. (ii) Expectancy: It implies the extension which a person believes that his effort will lead to high performance. For example, a worker will be motivated by the belief that his performance will ultimately lead to inerease productivity and thus it will result better payoff for him. Similarly, a student works hard during the semester because he expects to do well in the semester examination. People must expand some effort to achieve a goal. Usually, people have certain expectations about whether their behaviour will be successful or not. If they see probability of outcome as zero, they will not even try. Therefore, expectancy is subjective. Gil) Instrumentality: Itrefers the relationship between performance and reward. It provides the answer to the question, “will Ibe rewarded if I perform the job well?” It implies the degree to which a first level outcome leading to a desired second level outcome. For example, working hard may lead to better performance, which is the first level outcome. The better performance may result in a reward such as raise in pay or promotion or both, which is the second level outcome. Instrumentality is also a subjective one. If a person believes that his high performance will be rewarded or led to expected results, the instrumentality will be positive. On the other hand, if they believe that their higher performance does not make any difference to their rewards, the instrumentality will be low. Hence, according to Vroom’s theory, motivation is the sum of the product of valance, expectancy and instrumentality, Motivational force = Valance x Expectancy x Instrumentality Critical appraisal of Vroom’s theory: Expectancy theory emphasises expected behaviours, concemed with expectations. It is a predictive and cognitive model. This theory is based on selfand choice. This theory is sufticie a1 ie! aw iclently general so as to be useful in a wide ¢ situations. It makes a gtr rey of unions: UL Kes 0 strong argument in favour of having rewards nit upon successful performance, KP é some of the managerial implications of this theory are as follows: y Itemphasises payoffs. People make choices based upon what they think, what they will get if not, what they got in the past. y Rewards should be tied with the performance, > Rewards should be equitable. > Emphasises expected behaviours. Does the individual know what is expected of him and how will he be appraised? Even though this theory appears to be the most popular motivation theory, it is sffered from the following limitations: ) Ithas not been fully tested empirically. It is complex and thus its validity is difficult to test entirely. {i) It is overly rational as it is based on a rational economic view of people. In practice, people rarely sit down to estimate valances and expectancies unless otherwise they are asked to do so by a researcher. (ii) The predictive accuracy of the theory is doubtful. The amount of effort individual are willing to put on the job is influenced by many factors other than the three which is explained in this theory. (\) The theory is difficult to research and apply in practice. There is no way of Measuring valances on a ratio scale and each valance is explained in terms of all other valances. 4 ‘ "8. Porter and Lawler Expectancy Theory Lyman WPorter and Edward E.Lawler derived & more complete model of “stvation, built in large part on expectancy theory. They propose a multi-variant(ase) Principles of Manogement model to explain the complex relationship which exists between job attitudes and job performance, According to Porter and Lawler, the performance in organisation appears to be a function of three important factors. 1, An employee must want to perform the assigned jobs. 2. Motivation alone will not ensure the task performance. A person must have the necessary abilities and skills. 3. Finally, a person must usually have an accurate knowledge of the requirements of the job if he is expected to devote his energies fully on the assigned tasks. Some of the key variables in this model are presented in Figure 4.5. Perceived equitable rewards Value of rewards Ability and traits Intrinsic rewards Satisfaction Performance accomplishment Role perception Perceived effort- reward probability Figure 4.5 Key variables of Porter and Lawler modelfort: Af _«tsefers the amount of energy exerted by an employee on a given task. It will Jy lead to 2 specific level of performance, Perceived reward probability E ie individual perception ofthe probability that differemial rewards depend aifferential amounts of effort. Motivation is seen as the force on employees to ope effort. a paformance: Effort alone is not enough. Performance results from a combination of the effort gs individual puts forth and the ability which he has and the way he perceives the detabe taken. @ Rewards: Fire 4.10 clearly shows that performance leads to two types of rewards such 2s ixosic and extrinsic. Intrinsic rewards ate given to 2 person by himself for a good pelomance. They include feelings of having eccomplished something worthwhile. leriesic rewards are subject to fewer disturbing influences and thus, they are likely to be more directly related to the good performence. Extrinsic rewards such 2s pay, promotion, job-security, good working condition ‘ed satus are given by organisation and they are imperfectly related to performance. 