PASGT-Propulsion Ancillary

Systems and Gas Turbine

STCW ’78 as amended 2010
Table A-III/1 & Table A-III/2)

Compiled by: C/E L. V.

Gubatayao

MODULE
IN
 JOHN B. LACSON FOUNDATION MARITIME UNIVERSITY - MOLO, INC.
(FORMERLY ILOILO MARITIME ACADEMY)
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MARINE ENGINEERING

PROPULSION ANCILLARY SYSTEM and GAS TURBINE

Course outline:
PRELIM
1. Operation principles
2. Basic construction
3. Shafting Installations and Propeller
MODULE 1 (Week 1-6) 30 HRS.

Unit 1: Operation principles

Introduction: The study of Propulsion ancillary systems and gas turbine on

board a ship and its systems deals with the propulsion capabilities of a
gas turbines including its advantages and disadvantages over the marine diesel
engine & it also includes the construction of propeller and the propeller shafting
arrangement. This course focusses the study of Marine Gas Turbine shafting
installation and propeller fluid flow and characteristic of major system main
engine and associated auxiliaries machinery and auxiliary prime movers and
associated system.

CONTROL SYSTEM OF GAS TURBINE DIAGRAM

The gas turbine generator is a combination system of a compressor, turbine, and generator.
First of all, the air intake is compressed by the compressor. This compressed air will be
heated by a fuel combustion process.This hot and high-pressure air will be expanded in the
turbine so that the turbine is rotating and producing a thrust force. This thrust force is used
by the compressor itself and also to drive the electrical generator. The electrical generator
then producing some electricity or electrical power .
There are three subsystems of the gas turbine generator system, the lube oil system, the fuel
gas system, and fire & gas detection system. The lube oil system’s purpose is to lubricate all
the bearing in the turbine.

Lesson 1 : Explain how a gas turbine is used for

The gas turbine is used to make mechanical energy from a combustible fuel. In the gas turbines used
to make industrial/electrical power, the mechanical energy comes in the form of a rotating shaft (as
opposed to pressurized thrust of a gas turbine jet engine).
Gas turbines are used to power aircraft, trains, ships, electrical generators, pumps, gas compressors,
and tanks.
Lesson 2: Describe the feature of a gas turbine

A gas turbine engine is divided into five sections:

· Air inlet section
· Compressor section
· Combustion section or combustor
· Turbine section
- Exhaust section or exhaust nozzle
The rotor blades (sometimes called buckets) are attached to the rotor disc. The rotor disc is mounted
on the rotor shaft. The entire assembly of blades and disc is often called a rotor.

Function of gas turbine

The purpose of a gas turbine engine is to create energy to turn a shaft that drives other rotating
equipment such as compressors and generators.
As hot combustion gas expands through the turbine, it spins the rotating blades. The rotating blades
perform a dual function: they drive the compressor to draw more pressurized air into the combustion
section, and they spin a generator to produce electricity.
 PARTS of GAS TURBINE

1. FAN - is a powered machine used to create flow within a fluid, typically a gas such as air. A fan
consists of a rotating arrangement of vanes or blades which act on the air.
2. LOW PRESSURE COMPRESSOR - Compresses the incoming air of low pressure inside the
combustion chamber.
3. HIGH PRESSURE COMPRESSOR - Compresses the incoming air of high pressure inside the
combustion chamber.
4. DIFFUSER - slows down the compressor delivery air to reduce flow losses in the combustor.
Slower air is also required to help stabilize the combustion flame and the higher static pressure
improves the combustion efficiency.

5. IGNITER - a device for igniting a fuel mixture in an engine inside combustion chamber of gas
turbine engine.

6. COMBUSTOR - Fuel is burned continuously after initially being ignited during the engine
start. Once the air flows through the diffuser, it enters the combustion section, also called the
combustor.

7. HIGH PRESSURE TURBINE - Extracts the energy from the high-pressure, high-velocity gas
flowing from the combustion chamber and converting the gaseous energy to mechanical
energy in the form of shaft power.
8. LOW PRESSURE TURBINE - Extracts the energy from the low-pressure, high-velocity gas
flowing from the combustion chamber.
9. ROTOR - A rotating wheel or group of wheels in a turbine.
10. BEARING- is a machine element that constrains relative motion to only the desired motion,
and reduces friction between moving parts.
11. DISTRIBUTOR- Air leaves the compressor through exit guide vanes, which convert the radial
component of the air flow out of the compressor to straight-line flow. The air then enters the
diffuser section of the engine, which is a very divergent duct.
12. PRESSURE LUBRICATION-A force lubrication system serves to ensure lubrication of the
bearings and gears and to maintain sufficiently cool temperatures, mostly by eliminating
friction.
13. SHROUD - The primary function of the shrouds is to provide a cylindrical surface for
minimizing tip clearance leakage. The secondary function is to provide a high thermal
resistance between the hot gases and the comparatively cool shell.

14. INTAKE- the inlet is a duct that is required to ensure smooth airflow into the engine despite air
approaching the inlet from directions other than straight ahead.
15. EXHAUST- Turbine exhaust gases pass through the propelling nozzle to produce a high-
velocity jet. The nozzle is usually convergent with a fixed flow area. After the gas has passed
through the turbine, it is discharged through the exhaust. Though most of the gaseous energy
is converted to mechanical energy by the turbine.

Lesson 3: Describe the operation principles in terms of four processes,

compression, combustion (heating), expansion and exhaust

A simple gas turbine is comprised of three main sections a compressor, a combustor, and a power
turbine. The gas-turbine operates on the principle of the Brayton cycle, where compressed air is mixed
with fuel, and burned under constant pressure conditions.
In an ideal gas turbine, gases undergo four thermodynamic processes: an isentropic compression, an
isobaric (constant pressure) combustion, an isentropic expansion and heat rejection. Together, these
make up the Brayton cycle .Explain in Gas control system diagram.
.

Lesson 4: Compare a gas turbine with a steam turbine in terms of

advantages and disadvantages

Advantages of gas turbine from steam turbine

Basic concepts: The difference between steam and gas turbines. Steam turbines rotate in the currents
caused by the hot water vapour while Gas turbines on the other hand rotate directly in the hot
combustion gases. With temperatures up to 1500 °C, these gases are much hotter than those in steam
turbines.
Gas Turbines
A gas turbine is a continuous combustion engine that consists of three main components: compressor,
combustor and turbine. These three components are connected through a shaft which. Gas turbines
are capable of producing power by suctioning atmospheric air, compressing it, burning it and expanding
it producing a torque on the shaft which in turns spins an electrical generator that transforms the
mechanical energy of the shaft to electrical energy.

Advantages
1. Gas turbines are capable of reaching full load operation in a matter of
minutes. These engines are very popular for using as peak power plants, this
due to their ability of be taken into service during peak power demand when
and as required.
2. Furthermore, they have a very attractive initial cost as compared with steam
turbines.
3. High power-to-weight ratio.
4. Require much less water than steam turbines power plants.
5. Smaller size and weight compared to steam turbines.
6. Less space is needed for installation.

Disadvantages
1. One of the disadvantages of gas turbines is their limited ability to use different
fuels in comparison with steam turbines. In fact, just a little variation in the
fuel specs used in a gas turbine can lead to efficiency drop, increase
maintenance factor, early inspection etc.
2. Low part load efficiency.
3. Due to high operating temperatures, special and expensive materials are
needed.
4. About two thirds of the power produces is used to drive the compressor.
5. External source of power needed to start self-sustained operation.

Steam Turbine

A steam turbine is a form of heat engine that extracts energy from high-pressure steam to produce
electricity. These engines generate approximately the 90% of the electricity in the U.S. Steam cycle
power plants operation are based on the Rankine Cycle. The fundamental operation of this cycle is
described as follows. Water is pumped at high pressure into a boiler where heat from the combustion
process is used to generate steam. The steam then passes through a steam turbine that rotates a shaft
that is connected to an electrical generator. The spinning of the electrical generator produces electricity.
The low pressure and low-temperature steam coming from the turbine is then passed through a
condenser that decreases the temperature of the steam to convert it back to saturated water. The
saturated water is then pumped back to the boiler closing the cycle.

GAS TURBINE DIAGRAM

A steam turbine is a form of heat engine that extracts energy from high-pressure steam to
produce electricity. These engines generate approximately the 90% of the electricity . Steam
cycle power plants operation are based on the Rankine Cycle. The fundamental operation of this
cycle is described as follows. Water is pumped at high pressure into a boiler where heat from
the combustion process is used to generate steam. The steam then passes through a steam
turbine that rotates a shaft that is connected to an electrical generator. The spinning of the
electrical generator produces electricity. The low pressure and low-temperature steam coming
from the turbine is then passed through a condenser that decreases the temperature of the
steam to convert it back to saturated water. The saturated water is then pumped back to
the boiler closing the cycle.

Advantages

1. One of the main advantages of steam turbines is the boiler ability to burn
multiple types of fuels. The boiler is capable of burning different fuels at each
stage of the start-up process. For instance, it can use LPG for ignition, light
diesel oil for start-up and then heavy oil for continuous operation as an
example.
2. Steam turbines have a high power-to-weight ratio which makes them more
practical than reciprocating engines. Also, for a given power output, their size
is smaller and produce less vibrations than their reciprocating counterparts.
3. Power generation is not affected by atmospheric conditions as it operates on a
closed cycle.
4. Another advantages of steam turbine power plants compared to gas turbines
are the high operating efficiency, higher reliability and high operating
efficiencies.

Disadvantages

1. Long start-up time. Start-up of a steam turbine takes a considerable amount of

time specially during cold start-ups and requires a long list of steps before it
can operate at base load. Therefore, steam turbines cannot be used as peak
power plants.
2. The operation of a steam turbine power plant requires more components than
that of a simple cycle gas turbine. Among this components are huge boiler,
cooling towers, feedwater systems and so forth.
3. Require to be installed near large water reservoirs.

Lesson 5 :Describe the types of gas turbines

Types of Gas Turbine Engines (Jet Engines)

1. Turbojet - A turbojet is the simplest of all aircraft turbine engines, consisting of

four sections: compressor, combustion chamber, turbine section
and exhaust. A turbojet engine is a jet engine which produces all of
its thrust by ejecting a high energy gas stream from the engine
exhaust nozzle. In contrast to a turbofan or bypass engine, 100% of
the air entering the intake of a turbojet engine goes through the
engine core.
Working Principle: Air is drawn into the engine through the inlet side by the compressor and compressed and
heated by the compressor. Fuel is then added in the combustion chamber and ignited. The gases flow through
the turbine and make it spin. These gases bounce back and shoot out of the rear of the exhaust, pushing the
plane forward.

Function: Turbojet, jet engine in which a turbine-driven compressor draws in and compresses air, forcing it
into a combustion chamber into which fuel is injected. Ignition causes the gases to expand and to rush first
through the turbine and then through a nozzle at the rear.

Application: When used in a turbojet application, where the output from the gas turbine is used in a
propelling nozzle, raising the turbine temperature increases the jet velocity.
Components:
1. Compressor
2.Combustor
3. Shaft
4. Turbine,
5. Exh. Nozzle

2. Turboprop - A turboprop engine is a turbine engine that drives an aircraft

propeller. In contrast to a turbojet, the engine's exhaust gases do
not generally contain enough energy to create significant thrust,
since almost all of the engine's power is used to drive the
propeller. Turboprop aircraft were specifically designed to be
the most efficient at low altitudes and slower speeds under 450
mph. When turboprops are flown at the correct altitude and
airspeed, they are extremely efficient and burn less fuel than
most light jets, which in turn lowers the hourly rate of the aircraft.

Working Principle: Air is drawn into the engine through the inlet side by the
propeller and compressor and compressed and heated by the compressor.
Fuel is then added in the combustion chamber and ignited. The gases flow through the turbine and make it
spin. These gases bounce back and shoot out of the rear of the exhaust, pushing the plane forward.
Application: Turboprop aircraft were specifically designed to be the most efficient at low altitudes and slower
speeds under 450 mph. They are extremely efficient and burn less fuel than most light jets.

STRUT - a rod or bar forming part of a framework and designed to resist compression.

Components:
1. Propeller
2. Gearbox
3. Shaft/Strut
4. Compressor
5. Combustor
6. Turbine
7. Exh. Nozzle

3. Turbofan - The turbofan or fanjet is a type of air breathing jet engine that is
widely used in aircraft propulsion. The ratio of the mass-flow of air
by passing the engine core divided by the mass-flow of air passing
through the core is referred to as the bypass ratio.
Working Principle: Air is drawn into the engine through the inlet side by the fan blade and compressor and
compressed and heated by the compressor. Fuel is then added in the combustion chamber and ignited. The
gases flow through the turbine and make it spin. These gases bounce back and shoot out of the rear of the
exhaust, pushing the plane forward.

Application: The turbofan or fanjet is a type of air-breathing jet engine that is widely used in aircraft
propulsion.
Components:
1. Fan,
2. Low-pressure compressor
3. High-press. compressor
4. High-press. Shaft
5. Low-press. Shaft
6. Combustor
7. High-press. Turbine
8. Low-press. Turbine
9. Exh. Nozzle

4. Afterburning Turbojet - In a basic turbojet some of the energy of the exhaust

from the burner is used to turn
the turbine. The fuel burns and produces additional
thrust, but it doesn't burn as efficiently
as it does in the combustion section of the turbojet.
You get more thrust, but you burn much more fuel.
Working Principle: Same as Turbojet gas turbine but it has an afterburner that can inject fuel in the exhaust
side
Application: Also used in a wide variety of applications (especially fighter jets) but not related to aeronautics.
Components:
1. Cowl
2. Shaft
3. Compressor
4. Combustor
5. Turbine
6. Afterburner
7. Exh. Nozzle

2) Basic construction
At the end of the topic, the students will be able to:
Describe the types of turbine and their features
List the attached equipment and explain their features and functions in simple terms

Lesson 6 :Using visual aids to describe the three main components of gas turbine as:
• compressor
• combustion chamber
• turbine

SHOW VIDEO OF gas turbine

Axial Compressor of gas turbine.MKV

Lesson 7 :Describe the types of compressors and their features

Types of compressors and their features

There are three basic categories of gas turbine engine compressor: axial compressor, centrifugal compressor
and mixed flow compressor. A fourth, unusual, type is the free-piston gas generator, which combines the
functions of compressor and combustion chamber in one unit.
The compressor section of the gas turbine engine has many functions. Its primary function is to supply air in
sufficient quantity to satisfy the requirements of the combustion burners. A secondary function of
the compressor is to supply bleed-air for various purposes in the engine and aircraft.
1. axial flow compressor is a gas compressor that can continuously pressurize gases. It is a rotating,
airfoil-based compressor in which the gas or working fluid principally flows parallel to the axis of rotation, or
axially.
Compressors are typically driven by an electric motor or a steam or a gas
turbine. Axial-flow: having the fluid or gas flowing parallel to the axis axial-
flow turbine axial-flow pump — compare radial-flow

Axial compressor is usually used in gas turbine. Axial compressors are used in medium- to large-thrust gas
turbine engines, because the alternative centrifugal units would be too heavy and too large in the cross-
sectional area.

2. centrifugal compressor - A compressor in which compression is obtained by the use of

a centrifugal pump. A compressor in which the airflow is radial—air flows to the center of the impeller and is
slung outward by the centrifugal force into the diffuser, where its velocity is decreased and its pressure
increased

.
 3. mixed flow compressor - A mixed flow compressor, or diagonal compressor, combines axial and
radial components to produce a diagonal airflow compressor stage

Unit 2: Basic construction

Lesson 1 :Describe the types of combustion chambers and their features

Types of combustion chambers and their features

Combustion chambers are confined spaces in internal and external combustion engines to burn the fuel air
mixture.
In a gas turbine engine, the combustor or combustion chamber is fed high pressure air by the compression
system. The combustor then heats this air at constant pressure
There are two types of internal combustion chambers: Piston type internal combustion engines consist of a
cylinder with a piston inside and are used in cars and boats. Combustors are combustion chambers used in gas
turbines and jet engines.

