Lesson 1: Relationship Between Faults and Earthquakes

An earthquake is the sudden shaking of the ground that we feel when rock layers of Earth suddenly slip past one
another to a new position.
Main Types of Faults
1. Dip-Slip Fault
a. Normal Fault- It is a fracture along which the foot wall moves up and the hanging wall on the other side
moves down. Normal faulting is due to tension forces or the pulling apart of the rocks, which moves the crust
vertically apart.
b. Reverse/Thrust Fault- It is a break in Earth’s crust which is commonly formed in the regions where the strong
compressional forces push the rocks together, moving the crust vertically apart.
2. Strike-Slip Faults
Transform Fault- It is a special class of the strike-slip faults formed between two different plates due to
horizontal forces moving the layers of rocks parallel to the fault plane. In this fault, the blocks of rocks on one
side of the fault slide past the other.
How Movements along Fault Lines Generate Earthquakes
The Earth is made up of distinct layers: crust, upper and lower mantle, and outer and inner core. Among
these layers, an earthquake originates somewhere between the crust and the mantle.
Asthenosphere = upper mantle
Diastrophism = is the process where action of forces forms-the large-scale deformation of Earth’s surface
through the mechanisms of rock movements within the crust.
Lesson 2: Active Faults in the Philippines
Listed below are the known active fault lines in the Philippines and the affected areas:
 Marikina Valley Fault
 Western Philippine Fault
 East Philippine Fault
 Southern Mindanao Fault
 Central Philippine Fault
How Strong is the Earthquake?
An earthquake may be described in two ways: intensity and magnitude. The intensity of an earthquake gives
us an idea of how strong or weak the shaking is. The Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology
(PHIVOLCS) uses the following scale to describe the intensity of earthquakes in the Philippines.

Focus and Epicenter

The exact point inside the crust where a tremendous amount of energy actually starts to be released is called
earthquake focus or hypo center. It is where the vibrating waves originate which travel outward in all
directions. The foci (plural for focus) are found in various depths underground. Since asthenosphere is about
700 km from Earth’s surface, the earthquake’s depth ranges from 0 – 700 km and with this, foci are found at
different depths below the ground surface.
The energy released from the foci travel in all directions until they reach the surface of the earth, causing
vibrations.
Epicenter is the point on the Earth’s surface that is verically above the focus and where energy waves are felt
most strongly. The epicenter comes from the Latin word epicentrum, which means “situated at the center”.

How to measure Earthquakes

The energy released during an earthquake is in the form of seimic waves radiating in all directions within
Earth’s crust.
Earthquakes can be measured using a seismograph. Seismologists use seismograph to detect and record the
strength and duration of vibrations. This seismograph is composed of seismometer and recording device, and it
is designs to be sensitive in the ground motion so as to record even the weakest earthquakes.
What’s Inside the Earth?
We often think of earthquakes as something harmful and the reason is
obvious. But earthquakes help scientists figure out what is inside the Earth. How? As
you know by now, when a fault suddenly moves, an earthquake is generated.

Intensity
The energy released to the epicenter shakes the ground and the effects are felt over a much larger area. The
intensity of an earthquake can be determined by how much damage has occurred and the amount of shaking
experienced by the people in a particular area.

The Different Types of Seismic Waves

Primary waves (P-waves) are the fastest seismic waves because they are the first waves detected by the
seismograph, and they can travel at greatest velocity penetrating the gases, fluid, and solid rocks.
Secondary Waves (S-waves) are transverse waves also known as shear waves that follow the P-waves and the
second to arrive at seismic recording station and travel half the speed of P-waves but can be more dangerous
due to larger amplitude causing the ground to rapidly split and move in different direction.
Surface Waves are easily distinguished on a seismogram for being the last waves that arrive due to their lower
frequency.
Love waves (L waves) were named after a British mathematician, August Edward Hough Love, who made the
mathematical model of this wave in 1911. These waves are similar to S-waves in terms of shearing motion.
Rayleigh Waves (R waves) travel slower than the L waves; thus, their have lower velocity.

What is a Typhoon?
We all know what a typhoon is. Or more accurately, we know what to expect when a typhoon comes. We get a
lot of rain and strong winds. Now, you may not have noticed it but the winds in a typhoon move in a certain
direction. They go around a central area.

If the wind speed is less, from 119 to 200 kph, then it is called a typhoon. If
the wind speed is between 65 and 118 kph, it is called a tropical storm. And when
the wind speed is between 35 to 64 kph, it is a tropical depression.

The term typhoon is used only in the northwestern part of the Pacific Ocean. In the northeastern part of the
Pacific Ocean and in the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean, the equivalent term is hurricane. Thus, a hurricane
on one side of the Pacific Ocean will be called a typhoon if it crosses into the other side.

Lesson 2: Why is the Philippines Prone to Typhoons?

Philippine Area of Responsibility
When a weather disturbance enters the Philippine Area of Responsibility (PAR), the weather bureau begins to
monitor it. Do you know where the PAR is? Do the following activity to find out.

Under What Conditions do Tropical Cyclones Form?

Shown below are the tracks (paths) of four tropical cyclones that entered the PAR in the past years. The tracks
were plotted by PAGASA. Study the maps and answer the following questions.

Inside Tropical Cyclones

One thing about tropical cyclones that we should watch out for are the strong winds. Let us now take a peek
inside a tropical cyclone and find out in which part would we experience strong winds.

The lowest air pressure is at the eye of a tropical cyclone. In fact, all tropical cyclones have low air pressure at
the center. This is the reason why the air in the surroundings move toward the eye.
You also learned that at the eye of a tropical cyclone, wind speed is low. But
in the dense clouds surrounding the eye, at the eyewall itself, the wind speed is
great. When newspapers report that a tropical cyclone has sustained winds of 200
km/hour, for instance, they are referring to the winds at the eyewall.

Asteroids
The scientists estimated that there are more than 750,000 asteroids found between the 350 billion miles space
between Mars and Jupiter, known as the asteroid belt.

Asteroids are also called minor planets or planetoids by the scientists because they are more like planets and
moons.
Ceres is so far, the largest one with a diameter of 940 km. It is the first that has been discovered.
Pallas is second to the largest, with a diameter of 540 km.
Vesta is next with 510 km diameter.
Ida is about 36 miles wide.
1991 BA is one of the smallest measuring only 20 feet across.
The Type C asteroids or carbonaceous asteroids are grayish in color and the most common.
The S Type asteroids or silicaceous asteroids are made up of iron and magnesium silicate, making them
greenish to reddish color.
The M Type asteroids or metallic asteroids are rich in metallic substances such as nickle-iron, giving them
reddish color.
The Athens lie outside the asteroid belt, near the orbit of Mars icluding Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta.
The Apollo lie near the Earth, which somtimes crosses Earth’s orbit.
The Trojans are known to dwell along Jupiter’s orbital path and lie within the asteroid belts.
Meteors
The bright streak of light that dart through the sky are what we call meteors. A meteoroid is believed to be a
fragment of an asteroid or remnant of a comet, and some say it is space debris made of stony metallic blocks.
When the remains of a meteoroid s reach the Earth’s surface, they are called meteorites.