1 stétion, the perceived reasonable rewards vitally affect the performance ‘“stection relationship. ©) Satisfaction: Sxisfaction is derived from the extension to which actual rewards fall short or 8 cr exceed the person's perocived level of equitable rewards. If the actual "ats mee of exceed the perceived equitable rewards, the individuel will feel et. Otherwise, he will be dissatisfied. 4, [iT Lar bv rec 28 eoebed Vrvea's version 08 provided te opication oriented model. iis true that it is proved to be a quite complex and “tonne In spite of its apparent complexity, the model provides a useful Lo(a0 | : . _. dacplon of Managua tool for undersiadlng wwedlelng wind Infivenclng behaviour and attiiudes: jy organisation 4.7.9, fquity Theory Riquity theory of motivation war formulated by A Staey Adam which in haved on the social exchange process. The theory polnts out that people are motivated ty maintain fair relationship between thelr performance and reward in comparison to others, It is based on two assumptions about human behaviour, 1. Individuals make contributions for which they expect cortain rewards, Inputy include individuals past training and expericnce, special knowledge, personal characteristics cte, Outcomes or rewards include pay, recognition, status, prestige etc. 2. Individual comparcs his input-outcome ratio with the input-output ratio of other’ members of his level or status in the organisation, If the individual feels that his ratio is equal to others and there is equity, Therefore, he feels happy and motivated, If the ratio is significantly less than those of others, the individual feels underpaid and frustrated, If the ratio is significantly more, the individual feels overpaid and guilty. He is likely to reduce his input of effort to create equity. Equity relationship can be expressed by Outcorne by a person | Outcome by another person Input by a person Input by another person The result of inequity on the person is as follows: 1, Perceived inequity creates tension in the individual, 2, The amount of tension is proportional to the magnitude of the inequity. 4, The tension created in the individual will motivate him to reduce it, ‘The degsee of demotivation is proportional to the perceived inequity. Merits of equity theory: 1. This theory makes manager of the most important motives 0 to realize that the equity motive tends to be one f the people in the organisation.Directing “ 439 2.. Feelings or perceptions in equity are important factors in work setting. Management should take necessary steps to develop the perceptual skill of the people. + 3. While determining wage and salary structure’ in the organisation, managers must pay attention to equity considerations. * 4, Equity theory is not precise enough to predict which ‘actions’ are most © probable. 5. Equity theory is not a complete theory of motivation but it deals only with one particular aspect (equity) of motivation. "4.7.10. Needs of McClelland’s Theory David C. McClelland and his associates of Harvard University proposed that the organisation offers an opportunity to satisfy at least three needs, namely, the need for achievement (n Ach), the need for affiliation (n Aff) and the need for power (n PIR). 1, Need for power (n PWR) It is the need to dominate, influence or control people. Power speaks about the ability to control the activities of others to’ suit one’s own purposes. People with a high need for power look for position of leadership. They like to set goals, make decisions and direct activities. In-a way, the » PWR helps in understanding managers. 2. Need for Affiliation (n Aff) The need for affiliation is a social need, for companionship and support, and for developing meaningful relationships with people. Persons who have a high need for affiliation view the organisation as a chance to form new and satisfying relationships. They are motivated by jobs that it demands frequent interaction with co-workers. Such people are not likely to succeed well at tasks that force them to work in isolation, 3. Need for achievement (n Ach) ‘It is the need for challenge, personnel accomplishment and success in Competitive situations. McClelland has identified the four basic characteristics of high ahievers, bhrvT) Principlos of Managoment 1. They like to take personal responsibility for finding solution to problems, Once a high achievement seeker selects a goal, he tends to be totally preoccupied with the task until it is successfully completed. Such a dedicated commitment often reflects on his outward personality. 2. They like to take calculated risks and set morale goals. High achievers want to win. They will not set goals teo difficult to reach. Too risky an approach would greatly reduce the chances of goal accomplishment. 