ANNULAR COMBUSTION CHAMBER COMBUSTION CHAMBER

 COMBUSTER PARTS AND COMPONENTS

Lesson 2 :Describe the types of turbine and their features

Types of turbine and their features

Gas turbines. Many warships built since the 1960s have used gas turbines for propulsion, as have a few
passenger ships, like the jetfoil. Gas turbines are commonly used in combination with other types of engine.
Most recently, RMS Queen Mary 2 has had gas turbines installed in addition to diesel engines.

Lesson 3 :List the attached equipment and explains their feature and functions in simple
terms
SHOW VIDEO OF:

Combustion Chambers of Gas Turbine.MKV

Unit 3: Shafting Installations and Propeller

Lesson 1:Describe the following installations/equipment constructing shafting:

 o Propeller
o Rope guard
o Stern tube
o Stern tube bearing
o Shaft seal
o Propeller shaft
o Intermediate shaft
o Shaft bearing
o Plumber block
o thrust bearing

A propeller is a type of fan that transmits power by converting rotational motion into thrust. A pressure
difference is produced between the forward and rear surfaces of the airfoil-shaped blade, and a fluid (such as
air or water) is accelerated behind the blade.
A propeller is a rotating fan like structure which is used to propel the ship by using the power generated
and transmitted by the main engine of the ship. A vessel's propeller works by thrusting a column of water
away from the main body of the ship, thereby producing a reactive force that moves the boat forward. Most
naval vessels use a screw-type propeller that transmits thrust through the main shaft to the thrust bearing.
The construction process of the propeller includes attaching a number of blades to the hub or boss by
welding or forging in one piece. A marine Propeller is constructed by sections of helicoidal surfaces acting
together to rotate through water with a screw effect.

Rope guards are a protection barrier for propeller shafts shielding them against line entanglement around
main shafts. Typically attached by means of welding or bolted with locking wires in place. For every vessel
rope guards are the protection barrier for propeller shafts shielding them against line entanglement and
damage on the shaft seal system. Typically rope guards are attached by means of welding or bolted with
locking wires in place. Removal of entangled ropes and nets

The stern tube is a narrow hole in the hull structure at the rear end (aft peak) of
the ship, through which the propeller
shaft passes and connects the engine and propeller. The ship's tail shaft (or
 propeller shaft), which transfers power from the main engine, runs inside the stern tube and connects to
the propeller

Stern tube bearing - a long bushing or bearing through the stern of a ship to support the after part of the
propeller shaft. The main function of stern tube bearings is to allow an unrestricted and smooth rotation of
the propeller shaft. Apart from stern bearings, the stern tube also houses water and oil sealing
glands known as the stern glands. The stern tube is a sensitive part of the ship where the sea water can easily
seep inside.

Shaft seal - are used on rotating, reciprocating, and oscillating shafts to contain oil and grease and exclude
contaminants.
intermediate shaft – supported by the thrust block, intermediate bearings and the sterntube bearing. A
sealing arrangement is provided at either end of the tailshaft with the propeller and cone completing the
arrangement.

propeller shaft -transmits power from the gearbox to the differential gear in a motor vehicle or from the
engine to the propeller in a ship or aircraft

Shaft bearing- carries the total weight of propeller shaft located inside the stern tube.

plumber block - lessen the reduction of stress due to the weight and cause propeller shafting misalignment.
 Thrust bearing – with any propulsion system the thrust from the propeller must be transmitted into the hull
to drive the ship through the water. The thrust bearings in this case are mounted aft of the propulsion motors
before the shaft bearings (plummer blocks).

Lignum Vitae Water-Lubricated bearings commonly replace composite, plastic, bronze, babbit and oil
filmed bearings. The material is the oldest bearing in service with unmatched longevity in water
applications. It has tremendous load bearing qualities and unique shock absorbing qualities that no
other material can match. This material has successfully returned to the Hydro Power market and
now will return to the Marine market.

There are a few types(3 types) of major stern tube seals on the market today all with one job, to keep
the ship moving through the water, and the water out of the ship. These include;
1. labyrinth Seals
The aft seal contains three lip seals. The first two lip seals form a barrier against water ingress and
the third one prevents oil leakage from the stern tube into the surrounding water.

The general working principle of Labyrinth seals is to create a series of barriers that gradually reduce
pressure such that the final seal is not subject to a large volume of sealing media at these higher
pressures. The purposeful long and winding path that the sealing liquid must follow can then be
sealed watertight by conventional means such as an O-ring or lip seal.
While an effective means of sealing, this method has inherent issues with longevity as the final seals
are commonly elastomer based and in contact with rotating equipment at all times thus subject to
friction wear. Elastomers have a limit in terms of surface speed capabilities, which diminishes over
time. Incredibly tight tolerances are also required as the passages begin to narrow, driving
manufacturing cost and creating installation and premature failure challenges.

2. Mechanical Face Seals

The common issues with the above labyrinth seals of failure due to friction has been solved by the
mechanical face seal. In order to handle the frictional loading, mechanical face seals get around the
heat caused by frictional loading by using the sealing media for a cooling and friction reducing effect..
Where friction is reduced, and where heat is reduced, so is wear. This means that mechanical face
seals are designed to run for long periods of time at high speeds.
Similar to labyrinth seals, mechanical face seals require additional support materials such as flushing
water, oil and grease to keep them running. The materials chosen are also much more robust than
some of the common ceramic based materials which are prone to breakage and cracking in harsh
usage conditions.

3. Packing Type
Perhaps the oldest and most utilized system of sealing of rotating equipment is through the use of
packing. Materials such as fibrous rope, oakum, carbon and graphite based materials have been
used for as long as there have been rotating shafts driving ships through the world’s oceans. There
have been great advances in the materials created for use in packing applications, however these
systems limit operation speed profiles, require increased maintenance and must be checked and re-
packed at frequent intervals.

Lesson 2: Describe the details of oil shaft seal and stern tube bearing including
their components

- Shaft seals also known as lip seal - are used to seal rotary elements, such as a shaft or rotating
bore. Depending on the seal type these two angles are varied to create a pressure distribution at the
seal contact point. Shaft seal in machinery it is a device that prevents the passage of fluids along a
rotating shaft.

SHAFT SEAL
- A propeller shaft - is a mechanical component for transmitting torque and
rotation, usually used to connect other components of a drive train that cannot
be connected directly because of distance or the need to allow for relative
movement between them.

Intermediate shaft - The propeller of the ship is fitted at the aft and attached to
a crankshaft coming from the main engine. The propeller shaft or tail shaft is
supported by a bearing arrangement which acts as an intermediate phase
between the sea and the ship.
-Shaft bearing - A bearing is a machine element that constrains relative motion
to only the desired motion, and reduces friction between moving parts. The
simplest form of bearing, the plain bearing, consists of a shaft rotating in a hole.
Lubrication is often used to reduce friction

Plumber block or Pillow block or Bearing housing - is a pedestal used to provide

support for a rotating shaft with the help of compatible bearings & various
accessories. Housing material for a pillow block is typically made of cast iron or
cast steel.
Lesson 3:Describe the details of thrust bearing

- Thrust bearing - A bearing located inside the ship to transmit the propeller thrust from the shafting
to the hull structure. The thrust bearing consists of a thrust collar on the crankshaft,
a bearing support, and segments of steel with white metal.

A thrust bearing is a particular type of rotary bearing. Like other bearings they permit rotation
between parts, but they are designed to support a predominantly axial load. Thrust ball bearings,
composed of bearing balls supported in a ring, can be used in low thrust applications where there is
little axial load.
Thrust bearings absorb axial loads from rotating shafts into the stationary housings or mounts in
which they are turning.
Thrust collar

Details of oil shaft seal and stern tube bearing including their components
An oil seal normally consists of three basic components: the sealing element, the metal case
and the spring. The purpose of the sealing element is to stop the fluid from leaking between the shaft
and housing.

The main function of stern tube bearings is to allow an unrestricted and smooth rotation of the
propeller shaft. Apart from stern bearings, the stern tube also houses water and oil sealing glands
known as the stern glands. The stern tube is a sensitive part of the ship where the sea water can
easily seep inside.

Components associated with the propeller shaft.

- Stern tube seals

- Stern tube bearings
- Intermediate and main strut bearings

Details of thrust bearing

A thrust bearing is a particular type of rotary bearing. Like other bearings they permit rotation between
parts, but they are designed to support a predominantly axial load. Thrust ball bearings, composed
of bearing balls supported in a ring, can be used in low thrust applications where there is
little axial load.
Lesson 4: Describe various types of propellers and their features

Various types of propellers and their features

There are two types of propellers in the field of professionally used ships: The controllable
pitch propeller (CPP) or swivel blade propeller. The fixed pitch propeller.

Pitch is defined as "the distance a propeller would move in one revolution if it were moving through a
soft solid, like a screw through wood." For example, a 21-pitch propeller would move forward 21
inches in one revolution.
A variable-pitch propeller or controllable-pitch propeller (CPP) is a type of propeller with blades
that can be rotated around their long axis to change the blade pitch.

1. Controllable pitch propellers can be used to run the ship in forward and astern direction
both, without the requirement to change the direction of rotation of the engine. The propeller
works on the principle of lift generated by each aero foil section of the blade.

2. Most of the propellers that are used in ships are fixed pitch propellers (FPP). It is this twist in the
blade that results in the forward motion of the propeller with each rotation. Parts of screw propeller. It
is pretty much what you see on a screw. The angle of the thread is actually what is called the
pitch angle.
Parts of 4 Blades fixed pitch propellers

1. Back of Blade
2. Face of Blade
3. Leading Edge
4. Face Pitch Angle
5. Pitch Datum Line
6. Blade Tip
7. Blade Root
8. Fairing Cone
9. Trailing Edge
10. Rake Datum Line

Lesson 5: Describe structure and materials for propellers

Structure and materials for propellers

The materials used for making marine propeller are alloy of aluminum and stainless steel. Other popular
materials used are alloys of nickel, aluminum and bronze which are 10~15 % lighter than other
materials and have higher strength.
Copper alloys are widely used in marine applications because of their resistance to corrosion and
because they have good machinability. Cooper alloys are also known for their thermal and electrical
conductivity. Bronze alloys, in particular, are the preferred metal for casting large ship
propellers.
Lesson 6: Define the following parameters of the propeller:

• diameter
• pitch
• pitch ratio
• boss ratio
• pressure side
• suction side
• leading edge
• trailing edge
blade section
• blade rake

The following parameters of propeller on ships:

-Diameter - Basically, a propeller design is carried out by one of the two following methods:
The different propellers tested have varied parameters such as number of blades, blade area, pitch
ratio etc. Based on these results and the requirement of the vessel, the parameters can be selected
to obtain the suitable design.
- Diameter usually increases for propellers used on slower boats and decreases
for faster boats," the manual continues.

- Pitch - Pitch is defined as "the distance a propeller would move in one revolution if it were moving
through a soft solid, like a screw through wood." For example, a 21-pitch propeller would move
forward 21 inches in one revolution.

- Pitch ratio - Typically blades are twisted to guarantee constant pitch along the blades from root to
tip. Often a pitch ratio will be supplied. This is simply the ratio of pitch to diameter, usually in
millimeters, and typically falls between 0.5
and 2.5 with an optimal value for most vessels closer to 0.8 to 1.8.

- Boss ratio -The ship propeller has two hydrodynamic surfaces: Face and Back. To put it simply,
the cross section of blades coupled with the boss when looked from behind the ship is called the
Face, also known as the 'palm'.

Blade Area Ratio. .

Ship propeller is used for propulsion in most types of vessels, irrespective of their type and size. The
notion of 'pushing' or 'propelling' a ship forward came into being since the advent of ships themselves.
It is defined as the curvature of the mean thickness line of a given blade section.

-Pressure side or pressure face of the blade. This is the side that faces aft (backwards) and
pushes the water when the vessel is in forward motion. The back of the blade is the low pressure side
or the suction face of the blade. This is the side that faces upstream or towards the front of the
vessel.

- Suction side. The back of the blade is the low pressure side or the suction face of the blade. This is
the side that faces upstream or towards the front of the vessel.
- Leading edge. This is the side that faces upstream or towards the front of the vessel. The leading
edge of a propeller blade or any foil is the side that cuts through the fluid. A right-
handed propeller rotates clockwise when
propelling a vessel forward, as viewed from the stern of the ship.

- Blade rake. Rake is the amount of degrees the propeller blades angle perpendicular to the
propeller hub. Rake can be
slightly negative (leaning towards the boat), or positive (leaning away from the boat). The range of
degrees could vary from -5 to +30 degrees. An average rake angle for most outboard propellers is 15
degrees.

SHOW VIDEO OF:

DC World's Biggest Ship#2 Enormous Engine 世界最大貨輪2.mp4

Lesson 7: Explain briefly how propellers fit on propeller shafts

How propellers fit on propeller shafts

Oil is injected under pressure between the bore and the shaft by means of pumps
feeding a system of grooves in the propeller bore. It is then quite easy, using a
hydraulic device, to push the propeller against the taper into sufficient degree of
interference. The propeller is pushed up a precalculated distance.
Propeller shaft or a cardan shaft is a mechanical component for transmitting
torque and rotation, usually used to connect other components of a drive train
that cannot be connected directly because of distance or the need to allow for
relative movement between them. Propeller shaft make any machine move.
 HOW PROPELLERS FIT ON PROPELLER SHAFTS.MKV

SHOW VIDEOS

Lesson 8: Describe a highly -skewed (skew back) propeller and its advantages

Highly -skewed (skew back) propeller and its advantages

Skew is the “sweeping back” of a propeller blade
The thrust and power performance of a skewed propeller is effectively unchanged from a
conventional (non- or moderately-skewed) propeller.

Lesson 9: Describe a controllable pitch propeller (CCP) and its mechanism of

changing blade angle
There are two types of propellers in the field of professionally used ships:

- The controllable pitch propeller (CPP) or swivel blade propeller.

- The fixed pitch propeller.

Controllable pitch propeller fixed-pitch propeller

A fixed-pitch propeller is a propeller whose pitch angle (the incidence of the blades with respect to
the plane of rotation) cannot be changed.

Construction: Fixed Pitch Propeller. The fixed pitch type propellers are casted and the position of
the blades and hence the position of the pitch is permanently fixed and cannot be changed during the
operation. They are normally made from copper alloy.

Design: Considerations are made to match the engine's power and shaft speed, as well as the size
of the vessel and the ship's operating speed, with an appropriately designed propeller.

Principle: It is this twist in the blade that results in the forward motion of the propeller with each
rotation. The more the pitch angle, the more distance is traveled by the screw in one rotation, that is,
the more is the pitch. Similarly, propellers act on the principle of screw. Hence the term screw
propeller.

Application: Most of the propellers that are used in merchant ships are fixed pitch propellers (FPP).
It is this twist in the blade that results in the forward motion of the propeller with each rotation.

Controllable pitch propeller (CCP) and its mechanism of changing blade angle

A controllable pitch propeller is of the built-up type with separate boss and blades, the blades being
capable of being turned through the required angle to the plane of rotation to change from full pitch
angle ahead to full pitch angle.

Pitch is defined as "the distance a propeller would move in one revolution if it were moving through a
soft solid, like a screw through wood." For example, a 21-pitch propeller would move forward 21
inches in one revolution.

Construction: A controllable pitch propeller is made up of a boss with separate blades mounted into
it. An internal mechanism enables the blades to be moved simultaneously through an arc to change
the pitch angle and therefore the pitch.
Design: A variable-pitch propeller or controllable-pitch propeller (CPP) is a type of propeller with
blades that can be rotated around their long axis to change the blade pitch.

