Chemistry

Unit 1
Module 2
 Recap











 Bronsted-Lowry Theory

Bronsted-Lowry theory of acids states that

An acid is a proton (H+ ion) donor.
A base is a proton (H+ ion) acceptor.

When hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in water to produce When ammonia dissolves in water to produce ammonium
hydrochloric acid, the hydrogen chloride molecule donates a hydroxide, the ammonia accepts a proton (H+ ion) from the
proton (H+ ion) to a water molecule to form the hydroxonium ion, hydroxonium ion, H3O+.
H3O+.

2H2O (l) → H3O+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

HCl (g) + H2O (l) → H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

Ammonia accepts a proton to form the ammonium ion and its

When hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in water almost all of it therefore acting as a base. When ammonia gas dissolves in water,
ionizes in water to produce hydroxonium ions and chloride ions. only some of it ionizes in water therefore ammonia is described
Therefore hydrochloric acid is described as a strong acid. as a weak base.
 Conjugate Acid-Base Pair

The reaction between HCl and water is reversible only to a minor extent. Consider the
reversible reaction

HCl (g) + H2O (l) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

In the forward reaction, the HCl is an acid because it donates a proton (H+ ion) to the water.
The water is a base because it accepts a proton from the HCl.

When the acid HCl donates a proton it forms the base, Cl-.When the base,Cl- accepts a
proton, it reforms the acid HCl. Thus HCl and Cl- are referred to as a conjugate acid-base
pair.
 pH and pOH
The pH scale is used to measure the acidity range from 0 to 14.
It is the negative logarithm to base 10 of the concentration of hydrogen ion in a solution.
pH= -log10 [H+]

The lower the pH the more acidic is a solution.

The concentration of the hydroxide ions

A change in pH from 2 to 3 represents a 10 time can be measured similarly using a pOH
decrease in concentration H+ ions and a change scale.
from 2 to 4 represents a one-hundred (10 x 10)
time decrease in the concentration of H+ ions. pOH= -log10 [OH-]
 Relationship between pH and pOH

The concentration of hydrogen ions in water at 25℃ is 10−7 mol 𝑑𝑚−3.

The pH of water is
pH= -log10 [H+]
= -log10 [H+]
=7

The concentration of hydroxide ions in water at 25℃ is 10−7 mol 𝑑𝑚−3 .

The pOH of water is
pOH= -log10 [OH-]
= -log10 [10−7]
=7

Thus pH + pOH = 14
 Constants

Equilibrium Constant (Kc) - a number that expresses the relationship between the
amounts of products and reactants present at equilibrium in a reversible chemical
reaction at a given temperature.

The Acid Dissociation Constant (Ka) – is a quantitative measure of the strength of an

acid in a solution.

The Base Dissociation Constant (Kb) – is a quantitative measure of the strength of a

base in a solution.

The ion-product constant of liquid water(Kw) - product of the concentration of

hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions.
 pH Range of Indicators
Indicators do not change colour at a specific hydrogen ion concentration but
rather a narrow range of hydrogen ion concentrations. This range is called the pH
range of the indicator.

Indicators can be used to test the acidity and alkalinity of solutions and to
determine the end point of a titration. The end point is a signal that marks the
completion of the reaction in the titration. When an indicator is used in a
titration, it is the point at which the colour of the indicator changes in the
titration. The end point must coincide with the equivalence point in the
titration. The equivalence point is the point where the number of moles of
acid equals the number of moles of base in titration.
pH Changes during Titrations
 Titration Curve with Two Equivalence Points
Consider the titration of HCl (aq) with Na2CO3 (aq).
The reaction takes place in two stages:

(i) HCl (aq) + Na2CO3 (aq) → NaHCO3 (aq) + 𝐻2 𝑂 (𝑙)

(ii) HCl (aq) + NaHCO3 (aq) → NaCl(aq) + 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) +𝐻2 𝑂 (𝑙)

The equivalence point of reaction (i) is alkaline whereas that of reaction (ii) is
acidic. Thus the titration curve shows two equivalence points corresponding to
the above two stages. Phenolphalein is a suitable indicator for the first stage of
the reaction while methyl orange is a suitable indicator for the second stage. It
must be noted that the titre value with methyl orange will be twice that of the
value with phenolphthalein.
Buffer Solution
Calculating the pH of a Buffer Solution
Calculating the pH of a Buffer Solution
Importance of Buffers
 Solubility Product (Ksp)
Many salts which we refer to as insoluble do actually dissolve to a small extent,
The term sparingly soluble salt is usually used for these types of salts. In a
saturated solution of a sparingly soluble salt, equilibrium can be established
between dissolved ions and undissolved salt at a given temperature.
 Limitations of Solubility Product

 Ksp is valid only for saturated solutions in which the

concentration is no more than 0.01 mol 𝑑𝑚−3 .

 Ksp is affected by temperature since it is an equilibrium

constant.
Common Ion Effect
Calculation Involving Solubility Product
 Solubility Product and Precipitation

 If the ionic product < Ksp, then no precipitation occurs.

 If the ionic product = Ksp, then a saturated solution forms

 If the ionic product > Ksp, then precipitation occurs.

 That’s all for today,
See you next Session!