3. They want concrete feedback on their performance. High achievers like to know how well they are doing. | 4. High achievers are not motivated by money but instead employ money as a method of keeping score of their achievements. Achievement motive can be developed at an early age and also at later stage. McClelland and his associates have conducted a series of studies in USA, Italy, Poland and India. They found that in all cases, training programmes were successful | in increasing the individual need for achievement. The achievement development 4 course contained four important points. (i) The individual should strive to attain concrete and frequent feedbacks. (ii) The individual should seek models of achievement i.e., watch those who have performed well and emulate. (iii) The individual should imagine himself as one who needs success and challenge and set carefully planned and realistic work goals. (iv) The individual must control day-dreaming by thinking and talking to himself in positive terms. Limitations of McClelland’s theory: . (i) The use of projective technique is objectionable. (ii) The evidence in support this theory is fragmentary and doubtful.Directing 4A (iii) Achievetnent motivation cannot be taught. It is because the acquisition of motives occurs in childhood and it is difficult to change them once established. (iv) Persons with high need for achievement expect similar results from others. Asa result, it may lack human skill and Patience of being effective managers. (¥) Achievement motivation training through promising is time-consuming and expensive process, (vi) The theory does not fully address the question of the Process of motivation and how it really comes about, 4.8. SPECIAL MOTIVATIONAL TECHNIQUES Various theories of motivation described above Suggest that several factors influence the performance of employees. But some of the factors are more predominant as compared with others. Some of the major motivational factors can be identified and these are discussed below. 4.8.1. Money As discussed in a Carrot and Stick approach, money is one of the important motivational factors. It my be in the form of wages, incentives, bonuses, company Paid insurances or any other things that may be given to people for their performance. The manager should remember the following things when money is a kind of Motivator, 1. Money is likely to be more important to people who are raising a family. Money is an urgent means of achieving a minimum standard of living. Some people consider money as a major motivating force while others may not. 2. Various enterprises make wages and salaries competitive within their industry and their area to attract and hold people. 3. Money not only satisfies the physiological and security needs but it is also a source of status and prestige in society.(az) Principlos of Managemont 4, Management should ensure that individuals working in the same category are given the same or nearly the ‘same salary and wages within the organisation as well as the other organisation. . Even if a company is committed to the practice of comparable wages and salaries, a well-managed firm need never be bound to the same practice with respect to bonuses. i.e., the bonuses for managers should be based on their individual performance and outcome. wo It is almost true that money can motive-only when the additional payment (such ‘as bonuses and incentives) is large relative to a person’s income. 4.8.2. Participation Research on motivation reveals that the majority of workers are capable of being creative and self-control. Their consultation and participation in work related issues have favourable effect on their motivation and performance. Such participation Teflects a genuine faith in human nature and it provides dignity to workers. Participation is also a means of recognition, It appeals to the need for affiliation and acceptance. Above all, it gives people a sense of accomplishment, 4.8.3. Quality of Working Life One of the most important and interesting approach of motivation is the quality of working life program. Good physical working conditions such as right temperature, adequate lighting, proper ventilation, noise free atmosphere have the positive effects on the motivation and performance of workers. 4.8.4. Job Security Job security is an important motivator, altkough in certain circumstances it can act as a powerful short-term demotivator, To threaten people, the loss of employment is to provide a negative incentive which does not pull them to the desired goal (as @ positive incentive) but pushes them away from an undesirable goal. No manager should consciously apply the threat of unemployment’ as a motivator since it caDirecting : a) devastate the morale of staff and many will be dissipated and leave even when the thread is removed. Instead, managers should normally do all they can assume, their staff of job security. It can be done by reassuring subordinates, praising them for a job well done and give them a view of how the task they are currently doing is likely to develop in future. . 48.8. Effective Communication Communication at all levels of the organisation must be effective both ‘up and down in the communication mechanism chain. Managers and team leaders must make time to listen to grievances and take to their staff. In particular, they must be equitable in dealings with subordinates, providing equal opportunities for benefits such as promotions and be fair in enforcement of company regulations. 