Principle: Since the pitch of the propeller determines the amount of thrust generated by the propeller,
a change in the pitch angle can bring about a change in the speed of the ship.

Application: A controllable pitch propeller is useful in changing the speed of the ship without changing
the speed or rpm of the main engine

Blade pitch or simply pitch refers to turning the angle of attack of the blades of a propeller or
helicopter rotor into or out of the wind to control the production or absorption of power. Wind turbines
use this to adjust the rotation speed and the generated power.

Lesson 10: State the advantages and disadvantages of a controllable pitch

propeller in comparison with fixed pitch propeller (FPP)
Advantages and Disadvantages of CPP and FPP
- The controllable pitch propellers can be used to run the ship in forward and astern direction
both, without the requirement to change the direction of rotation of the engine. How? The
propeller works on the principle of lift generated by each aero foil section of the blade.

- A non-reversible engine can be used for both forward and astern operation of the ship. Hence,
the weight of the engine and propulsion machinery is reduced considerably when compared to
what is required in propulsion systems equipped with fixed pitch propellers.

- Since the pitch of the propeller determines the amount of thrust generated by the propeller, a
change in the pitch angle can bring about a change in the speed of the ship. A controllable pitch
propeller is useful in changing the speed of the ship without changing the speed or rpm of the
main engine.

- Due to the above reason, the speed of the ship can be handled from the navigation bridge
directly. In case of fixed pitch propellers, the marine engineer needs to be intimidated in order to
change the ship’s speed. Therefore CPP technology is used for obtaining faster response of
speed change.

- The efficiency of astern condition in case of fixed pitch propellers is less than that of controllable
pitch propeller in astern condition. However, there are many disadvantages of using a controllable
pitch propeller to a fixed pitch propeller. It is important to know them too.

- The pitch control mechanism installed in the hub is complicated enough to demand proper
inspection at regular intervals. The installation process is also more complicated as compared to
that of fixed pitch propeller system.

- Controllable pitch propellers have a very high initial cost. And this cost increases rapidly with
increasing diameter of the propeller.
 - Due to pitch control mechanisms housed inside the hub, the length and the diameter of the hub
is also high as compared to the fixed pitch propeller systems.

Show video:
Controllable Pitch Propellers, fixed pitch propeller and Bow Thruster thruster

Lesson 11: Define the cavitation of propellers and explains its generating
mechanism
The cavitation of propellers and explains its generating mechanism

propeller cavitation. Formation of vapor-filled and air-filled bubbles or cavities in water at or on the
surface of a rotating propeller, occurring when the pressure falls below the vapor pressure of water.

Cavitation is a phenomenon in which rapid changes of pressure in a liquid lead to the formation of
small vapor-filled cavities, in places where the pressure is relatively low. The process in which a void
or bubble in a liquid rapidly collapses, producing a shock wave, is called inertial cavitation.

The collapsing bubbles are filled with very low-pressure water vapor and when they collapse damage
is done to many surfaces. Cavitation is a drag on efficiency because of the increased friction. Even
worse, cavitation can cause vibration because of uneven prop loads and damage or break
equipment.

A skewed propeller is a propeller with a specialized blade design fitted to the ship in order to improve
the propulsion performance and efficiency of the propeller. Such design reduces the induced vibration
and noise due to cavitation.

Preventing cavitation: remove fouling, nicks and scratch. Increase or decrease the engine rpm
smoothly to avoid an abrupt change in thrust. Keep appropriate pitch setting for CPP.

Lesson 12: Define the propeller singing and explains its generating mechanism and
preventive measures
The propeller singing and explains its generating mechanism and preventive measures

Propeller “singing” phenomenon is defined as the resonance between the natural frequency of the
propeller blade tip and the vortex shedding frequency at trailing edge of the blade.

In fluid dynamics, vortex shedding is an oscillating flow that takes place when a fluid such as air or
water flows past a bluff (as opposed to streamlined) body at certain velocities, depending on the size
and shape of the body.

Cause of vortex shedding happens when wind hits a structure, causing alternating vortices to form at
a certain frequency. This in turn causes the system to excite and produce a vibrational load.
Historically, it has been very difficult to calculate by hand.
Some propellers in service produce a high-pitched noise, often referred to as Singing. This sound
typically is a clear harmonic tone much like a humming or ringing wine glass. Also, the less number of
blades the less cases of "singing".

The generating mechanism of propeller singing based on the theory of unsteady hydrodynamics of
cyclic spiral separated flow and points out the singing is a typical result of hydrodynamic elastic
resonance induced by Karman vortex. This can be prevented by reducing propeller blade trail edge to
1mm on the basis of compliance with class requirement.

Kármán vortex is a repeating pattern of swirling vortices, caused by a process known as vortex
shedding, which is responsible for the unsteady separation of flow of a fluid around blunt bodies. It is
named after the engineer and fluid dynamicist Theodore von Kármán, and is responsible for such
phenomena as the "singing" of suspended telephone or power lines and the vibration of a car
antenna at certain speeds.

Course outline:
MIDTERM
3. (Cont.) Shafting Installations and Propeller
4 .Fluid Flow and Characteristics of Major Systems
5. Main engine and associated auxiliaries
MODULE 2 (Week 7-12) 30 HRS.

Unit 4: Fluid Flow and Characteristics of Major Systems

Lesson 1: Describe fluid flows of:

• lubricating oil
• cooling fresh water
• cooling sea water
• Gas

The Exhaust gas from the cylinder unit is sent to exhaust gas receiver where the fluctuating pressure
generated from different cylinders are equalized. From here, the gases which are at constant
pressure are sent to turbocharger where waste heat is recovered to provide additional scavenge air to
engine.

The modern exhaust gas system of marine engines is designed in such a way that the unused gases
coming out of the cylinders are further directed to turbocharger and exhaust gas boiler to recover
most of the waste energy from the same.
To utilize the maximum energy from the waste gases, the exhaust gas system of marine engine is
provided with the following components:

• Exhaust gas pipes

• Exhaust gas boiler
• Silencer
• Spark arrester
• Expansion joints
The exhaust gas piping system conveys the gas from the outlet of the turbocharger(s) to the
atmosphere. For designing the exhaust piping system, following important parameters must be
observed:

• The exhaust gas flow rate

• Maximum back force from exhaust piping on turbochargers

• Exhaust gas temperature at turbocharger outlet

• Maximum pressure drop within the exhaust gas system

• Maximum noise level at gas outlet to atmosphere

• Sufficient axial and lateral elongation ability of expansion joints

• Utilisation of the heat energy of the exhaust gas.

Exhaust gas boiler is considered to be one of the most efficient waste heat recovery system
designed for a ship.

Silencer is used to reduce the noise level in the exhaust gas manifold and they are generally placed
after the EGB.
A spark arrester can be fitted in the exhaust piping system to prevent sparks from the exhaust gas
being spread over deckhouse. It is placed at the end of the exhaust gas system of the engine.

The expansion joints are to be chosen with an elasticity that limits the forces and the moments of
the exhaust gas outlet flange of the turbocharger as stated for each of the turbocharger makers.

• Lubricating oil

Lubrication is the process or technique employed to reduce friction between, and wear of one or both,
surfaces in proximity and moving relative to each other, by interposing a substance called a lubricant
in between them

Lubricating oil system: Lubricating oil for an engine is stored in the bottom of the crankcase, known
as the sump, or in a drain tank located beneath the engine. The oil is drawn from this tank through a
strainer, one of a pair of pumps, into one of a pair of fine filters. It is then passed through a
cooler before entering the engine and being distributed to the various branch pipes.

Lubricating oil Diagram

• Cooling fresh water

Cooling of engines is achieved by circulating a cooling liquid around internal passages within the
engine. The cooling liquid is thus heated up and is in turn cooled by a sea water circulated cooler.
Without adequate cooling certain parts of the engine which are exposed to very high temperatures, as
a result of burning fuel, would soon fail.

Cooling enables the engine metals to retain their mechanical properties. The usual coolant used is
fresh water: sea water is not used directly as a coolant because of its corrosive action. Lubricating oil
is sometimes used for piston cooling since leaks into the crankcase would not cause problems. As a
result of its lower specific heat however about twice the quantity of oil compared to water would be
required
Water carried in pipes is used to cool machinery. The main engine is cooled by two separate but
linked systems: an open system (sea-to-sea) in which water is taken from and returned to the sea
(seawater cooling), and a closed system where freshwater is circulated around an engine casing
(freshwater cooling).

Freshwater is used to cool machinery directly, whereas seawater is used to cool freshwater passing
through a heat exchanger. The particular feature of an engine cooling system is continuous fluid flow.
Fluid in motion causes abrasive corrosion and erosion. To reduce the effects of turbulent flows,
seawater systems incorporate large diameter mild steel pipes, the ends of which open to the sea
through sea chests where gate valves are fitted.

Cooling fresh water Diagram

• Cooling sea water

The various cooling liquids which circulate the engine are themselves cooled by sea water. The usual
arrangement uses individual coolers for lubricating oil, jacket water, and the piston cooling system,
each cooler being circulated by sea water. Some modern ships use what is known as a 'central
cooling system' with only one large sea-water-circulated cooler. This cools a supply of fresh water,
which then circulates to the other Individual coolers. With less equipment in contact with sea water
the corrosion problems are much reduced in this system.
 Cooling sea water Diagram

From the sea suction one of a pair of sea-water circulating pumps provides sea water which
circulates the lubricating oil cooler, the jacket water cooler and the piston water cooler before
discharging overboard. Another branch of the sea water main provides sea water to directly cool the
charge air (for a direct-drive two-stroke diesel).

Unit 5: Main engine and associated auxiliaries

Lesson 1: Explain the outline of main machinery system listing associated systems including
their Components

Engines

The engine room of a motor vessel typically contains several engines for different purposes.

Main, or propulsion engines are used to turn the ship's propeller and move the ship through the
water. They typically burn diesel oil or heavy fuel oil, and may be able to switch between the two.
There are many propulsion arrangements for motor vessels, some including multiple engines,
propellers, and gearboxes.
Main engines components includes:

• Lubricating Oil System

The engine lubrication system, with exception of cylinder lubrication, is supplied by one of two main
pumps, which take suction from the sump tank and supply oil to the low pressure main bearing
system. One of two crosshead lubrication pumps takes suction from the main bearing system, after
the automatic back flush filter, and supplies the crosshead bearings and bottom end bearings with oil
at increased pressure.

Cylinder Lubrication System

The power dependent lubrication of the pistons, cylinders and exhaust valve spindles is performed by
a separate cylinder lubrication system.

• Lubricating Oil Diagram

 • Main Bearing Oil System
Main bearing system oil, at an operating pressure of 5.5kg/cm2, is also supplied to the pistons at 2.5
– 3.5kg/cm2 in order to act as a coolant for the working piston crown; supply is to the crosshead, via
a toggle lever pipe arrangement, and then to the piston via the hollow piston rod. The integrated
crankshaft vibration damper and the balancer are also cooled with bearing oil. Main bearing and
crosshead oil systems are interconnected through a non-return valve which allows oil to pass from
the low pressure main bearing system to the high pressure crosshead system should pressure fall in
the crosshead system. This means that should the crosshead bearing oil pumps fail, then the
crosshead oil system may be supplied with oil from the main bearing LO system pumps. Under such
conditions, the engine can only be operated at reduced load.

• Crosshead Bearing Oil System

The operating pressure of the crosshead bearing oil is 10-12kg/cm2, the supply to the crosshead is
via a toggle lever pipe arrangement. High pressure crosshead bearing oil is also used to lubricate the
connecting rod bottom end bearings, supply to these being via holes drilled in the connecting rods.
The high pressure crosshead system also supplies oil for the engine reversing servomotors and as
make-up for the exhaust valve actuator system. For actuating the exhaust valves, the oil pressure is
raised by the actuator pumps to about 160kg/cm2.
 • Cooling Water System
The engine is cooled by means of chemically treated fresh water and this cooling water must be
treated with an approved cooling water inhibitor to prevent corrosive attack, sludge formation and
scale deposits in the system. A central cooling system is employed to maintain the correct
temperatures in the fresh water and lubricating oil systems of the main engine, generator engines, air
compressors and auxiliary services.

• Fuel Oil System

The fuel oil is delivered to the injection pumps through a supply pipe, a booster pump ensuring that
adequate fuel is always available at the injection pumps. The fuel quantity delivered by the booster
pump is considerably greater than that actually required by the engine; the surplus fuel is led via a
booster return pipe back to the system mixing unit, from which the booster pump takes its fuel oil
suction. The specified booster pressure is adjusted by means of a pressure-retaining valve located in
the fuel return pipe from the engine. The main engine is designed to operate on heavy fuel oil during
maneuvering. All pipes to the fuel distributors on the cylinder heads are provided with trace heating
and are insulated. Fuel distributors and injection valves are kept hot by circulation of heated fuel oil
from the booster pump. Each distributor is provided with a priming valve to enable the system to be
primed with fuel oil following the replacement of injectors. For reasons of safety, all high-pressure
pipes are encased by a metallic hose. Any leakage is contained and directed to an alarmed tank.

• Fuel Oil Diagram

• Circulation System

Injection valves and fuel distributors are kept hot by circulation of heated fuel. For each cylinder there
is a separate sub-system. A hot fuel circulating line is taken from the engine’s fuel supply pipe and
the hot fuel oil is circulated through the cylinder fuel injection pump, the fuel injectors and the fuel
distribution block. After fl owing through these, the fuel enters a return circulating line and then
passes into a common return pipe. This common return pipe is connected to the booster return pipe
via an orifice, located after the pressure-retaining valve and so the fuel used for injector and
distributor heating can flow readily back to the mixing unit.

Auxiliary engines

Smaller, but still large engines drive electrical generators that provide power for the ship's electrical
systems. Large ships typically have three or more synchronized generators to ensure smooth
operation. The combined output of a ship's generators is well above the actual power requirement to
accommodate maintenance or the loss of one generator.

On a steamship, power for both electricity and propulsion is provided by one or more large boilers
giving rise to the alternate name boiler room. High pressure steam from the boiler is used to drive
reciprocating engines or turbines for propulsion, and also turbo generators for electricity. Besides
propulsion and auxiliary engines, a typical engine room contains many smaller engines, including
generators, air compressors, feed pumps, and fuel pumps. Today, these machines are usually
powered by small diesel engines or electric motors, but may also use low-pressure steam.
Air starting system for marine diesel engine

Air at a pressure of 20 to 30 bar is required for starting main and auxiliary diesel engines in motor
ships and for the auxiliary diesels of steamships. Control air at a lower pressure is required for ships
of both categories and whether derived from high pressure compressors through reducing valves or
from special control air compressors, it must be clean, dry and oil free.

A starting air system for main diesels normally has two air compressors and two reservoirs with
sufficient capacity for twelve main engine starts (six if a non-reversible engine). The receivers must
store sufficient air for the starts without the need for top up from the compressors. Safety valves are
normally fitted to the air receivers but in some installations the reservoirs are protected against
overpressure by those of the compressors. There is a requirement that if the safety valves can be
isolated from the reservoirs, the latter must have fusible plugs fitted to release the air in the event of
fire. Reservoirs are designed, built and tested under similar regulations to those for boilers.

SHOW VIDEO OF How to Prepare and Start the Ship's Main Engine

Lesson 2: State precautions, safety measures, checking procedures and points to be made as
preparations before starting up main engine

The starting procedure of marine engines requires several points to be taken into consideration. While it is
necessary that none of these points should be missed, there are a few extremely important things that should
be done without fail while starting marine engines. Ten such important points are as followed:
1. Lubrication of Main Engine : Start pre-lubrication of the engine well before starting. For main engine it
should be started before 1 hour and for auxiliary 4-stroke engines at least 15 minutes in advanced.