4.8.6. Power of Authority Many professionals seek power to influence others. The managers can satisfy this need in several ways such as making them responsible for a task force on a specific topic or getting them to lead an important technical project. Often subordinates can satisfy this need by being a part of the team making important decisions on company policy where they will be sharing information with senior executives. Managers must also be willing to delegate meaningful decision-making tasks to subordinates showing trust in their capabilities and ensuring the participation in goal setting and decision- making. 4.8.7. Financial and Non-financial Incentives 1o employees in order to direct are the objects perceived to g and effort producing Incentives are the inducements which are offered t their behaviour towards enterprise objectives. These satisfy needs. Incentives are. attention which is gettin: Mechanisms, Incentives can be broadly be classified into two categories. (i) Pecuniary incentives, and (ii) Non-pecuniary incentives.al Principles of Management () Pecuniary incentives: : Pecuniary financial incentives are payments directly or indirectly in money wages, salaries, bonus, profit sharing, retirement pay, vacation pay, etc. are the examples of pecuniary incentives. Financial incentives can be of two types. (a) Individual incentives: It refers all such plans which induce an individual to achieve higher performance to earn higher financial rewards. Piece rate wages, Halsey’s plan, Rowan’s plan, Emerson’s efficiency plan and Taylor’s differential plan are examples of individual incentives. (b) Group incentives: This plan includes the profit sharing, production bonus, pension plan, etc. wherein employees are. rewarded collectively. (ii) Non-Pecuniary incentives: Non-financial incentives provide psychological and emotional satisfaction rather than financial rewards. Status, responsibility, recognition of work, job security, challenging job, team spirit, competition, participation are.examples of non-financial incentives. These incentives are very much popular and important for the satisfaction of socio-psychological needs which cannot be satisfied by money alone. There are certain inducements which serve as both financial and non-financial incentives. For example, promotion results in increase in pay as well as status on individual, The popular non-financial iticentives are explained below. (a) Work challenge: Job is a great motivating force. When the stretches the ability of the job holder, it provides job satisfaction and i inspires the employee to work hard. A pleasant and interesting job allows the employee to satisfy his natural instincts and creates interest in the work. Job enrichment can be used to make the job more challenging and interesting._ ovectng (4as_) ow) Recognition and status: Acknowledgment and appreciation of good performance is called recognition. It inspires employees to maintain and even improve the performance, Status means the formal position in the organisation. Recognition and status motivate people by satisfying their ego needs, However, recognition and status should be closely related tothe abilities, performance and aspirations of employees. (0 Job security: Employees want economic security, Job security ensures the regular income in future and relives them of worry. Job security is important in India duc to widespread unemployment. However, employees may beconie satisfied when they know that their services cannot be terminated, (@) Responsibility: ' Most people prefer independence and responsibility in place of routine and monotonous jobs. Responsibility satisfies the natural desire and inspires people to put greater efforts. (© Competition: Healthy competition among employces inspites them to work hard and improve their performance. However, competition can be a source of motivation only when better performance is recognised and rewarded. . () Opportunity for growth: We Most of the employees want to grow in their career. An organisation can Motivate its employees by providing them opportunities for in-service training and Promotion. () Knowledge of results: The knowledge of work done and experience of progress helps to improve the employee’s performance. Completion of the task is a strong motivator. (h) Supportive relationships: . af Cordial relations with supervisor enhance commitment to work and motivate mployees to work effectively,446 Principles of Managor (i) Participation: Employee participation in management refers to the. active involvement workers or their representatives in the process if it is decision-making. ™ is management initiated action to secure the cooperation, commitment and contributi of workers towards the accomplishment of organisation. 4.9. JOB SATISFACTION The term ‘job satisfaction’ refers to an employee’s general happiness with his her job. Locke described job satisfaction is “a pleasurable or positive emotional stat resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experiences”. Therefore, job satisfaction is the amount of overall positive effect or feclings that individuals have: towards their job. Building on this conceptualization, Hulin and Judge observed th job satisfaction includes ‘multi-dimensional psychological responses to one's job. These responses have cognitive, affective and behavioral components. Job satisfaction. is the result of various attitudes the employee holds towards his. __ Job, towards related factors and towards life in general. The importance of job satisfaction is that if the people are satisfied with their work, then there is an improvement in both the quality and quantity of production. If they are not satisfied, then both the quantity and quality of his output will be low, there will be high absenteeism and employee turnover and increased unionism. Caldur and Schurr'in 1981 suggested that there are three different approaches to evaluating job satisfaction. > The first approach is that work attitudes such as job satisfaction, job performance are dispositional in nature, i-e., they are stable, positive of negative disposition learned through experiences. > The second approach is the ‘social information processing model’, which suggests that job satisfaction and other work place attitudes are developed or constructed ‘out of experiences and information provided by others at the work place.Directing 4AT > The third approach is the ‘information processing model’, which is based on the accumulation of cognitive information about the work place and one's job. In a sense, this is the most obvious approach, as it argues that a person’s job satisfaction is influenced directly by the characteristics of their job. Markus Christen; Ganesh Iyer and David Soberman provide a model of job satisfaction as shown in Figure.4.6. The figure depicts various elements of the model and how these are related to each other. Elements of this model are: (i) Job related factors (ii) Role perceptions (iii) Job performance (iv) Firm performance and (v) Job satisfaction. job factors Problems with role perceptions Firm performance i Job performance Job satisfaction Figure'4.6 Christen, Iyer and Soberman model of job satisfaction 49.1. Importance of Job Satisfaction Obviously, job satisfaction significantly contributes to employee productivity and morale. An organization can be substantially benefited if it develops general attitudes effectively contri Il be less and productivity will be more, of its employees that can bute to job satisfaction. If employees are satisfied, turnover and absenteeism wi Further, satisfaction of individual expectations results in group integration and cohesiveness.4.48 Principles of Managoment 4.9.2. Factors Relating to Job Satisfaction i Job satisfaction influences a series of factors such as nature of work, salary, advancement opportunities, management, work groups and work conditions. Some of the most important factors relating to job satisfaction are briefly stated below: (i) Personal factors These factors include the individual employee’s personality, age, sex, educational level, intelligence etc. Most of the evidence on the relation between age and satisfaction seems to indicate that there is generally a positive relationship between the two variables upto the pre-retirement years and then there is a sharp decrease in satisfaction. There is no clear research evidence between educational level and job satisfaction. As regards the relationship between the intelligence level and job satisfaction, it usually depends upon the level and range of intelligence and the challenge of the job. There is as yet no consistent evidence as to whether women are more satisfied with their jobs than men, (ii) Job factors These factors include the type of work to be performed, skill required for work performance, occupational status inyolved in the job etc. The type of work is very important, as a number of research studies have shown that varied work generally brings about more satisfaction than routine work. Where skill exists to a considerable degree it tends to become the main source of satisfaction to the employee. As regards the relation of occupational status to job satisfaction, research evidences indicate that employees are relatively more dissatisfied in those jobs, which have less social status or prestige. (iii) Organizational factors These factors include security, wages and salaries, fringe benefits, opportunities for advancement, working conditions etc, Social and economic security to employees increases job satisfaction, the wages and salaries and fringe benefits are definitely theDirecting : 449 main factors that affect job satisfaction of employees. As regards the relation of opportunity for advancement to job satisfaction, it has been found that this factor is niost important to skilled personnel and least important to unskilled personnel. ; Desirable working conditions are also important to job satisfaction. Besides, an effective downward flow of communications in an organization is also fmorent to job satisfaction as employces are keen to know more about the company and its plans, policies etc. Basically, job satisfaction is determined by the discrepancy between what individuals expect to get out of their jobs and'what the job actually offers. A person will be satisfied if there is no discrepancy between desired and actual conditions 4.9.3. Measurement of Job Satisfaction Most researchers recognize that job satisfaction is a global concept comprised of various facets, The most typical categorization considers five facets of job satisfaction such as pay, promotions, coworkers, supervision and work itself. But Locke added a few other facets such as recognition, working conditions and company and cen maniy measures of job satisfaction in the work place management, There have be cent job from the Job Description index to Job Satisfaction Scales to the more re f the Occupational Stress Indicator (OSI). They all tend to involve satisfaction scale o working conditions, career prospects, and scales, which explore pay, work activities, ith superiors and relationship with colleagues. relationship wi ures of job satisfaction, Brayfield and Rothe's job - To obtain the overall meas' item of this scale are as satisfaction scale is commonly used. The reliable five- follows: 1. 