2. Check All Parameters: After starting the lubrication pump, check lube oil levels and all other running pump
parameters such as cooling water pressure, fuel oil temp and pressure, control and starting air pressure etc. to
ensure that all are in the accepted range.

3. Open Indicator Cocks and Blow Through: All the indicator cocks of the marine engine must be opened up
for blow through of combustion chamber prior starting to avoid hydraulic damage because of water leakage

4. Rotate the Crankshaft: Rotate the crankshaft of the marine engine by means of turning gear so that all the
parts are thoroughly lubricated before starting.

5. Manual Check Turning Gear: Ensure that the turning gear is properly disengaged by checking it locally even
when the remote signal is showing-“disengaged” sign. Some auxiliary engines are provided with tommy bar
for rotation, ensure that it is removed from the fly wheel before the engine is started.

6. Check Jacket Cooling Water Temperature: The jacket cooling water temperature of the engine should be
maintained at at least 60 deg C for the main engine and 40 deg C for the auxiliary engine (it may vary
depending upon the KW rating of the engine).

7. Warm up the Engine: The incoming ship generator should be run at no load for at least 5 mins to allow
warming up of the system.

8. Put Load Sharing Switch to Manual: When 2nd generator is started, it will try to come on load as soon as
possible due to the auto load automation provided for sharing equal load (if same rated capacity). During
starting the 2nd generator, keep in mind to put the load sharing switch to manual. This will avoid the “just
started” generator to come on load, giving it some time for warm up.

9. Avoid Excessive Opening of Exhaust Valve: When starting main engine with hydraulic oil operated exhaust
valves, open the spring air first and then start the hydraulic oil to the exhaust valve. This will avoid excessive
opening of valves.

10. Examine the Engine: Responsible engineers of the ships to be present near the engine when it is started
from remote position. Auxiliary engine to be started from local position (avoid using remote start if possible).

Smooth starting and stopping of engines not only depends on systematic procedure but also on proper
maintenance overhauling procedures of marine engines.

Lesson 3: State the need for warming up/cooling down main engine or keeping it at hot
condition unless cooling down has been done
Before a large diesel is started it must be warmed through by circulating hot water through the jackets, etc.
This will enable the various engine parts to expand in relation to one another.

When any machinery cools down or heats up all the metal expands or contracts, this obvious causes the
clearances in the engine to change, as well as introducing a lot of thermal stress.
With regard to running the engine off load to cool it down, I would do this until the exhaust temperatures and
Jacket water outlet temperatures have stabilized . If the pistons, liners and heads have been running at high
power the combustion chamber surfaces will be very hot. If the engine is stopped the heat will continue to
flow into the cooling water and, if only a small preheating pump is running you could boil your jacket water.

Warming Through

Main engines are to be warmed through gradually following a stay in port or other occasion when they have
been shut down. The jacket water circulation temperature is to be raised over a period of time to as near to
the operating temperature as possible. The period of time is dependent on the jacket water temperature prior
to the commencement of circulation, the heating medium and size of main engine etc. As a general rule
circulation should commence not less than 12 hours before the estimated time of departure. Other circulating
systems are to be put on line during this period .Lubricating oil systems. Fuel circulating systems.

Steam tracing systems as is appropriate to the type of engine.

Lesson 4: Explain the standard of completing warming up/cooling down main engine
All circulating systems are to be as near as is possible normal operating parameters according to the manufacturer’s
instructions for the engine type. On vessels where the engine or engines are directly coupled to the propeller or
propellers. Mainly the Marine Main Engines are Water/Oil cooled. With the advancement in technology, the cooling
system is constantly being changed. Cooling of engines is achieved by circulating a cooling liquid around internal
passages within the engine. Jacket water cooling is used for cooling the liner and cylinder head .Piston cooling is done
using oil, though water is more efficient for removing heat but if mixed with Lubricating Oil, it contaminates the L.O.

Lesson 5: Explain precautions and typical procedures for warming up/cooling down main
engine including theoretical rationale.
1. Before a large diesel is started it must be warmed through by circulating hot water through the jackets, etc.
This will enable the various engine parts to expand in relation to one another.

2. The various supply tanks, filters, valves and drains are all to be checked.

3. The lubricating oil pumps and circulating water pumps are started and all the visible returns should be
observed.

4. All control equipment and alarms should be examined for correct operation.

5. The indicator cocks are opened, the turning gear engaged and the engine turned through several complete
revolutions. In this way any water which may have collected in the cylinders will be forced out.

6. The fuel oil system is checked and circulated with hot oil.

7. Auxiliary scavenge blowers, if manually operated, should be started.

8. The turning gear is removed and if possible the engine should be turned over on air before closing the
indicator cocks.

9. The engine is now available for standby.

The length of time involved in these preparations will depend upon the size of the engine.

Cooling down main engine

After the engines has been stopped, the cooling water and lubricating oil pumps should be left running for at
least a further 20 minutes in order to allow the temperature to equalize. This system should not be cooled
down below their normal inlet temperatures.

The starting air supply has to be closed as soon as possible after stopping the engine and open the venting
valve.

The indicator cocks in the cylinder head should be opened and the turning gear engaged.

Post lubrication of the cylinders:

For the post-lubrication of the cylinders, the crankshaft must be turned by the turning gear. During this the
cylinder lubrication must also be switched on for the same period.

a. Close the shut off valves from the starting air receiver.

b. Where possible, keep the cooling water warm in order to prevent the engine from cooling down too much.
The jacket cooling water pump should be kept running unless required to be stopped for maintenance work.

c. Turn the engine, at intervals, through several revolution with the indicator cocks open, using the turning
gear,(possibly done daily in dump climates.) Do this with the lubricating oil pump running and operating the
cylinder oil pumps at the same time. After completing this procedure ensure that the piston rest in a different
position each time.

SHOW VIDEO: HOW TO PREPARE AND START THE MAIN ENGINE

Lesson 6: State precautions for starting associated auxiliaries to establish each system
constructing propulsion machinery such as fuel oil, lubricating oil, cooling system and
starting air system
a) Check the level of fuel oil tanks in the engine systems including the leakage drain tanks.
b) Check that all the shut-offs valves are in the correct position.
c) Check to ensure that all systems have been correctly vented
d) Check to ensure that cut-out devices for all the fuel injection pumps are correctly positioned for
normal fuel pump operation
e) Check that the fuel regulating linkage moves freely.
f) Check if the fuel control lever is back to the position REMOTE CONTROL
LUBRICATING OIL

a) Check level of sump tanks

b) Check that all the shut-offs for the lubricating oil systems are in the correct position.
c) Start up the pumps for cylinder lubricating oil and set the pressures to their normal values.
d) Check to ensure that all systems have been correctly vented and that there is a positive flow of
lubricating oil.
e) Operate the cylinder pre-lubrication system.
f) Check whether the pressure gauge on the supply unit for cylinder lubrication indicates 40kg/cm2.

COOLING SYSTEMS

a) The cooling water itself and the system should be checked periodically during service, preferably once
a week
b) Check possibility of seawater penetrating into cooling water.
c) Check the system which includes sea water, for example fresh water cooler cooled by sea water.
d) Check if cooling water is contaminated by exhaust gas by ph value.
e) Fill up the system with distilled water on the expansion tank.

STARTING AIR SYSTEM

a) Open the air supply to the shipboard system and from the starting air receivers to the control air supply.
b) Check the pressure in the starting air receivers and open the receiver drains until any condensate has
been completely drained.
c) Open the drain and test valve on the shut-off valve for starting air until all water has been drained.
d) Close venting valve at the shut-off valve for starting air and open the main shut-off valves on the
starting air receivers.
e) Turn the hand wheel on the shut-off valve for starting air until the pointer is at the AUTOMATIC
position. The pressure gauges on the pressure gauge panel should now indicate the following pressures:
• Safety control air and standby supply for air spring air on the pressure reducing valve 23HA –
6.0kg/cm2 • Air spring air supply on the pressure reducing valve 19HA – 7.5kg/cm2 • Control air
standby supply on the pressure reducing valve 19HB – 7.0kg/cm2
f) Open the test valve of the main automatic starting air shut-off valve for a short time and listen for the
valve opening which can be heard distinctly. Close the valve again

Lesson 7: State particularly, precautions against auxiliaries repair/overhaul was carried out.

• Turn engine through flywheel for checking any restrictions.

• Water tightness to be checked.
• Air to be removed from jacket water outlet line.
• Priming lube oil pump to run before starting the engine.
• Check the lube oil level.
• Check the flow of lube oil.
• Blow through the engine before starting.

Lesson 8: State precautions to start main engine turning gear.

The indicator cocks must always be open when the turning gear is operated.

• Starting air valve must be close

• Main lubrication oil pump and Cylinder lubricator must be running
• The turning device is provided with a start blocking valve which prevents starting if the turning gear is
engaged.
• When starting the engine normally the turning gear must be disengaged

Lesson 9: State the importance of carrying out all procedures in an orderly manner in order
to prevent malfunction and damage.
Sea trials of ships are carried out usually when the ship is newly constructed and delivered by the shipyard,
the ship management is transferred from one company to another, or major repairs have been performed
in the dry dock.

Sea trials is an extremely crucial time when the “seaworthiness” of the ship is checked by finding out errors in
the ship’s structure and machinery systems. If not properly planned and executed, sea trials can turn into
serious disasters leading to horrific consequences. Mentioned below are ten points that must be considered to
ensure smooth and safe sea trials:

Lesson 10: State the need to carry out main engine trial run and necessary precautions
Mentioned below are ten points that must be considered to ensure smooth and safe sea trials:

1.Only Experienced Personnel Should Handle Machinery Systems: If the sea trial is conducted for new ship/
purchased ship, the shipyard representative, designated captain or old crew should operate the ship’s
machinery and systems, whereas the new crew must understand the operations, fine points and problems
that can arise during sea trials.

2. Masters Must Take All Proper Permissions: The ship’s master should take all the necessary permissions and
port clearance for sea trails of the ship. Port inspector will then certify the vessel’s sea worthy for sea trials.
Port Pilot schedule and tugs are also booked for sea trials by the company. The ship’s crew should know and
understand the whole plan thoroughly.

3. Inform The Surveyor: Master must ensure that the surveyor is informed about the sea trial schedule and
he/she is present onboard during sea trials.
4. Workshop In-charges To Be Present On Ships: Chief engineer and master should ensure that the workshop
in-charges are present onboard to accompany for various machinery inspection repairs in the dry dock.

5. Sufficient Manpower for Inspection: A number of teams should be made on both deck and engine sides for
checking various system, overboard valves, water tight doors and access etc. when the ship is water borne
during sea trials.

6. Prepare a List of Overhauled Machinery: All the overboard valves/ structures and system which are
overhauled or opened in the dry dock must be listed and checked locally by ship’s staff for any water leakage.
Photocopies of the list must be presented to the ship’s staff to ensure that no machinery part is missed.

7. Check Alarms And Trips Are Working: Ensure that alarms and trips of all the machinery systems, including
main engine auxiliary engine, generator etc. are set back in working order

8. Ensure LSA and FFA are in Proper Working Condition: Before the ship goes out at sea, management officers
must ensure that all LSA and FFA equipment including fire and general alarms are in good operating condition
and the crew is ready to operate them during emergency.

9. Take Enough Evidence: Take as many photos or videos as possible while machinery and systems are being
tested during sea trials. This would serve as an important reference for future use.

10. Make Proper Checks Before Clearing Any Machinery: Ship’s master and chief engineer must ensure that
clearance for any system or machinery to be approved only when the operation of the same is satisfied by the
workshop, yard or shore in charge. Also, the ship’s engine (main and auxiliary engines) must be run at least 80
% of its maximum load for some time and its parameters to be noted before declaring it “OK”.

Lesson 11: State typical procedures for main engine trial run and checking points
Typical trials
• Sea trials are fairly standardized using technical bulletins published by ITTC, SNAME, BMT, regulatory
agencies or the owners. They involve demonstrations and tests of the ship's systems and performance
• Speed trial
• In a speed trial the vessel is ballasted or loaded to a predetermined draft and the propulsion machinery
is set to the contracted maximum service setting, usually some percentage of the machinery's
maximum continuous rating. The ship's heading is adjusted to have the wind and tide as close to bow-
on as possible. The vessel is allowed to come to speed and the speed is continuously recorded using
differential GPS. The trial will be executed with different speeds including service (design) and
maximum speed. The ship is then turned through 180° and the procedure is followed again. This
reduces the impact of wind and tide. The final "Trials Speed" is determined by averaging all of the
measured speeds during each of the runs. This process may be repeated in various sea states.
• Crash stop
• To test a crash stop, the vessel is ballasted or loaded to a predetermined draft and the propulsion
machinery is set to the contracted maximum service setting, usually some percentage of the
machinery's maximum continuous rating. The trial begins once the order to "Execute Crash Stop" is
 given. At this point the propulsion machinery is set to full-astern and the helm is put hard-over to
either port or starboard. The speed, position and heading are continuously recorded using differential
GPS. The final time to stop (i.e.: ship speed is 0 knots) track line, drift (distance traveled perpendicular
to the original course) and advance (distance traveled along the original course line) are all calculated.
The trial may be repeated at various starting speeds.
• Endurance
• During endurance trials the vessel is ballasted or loaded to a predetermined draft and the propulsion
machinery is set to the contracted maximum service setting, usually some percentage of the
machinery's maximum continuous rating. The fuel flow, exhaust and cooling water temperatures and
ship's speed are all recorded.
• Maneuvering trials
• Maneuvering trials involve a number of trials to determine the maneuverability and directional stability
of the ship may be conducted. These include a direct and reverse spiral manoeuvres, zig-zag, and
lateral thruster use.
• Seakeeping
• Sea keeping trials were used exclusively for passenger ships but now used in a variety of vessels.
Involves measurements of ship motions in various sea states followed by a series of analyses to
determine comfort levels, likelihood of sea sickness and hull damage. Trials are usually protracted in
nature due to the unpredictability of finding the correct sea state and the need to conduct the trials at
various headings and speeds.

Lesson 12: State procedures for changing over the propulsion machinery to the state of navigation.
It is important to learn about the basics of the engine telegraph system before operating one (Read article).
However, most of the ships are now provided with a remote control for propulsion machinery and for
controlling the pitch of the propeller (for CPP type) as they are mainly operated in UMS mode. This gives the
ease to the navigation officer to control and maintain the speed and direction of the ship as per the
navigational condition and requirement.

The propulsion machinery order given from the bridge must be indicated in the engine control room and at
the local maneuvering platform. For having a control of propulsion machinery from navigational bridge, the
system must comply as per SOLAS chapter-II with the following requirements:

1. Starting and control of the speed must be provided and performed by single starting lever or a dedicated
push button switch.

2. Remote control is possible from only one location at a time, with indication as to which location is in control
both in navigational bridge and in engine control room.

3. The transfer of control must be possible from engine control room only.

4. No significant thrust change to take place during change over.

5. Remote control failure must be indicated with an alarm and still allow the machinery control from local
control.

6. Manual override must be provided for local control.

7. Emergency stop of the Main engine must be provided on the bridge.

8. Following indications of the propulsion plant must be displayed on the bridge along with the alarm for the
same:

• ME alarms
• Starting and control air.
• Direction of rotation.
• Pitch position (CPP system).
• R.P.M of the engine.

9. Alarm power to be automatically changed over to standby mode (batteries) in case of power failure of the
ship occurs.

SHOW OF VIDEO: STARTING OF AUX.ENGINE BY EMERGENCY START

Lesson 13: Explain the critical speed/revolution caused by torsional vibration of shafting
system.

Shafting torsional vibrations

Shafting torsional vibrations are characterized by variable speeds of shafting rotation. In contrast to other
easily detectable types of vibration, like axial or lateral vibrations, shafting torsional vibrations are "invisible."
However, this kind of shafting vibration may become, under certain circumstances, the cause of serious
damages including shafting fractures.

Torsional vibrations are the characteristic of nearly all rotational machines and devices. However, torsional
vibrations of internal combustion engines and their shafting are especially significant. These vibrations appear
as the result of the variable revolution of rotating parts, invisible to the human eye.

Torsional vibrations are the consequence of a number of processes. The most common are:

• Variable gas pressure in the cylinder of an engine;

• Inertial forces of a crank mechanism; and
• Fluctuation of sea water flow around the propeller.

The excitation of torsional vibrations is significantly determined by the piston's stroke and the mean effective
pressure. The ongoing increase of these characteristics is the cause of increased vibration excitation in the
recent propulsion plants.
The propulsion plant, composed of the propulsion engine, the shafting and the propeller, denotes a vibration
system. This system, determined by the inertia of its components, as well as by the stiffness between them,
possesses its own natural frequencies and corresponding modes of vibration.

The propulsion shafting, composed of the crankshaft, the intermediate shaft and the propeller shaft, will
vibrate when excited by variable torque.

The barred speed range must be passed through rapidly. Actually, torsional vibrations need some time to fully
develop and, if the barred speed range is passed sufficiently rapidly, there is a great possibility that the full
stress level will never be reached.

The barred speed range is clearly noted in red on the tachometer, as well as on notice boards. Moreover,
more recent propulsion plants are equipped with special devices that ensure that this range is rapidly passed.

Lesson 14 :Explain how the running conditions can be evaluated if it is in good working order
in terms of running parameters, engine performance and operating range.

• After superimposing the measured parameters on the performance curves, we come to know whether
the parameters are normal or abnormal. A complete study of the parameters helps us to pin point the
problem.
• All these parameters should be recorded as accurately as possible. Parameters can be evaluated in
such a way as temperatures, pressures and levels at normal range of every equipment that is necessary
for the normal operation of the ship/ship engine.
• In addition to the engine parameters recorded through, the additional parameters will be recorded on
the generator,
• Based on the results of the sea trial, additional parameters may need to be measured to diagnose and
correct installation issues.
• - Air inlet temp at the air cleaner: Air cleaner outlet temp. The hotter the inlet air the higher exhaust
temp is for a given power level. It’s important for overall engine life to keep the inlet air temp as low as
possible. A correctly designed ventilation system will keep the engine room within 15F/9C above
ambient, which in a pleasure craft can be difficult to achieve. Locate the temperature probes at the
same location on all the air cleaners (you should not install the probes in place of the air filter
restriction indicator).
• - Ambient seawater temperature: Seawater temperature at the time of test is important to
understand the ambient conditions during the test and evaluate the cooling system performance.
• - Exhaust backpressure: High backpressure may cause higher exhaust temperatures, which will cause
higher valve temp and reduce engine life.
• - Seawater inlet restriction: Raw water pump inlet pressure (for seawater cooled engines only).
• To determine the delivered power, the torque and rotational velocity of the propeller for a given speed
can be measured. This measurement can be carried out by the SVA onboard the ship with own
measurement equipment.
• The engine power estimation was attained through three alternative methods
• 1. engine rotational speed and torque measurement – on engine flywheel,
• 2. rotational speed and torque measurement – main propulsion shaft
 • 3. engine mean indicated pressure measurement – each engine cylinder.
• The main engine performance has been recorded for further analysis that includes:
• – continuous engine output shaft torque speed profile,
• – engine cylinder pressure data,
• – engine fuel oil consumption, engine operational condition parameters.

Lesson 15 : Explain how running parameters such as temperatures, pressures and levels can
be determined in normal range.
There are standard pressures and temperature checks to be carried out by the watch keeping engineer, as he
gains experience these will become second nature; the various thermometers and pressure gauges being
scanned as he walks around the engine room checking the components. This means when a rouge value turns
up it is spotted right away either on the component or the engine control station instrument board. This is
situated just above the engine control station, either in the engine room or in the modern control room. The
board contains the pressure and temperature gauges for the main systems such as; exhaust temperatures,
jacket cooling and lube-oil pressure. We used an arrow to mark the optimum temperatures and pressures on
these gauges, and endeavor to maintain them; again any rouge value will show up instantly.

The board is located above the controls, being easily consulted from here. The other main gauges and
components that are easily reached are the engine room telegraph, rev-counter, air start reservoirs pressure
gauges and of course the controls themselves. Depending on the engine manufacturer, these consist of two
levers; left hand one usually air start, right hand lever; fuel control and are used when maneuvering.

Heavy Fuel Oil System (HFO)

The temperature of the HFO system must be kept at the recommended value to control its viscosity. This is
important as it must not turn "waxy" when being pumped through various heaters, the fuel pump and into the
injectors.

Lube-oil System

The temperature of the lube-oil must be carefully controlled through use of the lube-oil coolers seawater inlet
valve. Remember that as the temperature of the lube-oil rises the pressure drops. Conversely, a low lube –oil
temperature will increase the oil pressure. A sudden unexplained rise in temperature could signify a bearing in
the main engine running hot.

Jacket cooling System

The pressure and temperature of the jacket water cooling also need close monitoring and maintained at
optimum values as the cooling water also supplies the turbo-blower air coolers. The pressure in this case is
controlled by the circ. pump, so any change could be a faulty pump, however, down to the pump or a loss of
pressure through a faulty cylinder liner rubber sealing ring, or even a cracked liner.

Temperature is another matter; this must be kept at the recommended value. Any rise could signify a
scavenge fire a rise in sea temperature or cooler problem.
The generators temperature and pressures are checked as per the main engine ones.

This leave the thrust block, prop shaft bearings, and stern gland. Here again the sense of touch should be used
as a guide to overheating, but there will be temperature gauges on the thrust and prop bearings along with oil
- level sight gauges.

Lesson 16: Explain what malfunctions are likely to occur due to running parameters getting
out of the normal range

• Heavy Fuel Oil System (HFO)

• Any changes of HFO temperature can cause it to become waxy or even scavenge fire
• Lube-oil System
• A sudden unexplained rise in temperature could signify a bearing in the main engine running hot that
leads to bearing wear.
• Jacket cooling System
• Any change could be a faulty pump, however, down to the pump or a loss of pressure through a faulty
cylinder liner rubber sealing ring, or even a cracked liner.
• Any rise could signify a scavenge fire a rise in sea temperature or cooler problem.
• The generators temperature and pressures are checked as per the main engine ones.
• This leave the thrust block, prop shaft bearings, and stern gland. Here again the sense of touch should
be used as a guide to overheating, but there will be temperature gauges on the thrust and prop
bearings along with oil - level sight gauges.

Lesson 17: Explain in simple words, how to calculate engine output.

• The power output depends on the size and design of the engine, but also on the speed at which it is
running and the load or torque.
• Multiply the torque by the engine speed. You will be using the formula (RPM * T) / 5252=HP, where
RPM is the engine speed, T is the torque, and 5,252 is radians per second. The first calculation you
want to do is multiply the torque and the engine speed.

Lesson 18: Explain how the engine revolution is controlled

The engine RPM is monitored by the crankshaft position sensor which plays a primary role in the engine timing
functions for fuel injection, spark events, and valve timing. Idle speed is controlled by a programmable throttle
stop or an idle air bypass control stepper motor.

The principal control device on any engine is the governor. It governs or controls the engine speed at some
fixed value while power output changes to meet demand. This is achieved by the governor automatically
adjusting the engine fuel pump settings to meet the desired load at the set speed.

Governors for diesel engines are usually made up of two systems: a speed sensing arrangement and a
hydraulic unit which operates on the fuel pumps to change the engine power output.
Mechanical governor
A flyweight assembly is used to detect engine speed. Two flyweights are fitted to a plate or ballhead which
rotates about a vertical axis driven by a gear wheel . The action of centrifugal force throws the weights
outwards; this lifts the vertical spindle and compresses the spring until an equilibrium situation is reached. The
equilibrium position or set speed may be changed by the speed selector which alters the spring compression.

As the engine speed increases the weights move outwards and raise the spindle; a speed decrease will lower
the spindle. The hydraulic unit is connected to this vertical spindle and acts as a power source to move the
engine fuel controls. A piston valve connected to the vertical spindle supplies or drains oil from the power
piston which moves the fuel controls depending upon the flyweight movement. If the engine speed increases
the vertical spindle rises, the piston valve rises and oil is drained from the power piston which results in a fuel
control movement. This reduces fuel supply to the engine and slows it down. It is, in effect, a proportional
controller .

Electric governor
The electric governor uses a combination of electrical and mechanical components in its operation. The speed
sensing device is a small magnetic pick-up coil. The rectified, or d.c., voltage signal is used in conjunction with
a desired or set speed signal to operate a hydraulic unit. This unit will then move the fuel controls in the
appropriate direction to control the engine speed.

Governors and Over-speed Trips

These must be fully operational and regularly tested in accordance with manufacturers’ instructions. Attention
is drawn to the testing of over speed trip and protection devices. The condition of the linkage coupling the
engine’s fuel pump actuating levers and the governor is also to be regularly examined. The governor cannot
compensate for either seized fulcrum pins or excessive clearances.
Lesson 19: Explain in simple words, the operating range including shaft revolution, ship's
speed, engine output, engine torque and their relationships.

• The power output depends on the size and design of the engine, but also on the speed at which it is
running and the load or torque.
• Shaft speed measurement is made with magnetic sensor, built in combined inductive head and a
frequency-voltage converter. The number of pulses are counted for a predetermined time and divided
into number pulses per revolution to find shaft rate of revolution.
• Speed trials are conducted at the end of ship construction usually at a limited time scale. It is rarely
possible to conduct the trials at contract conditions. Therefore, measured ship speed and shaft power
must be corrected for the differences between trial conditions and the contract conditions. Hence, ship
trials have uncertainties mainly due to following sources:
• - trial measurements: engine torque and shaft revolutions, and ship speed,
• - trial analysis: necessary corrections applied to trial results.
• Important parameters for a marine main diesel engine are the rating figures, usually stated as:
continuous service rating (CSR) and maximum continuous rating (MCR). The rating which is commonly
concerns is the maximum output at which the engine will operate continuously to maintain the desired
ship service speed - fully loaded. Basically, ship operators insist that the main engines be capable of
maintaining such speed, developed at approximately 80% of rated brake power. Normally a ship will
run sea trials to meet the contract trial ship speed and the engine continuous service rating should be
applied when the vessel is in service. For each type of engine, there is a maximum power limit outside
which the engine should not be run continuously.
• This means operation of an engine at standard maximum cylinder pressure for continuous service
rating, but at lower mean effective pressure and shaft speed. This can be achieved by altering the fuel
injection timing. The similar effect for NOx emission is used and lower emission level is available.
Controls to limit exhaust gas emissions which is tightening nationally, regionally and globally led to
complicated engine system control optimization, readily available for latest electronically controlled
engine.

Lesson 20: State the definition of torque rich.

The “torque rich” is known as a phenomenon that makes reduction of ship speed, overload for main engine and higher
fuel consumption of ship, even can cause some major problems for a ship propulsion system

Lesson 21: Explain in simple words, the difference of output characteristic between diesel
engine and steam turbine
STEAM TURBINES
The steam turbine is well suited to the largest power plants, produces a uniform turning effort, burns the least
expensive fuel, and is capable of relatively high efficiencies, long endurance, long life, long mean time
between overhaul (MTBO), and reasonable maintenance. It has the inherent disadvantages of large space
requirements, a large watch-standing force, slow response time, being slow in getting under way,
intermediate energy conversion with its secondary working substance, mechanical non-reversibility, and high
turbine speed. These latter two disadvantages necessitate a separate, low-efficiency astern turbine of reduced
power and large, heavy reduction gearing to the propeller shafts. The speed reduction is needed to allow both
the turbine and the propeller to operate in their most efficient speed range.

DIESEL ENGINES

The low-speed, direct-coupled diesel engine is the most efficient of all the marine power plants, with specific
fuel consumptions as low as 0.29 Ib/hp-hr. … it is being used to power most new merchant ships

The diesel engine has the highest thermal efficiency (engine efficiency) of any practical internal or external
combustion engine due to its very high expansion ratio and inherent lean burn which enables heat dissipation
by the excess air. A small efficiency loss is also avoided compared to two-stroke non-direct-injection gasoline
engines since unburned fuel is not present at valve overlap and therefore no fuel goes directly from the
intake/injection to the exhaust. Low-speed diesel engines (as used in ships and other applications where
overall engine weight is relatively unimportant) can have a thermal efficiency that exceeds 50%.

Lesson 22:Explain the meanings of major running parameters to be strictly observed.

• Primary parameters
• Ship Track DGPS [Latitude, Longitude] or [m]
• Speed over the Ground DGPS Knots
• Shaft Torque or Shaft Power Torsion meter with strain gauges,Calibrated
• permanent torque sensor. Power to be calculated from torque and RPM [kNm], [kW]
• Shaft RPM Pick-up, laser counter, ship revs counter [Hz, RPM]
• Propeller pitch Bridge replicator
• Time GPS Time, Stopwatch [s]
• Water depth Ship echo sounder + nautical charts [m]
• Rudder angle Angular potential meter, string sensor, Ship rudder
• repeater[deg]
• Ship heading Gyro compass, or DGPS [deg]
• Relative wind Ship anemometer, external anemometer [m/s], knots, [deg]
• Wave height &
• Direction Wave measuring device (i.e. radar,scanner. etc), Wave buoy,
• Hind cast, observation by multiple observers [m], [deg]
• Draughts
• Physical observation and / or calibrated draught gauges
Lesson 23: State the importance of engine-room rounds to detect sign of faults/malfunctions, emphasizing
that running sound, leaking and vibration can be detected through engine-room rounds and these factors
cannot be detected with monitoring system.

• Engine watch keeping duties include monitoring the ship's dials and gauges that can indicate
malfunction needing immediate correction. Once any abnormalities re detected it the watcher must
notify proper personnel.
• Watch keeping is an integral part of marine engineer’s duties on board ship. A lot of maintenance work
can be reduced by following an efficient watch keeping routine in the ship’s engine room. Moreover, it
can also avoid serious accidents from taking place.
• A smooth running ship is a product of efficient handling at the bridge and effective management in the
engine room under any seagoing condition. When a marine engineer is approved to be the in charge of
the engine room, he is eligible and officially authorized to handle a ship’s engine of “Unlimited Power”.
It is therefore important that the watch keeping procedure, a daily routine that has to be carried out
every single day, is done in the most systematic manner to prevent any kind of breakdown.

12 ways which will help a marine engine on board ship to master the watch keeping procedure.