1 feel fairly satisfied with my present job. 2, Mést days I am enthusiastic about my work, 3. Each day at work se 4, 1 find real enjoyment in m der my job to be rather un ems like it will never end. y work. . it. 5. I consi pleasan\eso j Principles of Managemen, The items in this measure are as follows: 1. All things considered, are you satisfied with your present: job (Circle One)? YES/NO 2. How satisfied are you with your job in general (circle one)? 1 2 3 Very satisfied Somewhat satisfied Neutral 4 . 5 Somewhat dissatisfied Dissatisfied 3. Below, please write down your best estimates on the percent of time you feel satisfied, dissatisfied and neutral about your present job on average. The three figures should add up to equal 100/00. In the average: ‘The percent of time I feel satisfied with my presentjob __% ‘The percent of time I feel dissatisfied with my present job___% The percent of time'l feel neutral about my Presentjob _—% TOTAL % In practice, these items need to be standardized before summing up. Although this measure is no substitute for the richness of detail provided in a faceted measure of job satisfaction, it is a reasonably valid measure of overall job satisfaction and more reliable than a single-item measure. 4.9.4, Theories of Antecedents of Job Satisfaction Several theories concentrate towards causes of job satisfaction. These theories can be broadly Classified into one of three categories, (Y Situational theories which hypothesize that job satisfaction results from th? nature of one’s job or other aspects of the environment. (W) Dispositional approaches which assume that job satisfaction is rooted in personological makeup of the individual.Directing . 451 iii)Interactive theories which propose that job satisfaction results from the interplay of situational and personological factors. 49.5. Effects of Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction causes a series of influences on various aspects of organizational life such as employee productivity, loyalty and absenteeism are analysed. For example, satisfied workers will not necessarily be the highest producers. There are many possible moderating variables, the most important of which seems to be rewards. If people receivé rewards they feel are equitable, they will be satisfied and it is likely to be the result in greater performance effort. Also, recent research evidence indicates that the satisfaction may not necessarily lead to individual performance improvement but does lead to departmental and orgariizational level improvements. 4.9.6. Measures to Increase Job Satisfaction Although management cannot change the personal factors in job satisfaction, it should appreciate the role of such factors and must take care to place the employees where the personal factors of the individual help him in achieving job satisfaction. Similarly, the management can use the factors inherent.in the job to plan and administer jobs more advantageously for its personnel. For example, the policy of job rotation, job enrichment, and job enlargement may help increasesjob satisfaction. Management should also take necessary steps to raise the occupational status of the Workers, The management should carefully develop appropriate policies and practices for Promotions and transfers, working conditions, wages, grievance handling, fringe benefits, satisfactory hours of work and adequate rest pausing. Management should also able to recognize and appreciate the good work done by the employees and give Tespect for their creative suggestion. Proper delegation of authority, freedom to do : Work will also help increase job satisfaction. Above all, while keeping in wview.the ymae. Principles of Managomong factors related to job satisfaction, the management must recognize the importance of the stability of employee attitudes that may lead to high morale and production, It is evident from the above description that there are many factors that influence jod satisfaction and the managements must be able to work out broad strategies that may help increase job satisfaction. The management must also able to identify the specific factors that causes the individual differences and must evolve appropriate strategies that could raise the job satisfaction of those particular segments. 