• 1. Knowledge is the Base: The first and most important step to enhance your duties during a watch is
to have a very strong knowledge base. One must know the basics of the machines and their operations,
new trends and upcoming technologies, and maritime regulations along with their amendments.
• Knowledge gives a great boost to engineer’s confidence level and also results in more accurate job
decisions. Engine room operation also requires information from other domains of engineering such as
mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical and electronic systems, refrigeration etc. Knowing these
fundamentals makes an engineer’s foundation stronger.
• 2. Follow Your Instincts: It is commonly said on ships that in order to become a good watch keeper, an
engineer must use all the 6 senses- i.e. touch, hearing, smell, visuals, taste and kinaesthetic senses (6th
Sense). All these senses when applied correctly help an engineer to understand the condition of
machines in a better way.
• Touch: Feeling a machine for its temperature can tell you about the condition inside the machinery,
for e.g. High temperature means something wrong.
• Hearing: It is always advisable to keep a track of sounds coming from different machines in the engine
room as any abnormality would result in change of the sound.
• Smell: Another powerful sense that helps to determine a problem is -smell. Burning of parts or
accessories due to increase in temperature, oil leakage, chemicals etc. can be easily identified using
this sense.
• Taste: Your tongue can identify different tastes; and you can apply this characteristic to your watch
keeping routines, for e.g. Tasting can help to identify the difference between sea water and fresh
water as both of them are used as prime mediums for cooling on ships.
• Visual: The most commonly used sense of all is the power of visualisation, helpful in identifying engine
room and machinery conditions. Whenever you enter the engine room you must start looking for any
kind of visual abnormality.
• 6th Sense: Considered to be the most powerful of all senses, your inner feeling (gut feeling) can
sometimes prove to be a lifesaver during watch keeping. Listen to it when you feel there is something
wrong in the engine room. However, don’t rely on it blindly; back it up with proper procedures.
• 3. Go By The Book: Every Engine room is provided with hundreds of documents – Manuals, operating
instruction, and safety and pollution prevention instructions just to name a few. Follow them
religiously during your watch keeping procedures.
• 4. Interpreting log book: A smart engineer would know the importance of engine room log book and
would also know how to interpret previous readings of different machines from the same. Interpreting
log means keeping a track of previous records of machinery parameters from the log book and using
them to analyse the present situation or to identify a problem.
• 5. Clear Communication: Efficient communication between maritime professionals is an important
factor for a safe and efficient operation onboard. If you are a watch keeper, you must clearly
communicate all kinds of operations and problems/ suspicions with your seniors and crew members.
An efficient engine room-bridge communication is also very important to make sure that navigational
officers at the bridge can plan their procedures or stay prepared for any kind of situation.
• 6. Take a Complete Round, Don’t Skip Any Machinery: Automation and alarm systems of machines are
always helpful in detecting early stage faults; however, it is a known fact that human vigilance is more
capable of detecting and interpreting errors more accurately. When on engine room round, all
machines on all levels must be examined for proper operation. Moreover, also make sure that you
note your findings in the log book for future reference.
• 7. Never Neglect Any Alarm: Alarm systems in the engine room are indication or pre warning of any
abnormality in the engine room machines. Sometimes due to a technical glitch such as connection or
electronic fault, an alarm would become faulty and give out audio and visual warnings after every few
minutes.
• This generates a habit among watch keepers to ignore the alarm totally and to cancel it from the
control room. However, make sure that you are able to differentiate between the faulty and normal
alarm, and also keep a track on the repairing work of faulty alarm so that you are aware when it is back
to normal condition.
• 8. Do Not Hide Faults: If you see any kind of fault while taking rounds or have committed a mistake,
never try to hide it. Remember that even the smallest fault can become dangerous if unattended at the
correct time. Always report the incident to your superiors and try to remove or repair the fault as soon
as possible.
• 9. Call for Help When in Need: In an engine room having hundreds of machines, faults are bound to
happen. Sometimes you may feel that the fault is big and a single person won’t be able to handle it
alone. In such situations, don’t hesitate to ask for help. Ship operation is all about team work and you
should respect that and know its importance.
• 10. Obey Orders: A good watch keeper must follow eligible orders from seniors, who have better
experience and understanding of machines. However, a smart watch keeper should also use his/her
 own judgement when the need arises. Take inputs and advices from your seniors, but be confident
while carrying out your duties.
• 11. Follow Alcohol Policy: Never ever commence or carry out your watch under the influence of
alcohol, as it may interfere with your decision making abilities. Always follow your company alcohol
policy. In case you are under influence of alcohol, don’t be ashamed to inform your seniors.
• 12. Avoid Fatigue: Fatigue is the biggest reason behind human mistakes on ship. Always take proper
rest in your free time and avoid working when tired. Though this is tough to follow most of the time,
ask your seniors for a brief break so that you can freshen up and get back to work with more energy
and enthusiasm.

Lesson 24: Describe how to carry out the cleaning of turbocharger under way.
The Blower side of turbocharger is cleaned by fresh water. The engine is run at its full load rpm to achieve best
possible cleaning. A container is fitted with an inlet line coming from the blower discharge side and the outlet
line from the container or cylinder goes for washing blower side.

When the valve in the inlet of cylinder or container is opened, compressed air carry water with pressure and
the kinetic energy of water cleans the blower.

The Cleaning of the Turbine side and blower side is carried out at regular interval of time to remove carbon,
soot, and other exhaust deposits. The cleaning of turbocharger is carried out when the engine is running.

Two methods are used to clean turbine side–

1) Water Washing

In this method, the engine speed is reduced until the temperature of the exhaust inlet falls below 420 °C.
Fresh Water used for washing must be slightly hot and the water is injected through a regulating valve
connected to the the turbine side. This is done to avoid thermal shock to the machinery.

While performing water washing the drain is kept open. When the water feed is closed the drain is observed
until no water comes out.

The engine is run for further 20 minutes with less rpm to dry out the turbine from water. Before increasing the
rpm, drain is shut and any abnormal vibration must be observed.

2) Dry Washing

For Dry washing carbon granules are used which are injected inside the turbine through compressed air
system.

The engine speed is not reduced as there is no risk of thermal stresses in dry washing.

Lesson 25:Explain how to keep running of main diesel engine condition of cutting fuel oil to
one cylinder or more.
 • If immediate repair is not possible, the engine can be operated with one or more cylinders or
turbochargers out of operation, but with reduced speed owing to the following:

• As, in such cases, the air supply is no longer optimal, the thermal load will be higher. Therefore,
depending upon the actual circumstances, the engine will have to be operated according to the
restrictions mentioned in operating manual of the engine.

•Pressure pulsations may occur in the scavenge and exhaust receivers, which can give a reduced air
supply to any one of the cylinders, and as a result cause the respective exhaust temperatures to
increase. The fuel pump index for these cylinders must therefore be reduced to keep the exhaust
temperatures (after valves) within prescribed limits.
•Since the turbochargers will be working outside their normal range, surging may occur. This can
generally be remedied by “blowing off” from the scavenge air receiver.
•If more than one cylinder must be cut out of operation, and the engine has two or more
turbochargers, it may be advantageous to cut out one of the turbochargers.
•When cylinders are out of operation, governor hunting may occur. When this happens, the fuel pump
index must be limited by operating the electric governor on “index control”.
• With one or more cylinders out of operation, torsional vibrations, as well as other mechanical
vibrations, may occur at certain engine speeds. Should unusual noise or extreme vibrations
occur at the chosen speed, the speed must be further reduced.

•If the engine is to be run for a prolonged period with cylinders out of operation, the engine builder should
always be contacted in order to obtain advice concerning possible recommended barred speed ranges.

Lesson 26: Explain how to keep running of main diesel engine under the condition of
reducing the number of turbochargers.
How will you run engine in case of turbocharger failure ?
1.Rotor to be blocked
2.Exhaust gas to be by-passed the turbocharger
3.Run engine with reduced speed with remaining turbocharger
4.Use Auxiliary Blowe5. Maintain all temperature and pressure of fuel, cooling water and
lubrication within limit
How to Cut off Damaged Turbochargers for Engine Operation
Engines with one turbocharger (Engines with exhaust by-pass)
1.Stop the engine.
2.Lock the turbocharger rotor.

Remove the blanking plate from the exhaust by-pass pipe.

4.Remove the compensator between the compressor outlet and the scavenge air duct. This reduces
the suction resistance.
5.Run engine with 15% of MCR load and 53% speed.
Engines with one turbocharger (Engines without exhaust by-pass)
1.Stop the engine.
 2.Remove the rotor and nozzle ring of the turbocharger.
3.Insert blanking plates.
4.Remove the compensator between the compressor outlet and the scavenge air duct. This reduces
the suction resistance.
5.Run engine with 15% of MCR load and 53% speed.
Engines with two or more turbochargers
1.Stop the engine.
2.Lock the rotor of the defective turbocharger.
3.Insert orifice plates in the compressor outlet and the turbine inlet. (A small air flow is required to
cool the impeller, and a small gas flow is desirable to prevent corrosion)
4.Run engine with 20% of MCR load and 58% speed

Lesson 27:Describe the conditions which create dangerous oil mists in crankcases.

• Damage indirectly caused by:

• 1.Wear and tear on parts in the crankcase caused by excessive hours of operation and lack of
maintenance
• A few examples:
• Worn-out piston rings also by excessive abrasion as a result of the deposit of fuel residues on cylinder
walls that are too cold, due to lack of maintenance of the cooling system
• Valve seats that are corroded by vanadium in the fuel because of poor fuel quality, or fuel quality that
is not even checked at all
• Bearings damaged by cavitation due to water in the lubricating oil,
• Sliding surfaces damages by corrosion because of insufficient TBN (Total Base Number: measurement
number for the neutralization capabilities of the lubricating oil additives).
• In the end, this indirect damage leads to the more direct overheating of parts of the crankcase, caused
during the course of combustion, or to lubrication problems with a growing hot spot and always, result
in the formation of oil mist.
2.Failing accessory assemblies on the engine
• A few examples:
• Poorly performed maintenance on the lubricating oil pump which is then damaged by unnoticed
aggressive lubricating oil properties
• Result: lack of lubrication gradually resulting in a hot spot and formation of oil mist, or main flow filters
which have, unknowingly, been automatically switched into bypass mode, and thereby been rendered
ineffective
• Contamination of sliding surfaces
• leads to damage to the bearings through the embedding of foreign objects with the result of a hot spot
and the formation of oil mist
• 3.Faulty or extreme operating conditions that are external to or internal to the engine
• Defects in the cooling
 • result in hot cylinder liners, fuel condensation and disruption of the lubricating film resulting in
extreme wear and tear on the piston rings with accompanying blow-by, subsequent hot spot and the
formation of oil mist
• Intermittent generation of power or power decrease
• Result:
• overheating in the combustion chamber resulting in a higher basic concentration of the operating oil
mist and
• increased load on the bearings due to poor firing timing, and a hot spot danger with the gradual
formation of oil mist
• Changing clearance tolerances on sliding surfaces
• Through undue expansion influenced by the temperature or through the bending and twisting of the
crankcase due to deflection of the ship's hull in rough seas, which leads to a hot spot and the
subsequent formation of oil mist
• Overloaded engine operation
• caused, for example, by growth on the ship's hull and propeller, results in extreme operating
temperatures, reduced lubrication effectiveness and furthers the formation of a hot spot with the
gradual formation of oil mist.
• Poor lubricating performance
• because of a lack of lubricating oil. This results from the interrupted supply of oil caused by the failure
of parts in the lubrication system which leads to the creation of gaps in the lubricating film on the
sliding surfaces with a subsequent hot spot and the formation of oil mist

Lesson 28:Describe the correct action to take when hazardous conditions are indicated in a
crankcase.

• 1. Crankcase compartment explosions, a dangerous event, and its prevention through the interruption
of the formation of oil mist
• The best method is the early recognition of the emergence of a hot spot and the interruption of the
growth of the hot spot through suitable measures (motor stop). Not only is the danger of a crankcase
compartment explosion eliminated, but catastrophic parts failure is greatly reduced and perhaps also
eliminated.
• 2. Prevention of a crankcase compartment explosion through vacuum elimination of the crankcase
atmosphere
• This route is taken in the case of high speed light craft (HSLC) engines, by replacing the atmosphere in
the crankcase compartment quickly enough through the constant removal by a vacuum.
• While doing so, the detection of oil mist is not being used as an indicator system for preventing
damage
• 3. Inert gas, a further method for the prevention of crankcase compartment explosions
• reduction of oxygen in the atmosphere of the crankcase compartment by mixing in nitrogen or carbon
dioxide. This would be done to the extent that a capability for the oil mist to be ignited no longer exists
• 4.Solely monitoring the bearing temperatures cannot be a replacement for the detection of oil mist
 • The monitoring of only the bearing temperatures cannot be a replacement for a detection of oil mist,
especially if it is restricted to the main bearing as the supposed main place for the development of oil
mist.

Lesson 29: Explain the importance of keeping scavenge air spaces and supercharge air-
spaces drained and clean

• To prevent carbonized lube oil, unburnt fuel oil and carbon from the residual products of the
combustion spaces are accumulated in the scavenge spaces with the running of the engine. Under
certain faulty running condition of the engine, these may ignite causing a fire in the enclosed
scavenge space, known as scavenge fire.

Lesson 30: Describe the correct procedure and actions to take if a fire occurs in the scavenge
air space or in the supercharge air space when an engine is running.

• Once a scavenge fire starts, hit the engine room emergency button, reduce the engine to its slowest
possible revolutions this will limit the amount of fuel oil being admitted to the cylinders. It will also
reduce the amount of combustion air to the cylinders, lowering the oxygen content being supplied to
the scavenge fire.
• The fuel must be isolated to the cylinder in which the fire is occurring by lifting the relative fuel pump
plunger clear of the operating cam. The bridge should be informed and the engine room telegraph put
to dead slow ahead, recording the times and the movements in the log book for future reference.
• The watch keepers The senior engineer should remain at the controls, junior engineer adjusts the
seawater to the lube oil and jacket coolers maintaining operating temperatures.
• Other Engineers The rest of engineers should operate scavenge CO2 or mist sprays if fitted, Isolate the
fuel by lifting the pump piston rod of the offending cylinders fuel pump cam, increases lube oil to that
cylinder by hand operating the lubricator to prevent the piston seizing and, keep an eye on the exhaust
condition out of the flu, scavenge door temperature and drains to sludge tank. Once the greasers have
cleaned out the scavenge space, the senior engineer should inspect the piston rod and gland for signs
of excessive scorching. The gland may need stripping if the springs holding the scraping rings have lost
their tension through heat from the burning oil; excessive oil usually accumulating around this area.
Excessive scorching will be evident by the blue color of the gland top keep ring and set screws.
• Engine room Greasers - Once it has been determined that the fire has been extinguished, and the
scavenge space has cooled enough for cleaning, the scavenge inspection doors should be slowly and
carefully removed. The resultant carbon residue and fuel oil can now scraped away then cleaned using
rags leaving the space dry and clean. The exhaust gas boiler should be fired up to maintain boiler
steam pressure and the offending cylinder lube oil reservoir kept topped up.

Lesson 31 :Describe the action to be taken if a turbocharger surges.

The following are the ways to prevent turbocharger surging. However, it is to note that some points may vary
with design and construction of the turbocharger.
 • Keep the turbocharger intake filter clean.
• Water-wash the turbine and the compressor side of the turbocharger.
• Proper maintenance and checks should be done on turbocharger periodically.
• Soot blow should be done from time to time in case of economizer or exhaust boiler.
• Indicator cards to be taken to assess cylinder and power distribution of individual units

Course outline:
FINAL
6. Auxiliary Prime Movers and Associated Systems (Steam Turbine)
7. Propeller and load diagrams
8. Characteristics Gas Turbines
MODULE 3 (Week 13-18) 30 HRS.

Unit 6: Auxiliary Prime Movers and Associated Systems (Steam Turbine)

Lesson 1: State precautions before starting a steam turbine such as confirming steam line,
gland steam line, lubricating oil line, condensate water line and circulating line.

• System checks include the following where applicable: Pumps checked for power on, charged and
vented freedom of movement, cooling water supplies, guards in place, valves set. Check all Valves and
flanged joints for leaks. Coolers check for charged and vented. Filters and strainers cleaned, check for
charged and vented. Heaters check for charged and vented, when on load check water level controls
are operating.
• When plant is in service the following checks should be made, pressure, differential pressures, where
applicable, temperature, noise, vibration, flow, checks for leaks, check level control systems are
operating correctly.

• SHOW VIDEO OF STEAM TURBINE GENERATOR START UP

Lesson 2: Describe briefly components constructing each associated system for a steam
turbine
Frame (Base): Supports rotor, stator and governor pedestal

Shell: consist of casing, nozzles, steam chest and bearings.

Rotor: consist of HP, and LP pressure stage blades, shaft and governor pedestal components, thrust bearing,
journal bearing, Turning gear and main lube-oil system.

Governor Pedestal: consist of turbine speed governor and protective device.

STEAM TURBINES BASIC PARTS

1. Turbine Casings
The casing shape and construction details depend on whether it is a High Pressure (HP) or Low Pressure (LP)
casings. For low and moderate inlet steam pressure up to 120 bar, a single shell casing is used. With a rise in
inlet pressure the casing thickness as to be increasing. Handling such heavy casing is very difficult also the
turbine as to slowly brought up to the operation temperature.

Turbine Casing MOC

Large casings for low-pressure turbines are of welded plate construction, while smaller L. P. casings are of cast
iron, which may be used for temperatures up to 230°C.

2. Turbine Rotors
The steam turbine rotors must be designed with the most care as it is mostly the highly stressed component in
the turbine. The design of a turbine rotor depends on the operating principle of the turbine.

• The impulse turbine, in which the pressure drops across the stationary blades. The stationary blades are
mounted in the diaphragm and the moving blades fixed or forged on the rotor. Steam leakage is in
between the stationary blades and the rotor. The leakage rate is controlled by labyrinth seals. This
construction requires a disc rotor.
• The reaction turbine has pressure drops across the moving as well as across the stationary blades. The disc
rotor would create a large axial thrust across each disc. Hence disc rotors are not used in the reaction
turbine.

Disc Type Rotors

This type of rotor is largely used in steam turbines. The disc type rotors are made by forging process. Normally
the forged rotor weight is around 50% higher than the final machined rotors. Refer above figure for disc type
rotor.
Drum Type Rotors

Initially, the reaction turbines rotors are made by solid forged drum-type rotor. The rotors are heavy and rigid
construction. Due to this, the inertia of the rotor is very high when compare with the disc-type rotor of the
same capacity. To overcome this nowadays the hollow drum-type rotors are used instead of solid rigid rotors.
Usually, this type of rotor is made of two pieces construction. In some special cases, the rotor is made up of
multi-piece construction.

3. Turbine Blades
The efficiency of the turbine depends on more than anything else on the design of the turbine blades. The
impulse blades must be designed to convert the kinetic energy of the steam into mechanical energy.

The blades are strong enough to withstand the following factors

• High temperatures and stresses due to the pulsating steam load

• Stress due to centrifugal force
• Erosion and corrosion resistance.
• High Pressure (HP) blades
• Intermediate Pressure (IP) blades
• Low Pressure (LP) blades
The turbine blades are made up of chromium-nickel steel or 17 Cr’13 Ni – steel.
4. Stationary Blades (Diaphragms) and Nozzles
Nozzles are used to guide the steam to hit the moving blades and to convert the pressure energy into the
kinetic energy. In the case of small impulse turbine, the nozzles are located in the lower half of the casing. But
in the case of the larger turbine, the nozzles are located on the upper half of the casing.

Stationary Blades (Diaphragms)

All stages following the control stage have the nozzles located in diaphragms. The diaphragms are in halves
and fitted into grooves in the casing. Anti-rotating pin or locking pieces in the upper part of the casing prevent
the diaphragm to rotate.

Blade Fastening
After turbine blades are machined through the milling process. Then the blades are inserted in the rotor
groove. Depend upon the application the blade root section varies

Blade roots are subject to take four types of stress

• Tensile stress due to the centrifugal forces

• Bending stress due to fluid forces act on the blade in tangential direction
• Stress due to vibration forces.
• Thermal stress also due to the uneven heating of the blade root and the rim.

Twisted Blades
This type of blades is used in the last stage of a large multistage steam turbine. These are the largest blade in
turbine and contribute around 10% of the turbine total output. Due to larger in size, these types of blades are
subjected to high centrifugal and bending forces. To overcome these forces twisted construction is used.

5. Shrouds
Shrouds are used to reinforce the turbine blades free ends to reduce vibration and leakage. This is done by
reverting a flat end over the blades refer figure. In some cases especially at the early stages, the shroud may
be integral with the blade.

6. Turbine Barring device

When a turbine is left cold and at standstill, the weight of the rotor will tend to bend the rotor slightly. If left at
the standstill while the turbine is still hot, the lower half of the rotor will cool off faster than the upper half
and the rotor will bend upwards “hog”. In both cases, the turbine would be difficult if not impossible to start
up.

The first turning gears turned the shaft at approximately 20 rev/mm, later increased to 40 and up to 60
rev/mm as proper lubrication is difficult to obtain at low speed; the same goes for the hydrogen seals of
generators. Some turning gears, electric or hydraulic, turn the shaft 1 800 at set times over a period of 24
hours.
Before a cold turbine is started up it should be on the barring gear for approximately three hours. When a
turbine is shut down, it should be barring for the next 24 hours. If a hydrogen-cooled generator is involved the
turbine should be kept on barring gear to prevent excessive loss of hydrogen.

Turbine Bearings
One of the steam turbine basic part is bearing. They are two types of bearings used based on the type of load
act on them

• Radial Bearing
• Thrust Bearing

Radial Bearings
For small turbines mostly equipped with anti-friction type bearings. Widely used anti-friction bearings are the
self-aligning spherical ball or roller bearing with flooded type lubrication is used.

In the case of medium turbines used plain journal bearing. They may be ring lubricated sleeve bearings with
bronze or Babbitt lining. Both flooded and force types are employed.

For larger turbines, the radial bearing will be a tilting pad type. The number of pad per bearing will be selected
based on the weight of the rotor. For these types of bearing forced lubrication is used.
Thrust Bearings
The main two purposes of the thrust bearing are:

• To keep the rotor in an exact position in the casing.

• To absorb axial thrust on the rotor due to steam flow.

The thrust bearing is located on the free end of the rotor or we can say at the steam inlet of the turbine. The
axial thrust force is very small for impulse turbines. This is due to the presence of pressure equalizing holes in
the rotor discs to balance the thrust force generated across the disc. A simple thrust bearing such as a ball
bearing for small turbines and radial Babbitt facing on journal bearings are commonly used in small and
medium-size turbines. Tilling pad type thrust bearings are used in the large steam turbines.

7. Turbine Seals
Seals are used to reduce the leakage of steam between the rotary and stationary parts of the steam turbine.
Depend upon the location of seal, the seals are classified as two types, they are

• Shaft Seal
• Blade Seal
Shaft Seals
Shaft seals are used to prevent the steam leakage where the shafts extend through the casing. In the case of a
small turbine carbon rings are used as shaft seal up to the surface speed of the shaft is 50m/s. The carbon ring
is made up of three segments butting together tightly under the pressure of a garter spring. The carbon rings
are free floating in the housing and an anti-rotating pin is used to prevent the rotation of carbon ring seal.

Due to the self-lubrication properties of the carbon rings, they maintain a close clearance with the shaft.
Blade Seals
Blade seals are used to prevent the steam leakage between the diaphragm and the shaft. The efficiency of the
turbine depends largely on the blade seals. Labyrinth seals are used as blade seals in the small and large
turbines. In the case of large steam turbine spring loaded labyrinth seals are used.

8. Turbine Couplings
The purpose of couplings is to transmit power from the prime mover to the driven piece of machinery. Flexible
type couplings are used in turbines. The coupling hubs are taper bore and key way to fit the tapered end of
the shaft.

9. Governor
The governor is one of the steam turbine basic parts. Its main function is to control the operation of a steam
turbine. Generally, the governor is classified as two type

• Speed-sensing governor
• Pressure sensing or load governor

Speed Sensing Governor

Speed-sensing governors are used in power generation application to maintain a constant speed with respect
to the load change in governor. Droop is one of the important characteristics of this governor selection.

Pressure sensitive governor

These are applied to back pressure and extraction turbines in connection with the speed sensitive governor.
They are three types of governor used in steam turbine:

• Mechanical Governor

• Hydro-mechanical Governor
• Electronic Governor
In the case of small turbine Oil relay type (Hydro-mechanical) governor NEMA class “A” is used. For the larger
turbine, electronic governor NEMA class “D” is used.

10. Lubrication System

Oil flood lubrication is used for small turbines and pressurized lubrication is used for larger turbines. The
pressurized lubrication system consists of lube oil tank, oil pump, filter, cooler, pressure regulating valve.

Lesson 3: State preparations and procedures for start of a steam turbine.

• The correct procedure ensures that no part of the machinery goes through any kind of stress- thermal
or mechanical. It also helps the ship to operate without wasting any extra time.
• The correct starting procedure for steam Turbine Generator onboard ship is as follows:
• Check turbo generator lube oil sump level and drain it for water. Replenish it if level is less than
normal.
• Start the lube oil priming pump from the local station and check the lube oil pressure. Put the priming
pump on auto.
• Check and fill up the Turbine Generator vacuum pump operating water tank to normal level.
• Check vacuum condenser condensate level from the condensate pump. Put the pump on auto so that
the level is maintained all the time.
 • Operate the steam drain valve to drain any condensed water from the steam line to avoid excessive
hammering and vibration while starting turbo generator.
• Open the main steam inlet valve for turbo generator.
• Adjust the gland steam pressure to normal level.
• Check and open the sea water valves for vacuum pump cooler, T/G lube oil cooler and vacuum
condenser are opened.
• Start the vacuum pump and bring up the vacuum in the condenser.
• Open condensate pump valves and switch on the pump.
• Check whether the condensate vacuum, gland steam pressure, steam inlet pressure, and lube oil
pressure are normal.
• Start turbo generator from the local station and close the drain in the steam line.
• Check first and second stage steam pressure.
• Check condenser vacuum and water level.
• Check lube oil pressure and vibration levels.
• Check turbo generator speed, voltage, frequency, vacuum, condenser level and other parameters.
• Give control to remote station from the local control and take the TG on load.

SHOW VIDEO OF STEAM TURBINE OPERATION

Lesson 4: Describe briefly the control system and its components including their function.
The modern digital turbine control system (TCS) is designed to control the main steam flow to the steam
turbine in all operational conditions by means of the turbine throttle, governor, admission, and or extraction
control valves. The control functions are conducted through the use of simplex or redundant electronic
functions incorporated within the TCS software and hardware, integrated through the use of servo coil
actuators.

Master controllers automatically engage when required to ensure the appropriate rates of change match the
mode of operation of the turbine. Set point controls, open and closed-loop control functions, as well as
continuous monitoring functions associated with the TCS system prevent the turbine generator from assuming
inadmissible operating conditions.

The principle features of the turbine control system (TCS )system are summarized as follows:

• Speed Control- The speed control function provides the operational control involving the speed limiting
and acceleration functions of the unit over the entire operating speed range. The speed control system is fully
integrated with the load rejection and load anticipatory functions as required, as well as the turbine trip
system.
• Inlet/Admission Pressure Control-two channel selection which facilitates initial pressure (boiler follow
mode) and limit pressure (turbine follow mode) functions- The inlet/admission pressure control provides two
channel selection which facilitates initial pressure (boiler follow mode) and limit pressure (turbine follow
mode) functions. This automatic control function is activated when the inlet-steam pressure drops to a pre-
determined configurable set point.

• Load Control-via either a load set point command from a DCS, or can be configured to receive MW input
for utilization of the load control function developed within the system, or can be configured stand-alone as a
MW or Speed Droop function

CONTROL SYSTEM OF GAS TURBINE

• Turbine Stress Influence- The TCS system is designed to accept influencing from a turbine stress
evaluation (TSE) system thereby limiting the acceleration and load ramp gradients. During start-up and
shutdown, a TSE would provide an input generated from the algorithm delta created between two
thermocouples embedded within the main stop valve (MSV or throttle valve) and main control valve (MCV or
governor valve).

• Frequency Influence- When the generator is on the grid and the turbine controller is in the “load”
control mode, the speed control function continues to provide a speed error (influence) input for use in
frequency regulation

• ADS (Automatic Dispatch System) Influence- The TCS system is designed to accept influencing from
an ADS controller, facilitating the remote dispatch loading and unloading of the machine along predetermined
ramp gradients. The load limit gradients are configurable through the entire range of operation via password
protection.

• Valve Lift Control- The valve lift controller integrates the min-gated valve demand reference versus valve
actual (setpoint) functions. Some vendors have standard applications oversampling rates of greater than 20
samples per cyclic event throughout the stroke of the valve to achieve the fastest possible response time.

Lesson 5: State the safety devices and their functions.

1. Governors and speed control

• All main and auxiliary turbines are to be provided with over speed protective devices to prevent the design
speed from being exceeded by more than 15%.
• Arrangement is to be provided for shutting off the steam to the main turbines by suitable hand trip gear
situated at the maneuvering stand and at the turbine itself.
Hand tripping for auxiliary turbines is to be arranged in the vicinity of the turbine over speed protective
device.

• Where the main turbine installation incorporates a reverse gear, electric transmission, controllable pitch
propeller or other free-coupling arrangement, a separate speed governor in addition to the overspeed
protective device is to be fitted and is to be capable of controlling the speed of the unloaded turbine
without bringing the overspeed protective device into action.
• Where exhaust steam from auxiliary systems is led to the main turbine it is to be cut off at activation of the
overspeed protective device.
• Auxiliary turbines driving electric generators are to have both:
a speed governor which, with fixed setting, is to control the speed within the limit of 10% for momentary
variation and 5% permanent variation when the full load is suddenly taken off, and an over speed protective
device which is to be independent of speed governor, and is to prevent the design speed from being exceeded
by more than 15% when the full load is suddenly taken off.

2. Miscellaneous safety arrangements

• Main ahead turbines are to be provided with a quick acting device which will automatically shut off the
steam supply in the case of dangerous lowering of oil pressure in the bearing lubricating system. Where
deemed necessary by the Classification Society appropriate means are to be provided to protect the
turbines in case of:
1. abnormal axial rotor displacement,
2. excessive condenser pressure,
3. high condensate level.
• Auxiliary turbines having governors operated other than hydraulically in which the lubricating oil is
inherent in the system, are to be provided with an alarm device and a means of shutting off the steam
supply in the case of lowering of oil pressure in the bearing lubricating oil system.
 • Main turbines are to be provided with a satisfactory emergency supply of lubricating oil which will
come into use automatically when the pressure drops below a predetermined value.
• To provide a warning to personnel in the vicinity of the exhaust end steam turbines of excessive
pressure, a sentinel valve or equivalent is to be provided at the exhaust end of all turbines.
• Non-return valves, or other approved means which will prevent steam and water returning to the
turbines, are to be fitted in bled steam connections.
• Efficient steam strainers are to be provided close to the inlets to ahead and astern high pressure
turbines or alternatively at the inlets to maneuvering valves.

3. Bilge level alarms for unattended machinery spaces

• All vessels are to be fitted with means for detecting a rise of water in the machinery space bilges or
bilge wells. Bilge wells are to be large enough to accommodate normal drainage during the unattended
period.
• Where the bilge pumps start automatically, means shall be provided to indicate if the influx of liquid is
greater than the pump capacity or if the pump is operating more frequently than would normally be
expected.

Lesson 6: Describe with the aid of sketches/computer aided drawing the

following:
• Establishing the shaft centre line
• Deviation while building
• Alignment deviation in service
• Fair curve alignment
• Shaft checks
• Shaft bearings
• Plain Bearing
• Tilting pad bearing
• Roller bearing
 • Coupling bolts
• Stern tube
• Stern tube sealing arrangement
• Fixed Pitch propeller
• Method of mounting fixed pitch propeller
• keyed propeller
• keyless propeller
• Controllable Pitch propeller
• Gears and clutches
• Reversible reduction gearbox
• Flexible coupling
• Air operated clutches

Establishing the shaft center line

Optical (or laser) equipment can be used to establish the center line of the shafting system, to give a reference
for cutting through bulkheads and machining of the aperture in the stern frame. One method employs a
telescope with crosswire, set up on the shaft center line at the forward end of the double bottom engine
platform with a plain cross wire target on the same axis at the after end of the engine seating.