4.10. JOB ENRICHMENT Job enrichment is a non-financial technique of motivation. It has been derived from Herzberg’s two factor theory of motivation. It is therefore based on the assumptions that in order to motivate personnel, the job itself. must provide opportunities for achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement and growth. The job is designed in such a manner to become more interesting and challenging to the job performer. According to Robert N. Ford, job enrichment is concerned with Gesigning jobs which include a variety of work content require a higher level of knowledge and skill, give the worker more autonomy and responsibility for planning, Girecting and controlling his own performance and providing the opportunity for personal growth and meaningful work experience. The nature of modem technology such as division of labour, assembly line, job simplification has made the jobs dull and monotonous. In order to overcome these problems, 2 new technique called job enlargement has been made. It attempts to make 2 job more varied by removing the dullness associated with performing repetitive operations. So, there was a variety and challenge in the job. Workers will get io? satisfaction and there is also an improvement in their Performance, / Job enrichment is an extension of job enlargement technique. In job enrichmen's: a job may be enriched by variety of the following Steps: 1. Giving workers more freedom in decidin; ig about such things as work, sequene* and pace or the acceptance or rejection o} f materials, 2. Giving workers feeling of, personal Tesponsibility for their tasks,3, Encouraging participation of subordinates and interaction between workers. 4 TeXing steps to make sure that workers can see how their tasks contribute to a finished product and the welfare of an enterprise, & Giving people feedback on their job performance, preferably before their _ superiors get it : é& Lvalving workers in the analysis and change of physical’ aspects of the work environment such as layout of plant, temperature, lighting and cleanliness. ie conditions for such a program are highly adequate and receptive. It cannot work | | The job enrichment program can only be initiated and implemented successfully | i vacuum. Its success is dependent on the existing organisational structure, physical zd conceptual environment, technology etc, For example, if the jobs are already Syerse and challenging, and the workers have reasonable autonomy, further corichment may not be necessary. If the employees are not happy with other extrinsic rewards such as pay and fringe benefits, they may not respond positively to the job exichment program. It is realized that the companies which implemented the job trichment approach has shown considerable increase in the productivity, reduction ithe shsenteeism and tumover, and improvement in the worker's morile, Advantages of job enrichment > Increases the productivity - > Reduces the absenteeism and tumover Improves worker's morale Improves decision making ability vv v Reduces work load of superiors Limitations of job enrichment: al interaction > Workers those who prefer less responsible jobs with good may show feelings of inadequacy and fear of failure to job enrichment, | > Job enrichment has negative implications if employees are not comfortable as with decision making task.| 4.54 . + Principles of Managoment > Some jobs cannot be enriched beyond a certain point. Vv Superiors may feel that power is being taken away from them and given to the junior’s. This might lead.to ego problems: > Labour unions thrive on conflict with management. No wonder, they try to frustrate enrichment programmes by imposing restrictive job descriptions, . tenure requirement etc. > Job enrichment is basically limited to non-managerial jobs. In managerial jobs, there is a little scope for applying job, enrichment. > Job enrichment may have negative effects in the short run. Workers take time to adjust to the challenging demands made by job enrichment. > Most of the time job enrichment is imposed on people. > Some people are internally dissatisfied with the organization. For such people it cannot solve the problem. Making job enrichment more effective: 1. Use job enrichment selectively after taking into account situational variables such as job characteristics, personal characteristics of employees, * organisational level etc. 2. Provide a supportive climate for innovation and change. 3. Job enrichment demands a development effort. Managers must have a better understanding with people who are involved in this process. They must be genuinely interested in job enrichment programmes. People wish to see that their managers are really concerned about their welfare. 4, Develop the skill of the participants in a job enrichment programme first. If sills to carry out the decision-making and goal setting responsibilities are not provided to the participant under a job enrichment programme, he gets more frustrated. Workers wish to know what they are doing and why. They want feedback on their performance. They like to be appreciated and recognized for their work.Directing 4.55 4.11. LEADING VS MANAGING Management is “the act or manner of managing such as handling, direction or centrol.” But in a real manner, management is about the control and regulation of resources including human capital. Leading is establishing direction and influencing others to follow that direction, The leader is good at handling the tangible and intangible needs of the people under their charge. The manager is tasked with making sure that the all groups resources including the people get the job done. The fundamental difference between leading and managing is that leaders influence but managers direct. In broader sense, leaders generally do focus on what matters and why as managers focus on how. Both use different forms of influence and direction at different times. But leaders have 2 bias to influencing by inspiring and tnabling through advice and counsel while managers have a bias to command and control, In management vs leadership role, the manager is more directly charged with Setting the job done rather than seeing to the team on the whole, ait, Comparison between Leading and Managing Managing Leading It consists of planning, organising, | It is an act of creating a vision and staffing and budgeting activities. | setting a direction, It is concerned with the It is concerned with the initiation formulation of broad policies to of action for the accomplishment | guide the operations of an of the goals. enterprise, It is associated with the organized | It may be associated with structure. unorganised groups, . au Woneaioes aie4.56 Principles of Management 4. | Itis a controlling ability. Itis an aligning People around value. 5. | Itis a problem solving activity. _ | It is a motivating and inspiring activity. 6. | Itasks how and when. It asks what and why. 7. _| Itis the activity of doing things Itis the activity of doing the right right. things. 8. | Ithas shorter-range of view. It has longer-range of view. 9. | This process accepts reality. This process investigates reality. 10. | It focuses on resources. It focuses on people. 11. | This process applies rewards and _| This process applies the concept of punishments. ‘holding people accountable’. 12, | This process is primarily task This process balances attention focused. between tasks and relationships. 13. | It is an authoritative process. It is a humble / vulnerable process. 4.11.2. Making the Step to Leadership It is not impossible for a manager to become a leader. The differences between management and leadership are subtle. Sometimes, it just takes being aware of what they need to do to fulfill their responsibilities as a leader. Managers can become effective leaders by keeping the following people-oriented tasks. (i) Morale (i) Empowerment (iii) Scheduling (iv) Team-building (v) Sense of fit.441.3. Leader Vs Manager The distinction between leader and leadership is important to understand the concept of leadership. The leader is an individual who is able to influence others and who possess managerial authority, Leadership is the function or activity this individual performs. It is the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of Positions of formal authority, ; But just because a manager is n doesn’t mean that. he or she rearless of how they actually act in those jobs. supposed to be a formal leader in an organisatio} exercises leadership. The following table provides the comparison between leader and manager. S.No. Manager Leader 1. | He commands employees. He empowers employees. 2. | He is required to plan, organize, He gets others to follow him. direct and control. 3. | He depends on his authority. He depends on his confidence and goodwill. 4, He is appointed and he derives his authority by virtue of his office. He is accepted as a leader by the group. 5, | He has subordinates. He has followers. 6. | He works in the system. He works on the system. 7. | He instills fear. He instills respect. 8. | He evokes obedience. He evokes passion. 9. | He blames employees for failure. | He seeks solutions for failure. be4.58 Principles of Managemen 10. | He encourages conformity. He encourages creativity. 11. | He punish for failure. He accepts failure as learning. 12. | He plays by the rules. : He takes risks. 13. | He provides rules and instructions. | He provides vision. 4.12, LEADERSHIP ' Leadership is an integral part of management and plays a vital role in managerial operation. Leadership exists in any type of organisation. If there is any single factor that differentiates between successful and unsuccessful organisations, it could be considered as dynamic and effective leadership. Early notations about leadership dealt with it almost in terms of personal abilities. Leadership is viewed as a characteristic of the individual. Leader is one who makes his subordinates to do willingly what he wants. The efforts of subordinates are to be channelised in the right direction. As leaders, they are not only the responsible for directing their subordinates but also responsible for the achieving goals of the organisation. 4.12.1,.Meaning and Definition of Leadership Leadership is the process of influencing the behaviour of others towards the accomplishment of goals in a given situation. Koontz and O'Donnel have defined, “Leadership is the art of process of influencing people so that they will strive willingly towards the achievement of group _ goals”. George R. Terry has defined, “Leadership is the activity of influencing people to strive willingly for group objectives”. Bernard Keys and Thomas Case have defined, “Leadership is the process of | influencing and supporting others to work enthusiastically towards achieving objectives”.