The centerline of the crankshaft must be along the centerline of the propulsion shaft, and the propeller. If that
fails, the propeller will wobble about its position during running condition.

Deviation while building

With the ship under construction still firmly supported, faults causing shaft misalignment can and do occur.
The stern tube aperture can be incorrectly machined due to flexure of the boring bar or human error. Any
contraction or expansion of the hull as a result of temperature variation can conspire with changes caused by
welding of the hull to effect change of hull shape. The welding in place of a fabricated stern tube requires
constant checks to ensure alignment is maintained.
Alignment deviation in service
Shaft line is continually changed through the lifetime of a ship, as the hull is distorted by hog or sag due to
different conditions of loading. The weight and distribution of cargo, ballast, fuel and fresh water are all
subject to change and the changes are known from experiment to affect shaft alignment

Fair curve alignment

The method of fair curve alignment accepts the changes of line endured by the shaft system and seeks a
compromise installation to suit the varying conditions.

The initial calculation is to determine the load on each bearing, assuming all bearings to be in a straight line.
The computer programmed then simulates the raising of each bearing through a range and calculates, for
each small change, the increase of its own load and alteration in load on each of the other bearings.

Shaft checks
Propeller shaft, tail shaft – The aftermost section of the propulsion shafting in the stern tube in single screw
ships and in the struts of multiple screw ships to which the propeller is fitted. Propulsion shafting constitutes a
system of revolving rods that transmit power and motion from the main drive to the propeller.

Shaft bearings
Shaft bearings: The intermediate shafting between the tail shaft and main engine, gearbox or thrust block may
be supported in plain, tilting pad or roller bearings. The two former types usually have individual oil sumps,
the oil being circulated by a collar and scraper device; roller bearings are grease lubricated.

• Plain Bearing
Any oil between a static shaft and plain journal bearing in which it rests, tends to be squeezed out so that
there is metal to metal contact. At the start of the rotation the journal is inclined to roll up the bearing surface
against the direction of rotation until friction slip occurs. Then, provided there is oil in the clearance space, this
will cling to the moving surface and be dragged between the shaft and the bearing.

• Tilting pad bearing

Replacement of the ineffective side portions of the journal by pads capable of carrying load will considerably
increase its capacity. Tilting pads based on those developed by Michell for thrust blocks are used for the
purpose.

•Roller bearing
Roller bearings are supplied in sizes to suit shafts up to the largest diameter. Flange couplings dictate that
roller bearing races must be in two parts for fitting. The section of the shaft where the split roller bearing is to
be fitted, must be machined very accurately and with good finish. The two halves of the inner and outer races
are fitted and held with clamping rings where fitted, are grease-lubricated.
Coupling bolts
The elongation of a bolt when tightened, causes a reduction in cross sectional area. The relationship between
change in length and the change of cross sectional area is summarized by Poisson's Ratio. In a clearance bolt,
this is not a problem, but with a normal fitted bolt, positive contact between the accurately machined bolt and
the reamered hole is lost when the bolt is tightened.

Stern tube
The stern tube, as the name suggests, is a hollow tube-like structure at the stern or rear part of the ship. A
ship needs a propeller to drive it forward against the waves. The propeller, located outside the ship, needs to
be connected to the engine inside the ship’s engine room.

Stern tube sealing arrangement

There are basically three sealing arrangements used for stern bearings. These are:

1. Simple stuffing boxes filled with proprietary packing material.

2. Lip seals, in which a number of flexible membranes in contact with the shaft, prevent the passage of fluid
along the shaft.

3. Radial face seals, in which a wear-resistant face fitted radially around the shaft, is in contact with similar
faces fitted to the after bulkhead and to the after end of the stern tube.
Fixed Pitch propeller
The propeller is designed in a way such that, if you cut the propeller radially at any random radius from its
center, then the cut section of the propeller blades will have a certain pitch.

Method of mounting fixed pitch propeller

The normal method of manufacture for a fixed pitch propeller, is to cast the blades integral with the boss and
after inspection and marking, to machine the tapered bore and faces of the boss before the blades are
profiled by hand with reference to datum grooves cut in the surfaces or with an electronically controlled
profiling machine.
keyed propeller
For the conventional key and taper arrangement, keyways are milled in the shaft taper and the key
accommodated in the bore of the hub, by slots machined through. Ideally, the hub and shaft tapers would be
accurately matched and the hub would be stretched by being forced past the point of fit on the shaft taper, by
the propeller nut.

keyless propeller
The keyless propeller depends on the accuracy of the hub and shaft tapers and correct grip from the
stretched propeller hub on the shaft. The degree of stretch is controlled by push up. It must ensure adequate
grip despite any temperature changes and consequent differential expansion of bronze hub and steel shaft.

Controllable Pitch propeller

Controllable pitch propellers are normally fitted to a flanged tail shaft as the operating mechanism is housed
in the propeller boss. As its name implies, it is possible to alter the pitch of this type of propeller to change
ship speed or to adjust to the prevailing resistance conditions. This change in pitch is effected by rotating the
blades about their vertical axes, either by hydraulic or mechanical means.

Gears and clutches

For medium-speed engine installations in large ships reduction gears are needed to permit engines and
propellers to run at their best respective speeds. Their use also permits more than one engine to be coupled
to the same propeller.
Reversible reduction gearbox
Reversing with the use of a gearbox, after reducing engine speed as necessary, means that continually starting
on cold air is avoided and less compressed air capacity is required. Reverse/reduction gearboxes, like straight
reduction gears, are also obtainable in standard sizes. Gear lubrication is by a self-contained system.

Flexible coupling
Where a gearbox is fitted, a torsionally flexible coupling is necessary between the medium-speed diesel and
the reduction gear. The coupling is necessary because the periodic application and reduction of torque as
engine cylinders fire in turn, tends to result in alternate loading and unloading of the gear teeth. The torsional
vibration effect is sufficient to cause serious gear tooth damage.

Air operated clutches

Clutches which are not part of the gearbox, are usually air activated, with pads or linings which make either
radial or axial contact. The application force for the friction pads or linings, is supplied by compressed air in a
reinforced neoprene rubber tube. The compressed air is filtered and moisture is removed by drains provided
in the system.
Axial air operated clutch
This type of clutch also uses a neoprene tube which is inflated by compressed air. Expansion of the tube
produces a sandwich action between friction pads and disc. The friction disc or drum is spline mounted and
therefore has axial float. The friction pads are also free to float axially; being mated with teeth machined
peripherally inside the casing.

Unit 7: Propeller and load diagrams

Lesson 1: Explain the following with the aid of sketches where applicable:

• Propeller curve
• Propeller design point
• Fouled hull, sea margin and heavy propeller
• Constant ship speed lines
• Propeller curve
Ship moves forward with some velocity when the necessary propeller thrust (T) is greater than the pertaining
resistance. The thrust of a propeller depends on its size, angle of attack of its blades, and the speed at which it
spins. By convention, propellers are described by diameter and pitch in that order. The diameter of propeller is
governed by its speed of rotation and the power of the engine rotating it.

• Propeller design point

Normally, estimates of the necessary propeller power and speed are based on theoretical calculations for
loaded ship, and often experimental tank tests, both assuming optimum operating conditions, a clean hull and
good weather. The combination of speed and power obtained may be called the ship’s propeller design point
placed on the light running propeller curve

• Fouled hull, sea margin and heavy propeller

When the ship has sailed for some time, the hull and propeller become fouled and the hull’s resistance will
increase. Consequently, the ship speed will be reduced unless the engine delivers more power to the propeller
the propeller will be further loaded and will be heavy running .
Sea margin at heavy weather
If, at the same time the weather is bad, with head winds, the ship’s resistance may increase compared to
operating at calm weather conditions. When determining the necessary engine power, it is therefore normal
practice to add an extra power margin, the so-called sea margin, which is traditionally about 15% of the
propeller design power.

Engine layout (heavy propeller)

When determining the necessary engine speed considering the influence of a heavy running propeller for
operating at large extra ship resistance, it is recommended - compared to the clean hull and calm weather
propeller.

• Constant ship speed lines

The constant ship speed lines. These lines indicate the power required at various propeller speeds to keep the
same ship speed provided that the optimum propeller diameter with an optimum pitch diameter ratio is used
at any given speed, taking into consideration the total propulsion efficiency.

Unit 8: Characteristics Gas Turbines

Lesson 1: Explain the following with the aid of sketches where applicable:

• Continuous service rating

• Engine margin
• Limits for continuous operation
• Limits for overload operation
• Specific fuel oil consumption (SFOC)
• SFOC based on reference ambient conditions stated in ISO 3046/1-1986 of SFOC
for lower calorific value of fuels and ambient conditions different from ISO
reference conditions.

• Continuous service rating

The Continuous service rating is the power at which the engine is normally assumed to operate, and point S is
identical to the service propulsion point (SP) unless a main engine driven shaft generator is installed.
• Engine margin
Besides the sea margin, a so-called “engine margin” of some 10% is frequently added. The corresponding
point is called the “specified MCR for propulsion” (MP), and refers to the fact that the power for point SP is
10% lower than for point MP,see fig 2.01. Point MP is identical to the engine’s specified MCR point (M) unless
a main engine driven shaft generator is installed. In such a case, the extra power demand of the shaft
generator must also be considered.

• Limits for continuous operation

• Limits for overload operation
Overload operation of Gas Turbines is a very unsafe operation, strictly prohibit overload operation. So
what is the damage for Gas Turbines overload? Overload operation is not only consumes much more
but also causes faults and malfunctions parts of Gas Turbines.

• Specific fuel oil consumption (SFOC)

Consumption of fuel oil per unit energy at output shaft is known as Specific fuel oil consumption. Unit of
specific fuel oil consumption is Kg/kWh or g/bhph . Specific fuel oil consumption is the measure of mass of fuel
consumed per unit time to produce per KW. The marine engine efficiency is usually determined using the
SFOC. In order to achieve accuracy, the fuel consumption and power developed is always measured over a
suitable time period on a good weather. The formula used for calculating SFOC is:

SFOC (g/kwh) = Mass of fuel consumed per hour / Power developed in KW

In order to achieve accuracy, the fuel consumption and power developed is always measured over a suitable
time period on a good

weather. The formula used for calculating SFOC is:

SFOC (g/kwh) = Mass of fuel consumed per hour / Power developed in KW

Calculation with an example

Effective Engine Power, Po - Say 8,130 bhp (Engine power is calculated from the performance sheet. It can
be calculated from the Indicator diagram or with fuel pump index method.

Calculation with an example

Consumption, Co - 3.83 m3 over 3 hours

Measuring point temperature - 119°C

Density at 119°C - Specific gravity 0.9364 t/m3, 3% Sulphur

Co = Fuel oil consumption over the period (m3)

D 119 = Corrected gravity (t/m3)

h = Measuring period, hours

Pe =Brake horse power, bhp

10^6 is multiplied to convert the fuel oil unit in tonnes to gram

SFOC = Co x D119 x 10^6

h x Pe

= 3.83 x 0.8684 x 10^6 = 136.4 g/bhph

Lesson 2: Explain the following with the aid of sketches where applicable:

• Brayton cycle
• Thermal efficiency of Brayton cycle
• Heat balance of marine gas turbine plant

Brayton cycle
The Brayton cycle is a thermodynamic cycle named after George Brayton that describes the workings of a
constant-pressure heat engine. The original Brayton engines used a piston compressor and piston expander,
but more modern gas turbine engines and air breathing jet engines also follow the Brayton cycle.

Although the cycle is usually run as an open system (and indeed must be run as such if internal combustion is
used), it is conventionally assumed for the purposes of thermodynamic analysis that the exhaust gases are
reused in the intake, enabling analysis as a closed system.

Brayton cycle - the Ideal Cycle for Gas-turbine Engine

Gas-turbines usually operate on an open cycle, shown up.A compressor takes in fresh ambient air (state 1),
compresses it to a higher temperature and pressure (state 2).Fuel and the higher pressure air from
compressor are sent to a combustion chamber, where fuel is burned at constant pressure. The resulting high
temperature gases are sent to a turbine (state 3).The high temperature gases expand to the ambient pressure
(state 4) in the turbine and produce power.The exhaust gases leave the turbine.Part of the work generated by
the turbine is sent to drive the compressor. The fraction of the turbine work used to drive the compressor is
called the back work ratio.

Since fresh air enters the compressor at the beginning and exhaust are thrown out at the end, this cycle is an
open cycle.

By utilizing the air-standard assumptions, replacing the combustion process by a constant pressure heat
addition process, and replacing the exhaust discharging process by a constant pressure heat rejection process,
the open cycle described above can be modeled as a closed cycle, called ideal Brayton cycle. The ideal Brayton
cycle is made up of four internally reversible processes.

• 1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)

• 2-3 Constant pressure heat addition
• 3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
• 4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection

➢ Thermal efficiency of Brayton cycle

Let assume the ideal Brayton cycle that describes the workings of a constant pressure heat engine. Modern
gas turbine engines and airbreathing jet engines also follow the Brayton cycle. This cycle consist of four
thermodynamic processes:

• isentropic compression – ambient air is drawn into the compressor, where it is pressurized (1 → 2).
The work required for the compressor is given by WC = H2 – H1.
• isobaric heat addition – the compressed air then runs through a combustion chamber, where fuel is
burned and air or another medium is heated (2 → 3). It is a constant-pressure process, since the
chamber is open to flow in and out. The net heat added is given by Qadd = H3 - H2
• isentropic expansion – the heated, pressurized air then expands on turbine, gives up its energy. The
work done by turbine is given by WT = H4 – H3
• isobaric heat rejection – the residual heat must be rejected in order to close the cycle. The net heat
rejected is given by Qre = H4 - H1
As can be seen, we can describe and calculate ( thermodynamic efficiency) such cycles (similarly for Rankine
cycle) using enthalpies.

To calculate the thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle (single compressor and single turbine) engineers use
the first law of thermodynamics in terms of enthalpy rather than in terms of internal energy.

The first law in terms of enthalpy is:

dH = dQ + Vdp
 ➢ Heat balance of marine gas turbine plant
Gas turbine heat balance analysis uses plant measured data as input, and solves conservation of mass and
energy plus chemical combustion equations to yield additional information about the current state of the gas
turbine. The calculated heat balance data is information that can be directly inferred from the measured data,
and is as accurate as the measured data that was input to the analysis.

Measured Data Needed for Gas Turbine Heat Balance

Ambient temperature, Pressure and Relative Humidity

Power (generator output)

Compressor Discharge Pressure

Compressor Discharge Temperature

Exhaust Temperature

Inlet and Outlet Pressure Losses

Fuel Flow and Heating Value (optional)

First Stage Nozzle Area (optional)

Gas Turbine Heat Balance Outputs

Fuel Flow

Fuel Energy Consumption

Air Inlet Flow

Compressor Efficiency

Turbine Efficiency

Firing Temperature

Turbine Inlet Temperature

Cooling Flows

Heat Rate

First Stage Nozzle Area

Exhaust Flow Rate and Composition

Part-Load Temperatures
MapEx calculates the hot gas path temperatures into and out of each nozzle (stator) and bucket (rotor) in the
expander of the gas turbine as measured data changes. The average blade metal temperatures are
determined by the hot gas temperature, the cooling air temperature and the cooling effectiveness.
The chart shows gas turbine firing temperature and exhaust temperature as a function of GT load. Firing
temperature initially decreases as the GT goes to part-load, but then remains essentially constant while the
exhaust temperature increases under guide vane control. When the maximum exhaust temperature is
reached, the exhaust temperature remains constant and the firing temperature decreases with load.