Maintenance Module 2012

Maintenance and Installation of Machinery (MEng 5231) Module, 2012 E.
DEBRE TABOR UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Maintenance and Installation of Machinery /MEng 5231/

Module
Prepared by: Berhe Syum (MSc.)
DEBRE TABOR, ETHIOPIA
SEPTEMBER, 2019
P.O. BOX: 272
Debre Tabor University Faculty Of Technology Department Of Mechanical Engineering

Maintenance and Installation of Machinery (MEng 5231) Module, 2012 E.C
CHAPTER 1: MAINTENANCE AND MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT
1.1 Introduction
The overall and overarching goal of any companies’ establishment is long time survival
and the ability to produce useful outputs and sell to satisfy demand. In manufacturing companies
the outputs are usually products offered to customers to make profits. However, most
establishments usually state their primary objectives as:
(i) Make profit
(ii) Maximize profit
(iii) Satisfy a social need/ employ labor
(iv) Provide useful commodity.
These enumerated objectives should be secondary as if a company can sufficiently
identified a market and sufficiently serviced it, all other objectives shall be met. To achieve the
primary objective of satisfying a demand, it is very important that products are produced in the
right quantity, quality, at the right time and right cost. For these requirements to be met, goods
must be made in the most efficient and economic manner. The machines and equipment must
operate efficiently and effectively at the required level of production. There must be very few or
no stoppages on production lines which require effective planning, scheduling and good
administration of maintenance activities. But every means of production (manufacturing of
goods), closely connected with wear and tear, those are due to:
 Tools and dies wear out  Aging effect
 Machine part wear our  Improper handling
 Atmospheric condition (corrosion)
Hence Maintenance requirements have an impact on production scheduling and other functions
performed by the production control department. Time lost due to maintenance may interfere
with schedules from the production department. Therefore, maintenance requirements should be
considered in choosing machines or equipment for replacement or increasing the capacity of
installed machines and equipment.
The maintenance department in any organization is saddled with the responsibility of the
maintenance of facilities, equipment, and machines. To do so all means of production be in state
of use, check, service, and tend.
Debre Tabor University Faculty Of Technology Department Of Mechanical Engineering

1.1.1 DEFINITION OF MAINTENANCE

Maintenance is any activity that is carried out on any facility either to restore to or to retain the
facility in a good and acceptable working conditions. Maintenance involves all technical and
other procedures performed in order to retain the satisfactory working condition of a machine or
part or restoring it to an acceptable working condition so that the set tasks can be performed at
the scheduled time and under given conditions.
Maintenance is often not given the priority it deserves in the overall operating strategy of a
facility. Maintenance programs are managed and funded by people, and human nature seems to
abide by the old tenet, “If it isn’t broke, don’t fix it.” Compared to other departments,
maintenance departments have no real “product” and - as such - produce no real income. Many
managers view money spent on maintenance as money thrown down a black hole. In spite of any
life-cycle “proofs” to the contrary, managers look for ways to cut maintenance budgets first
when any other need arises. But the maintenance functions stem at supporting role to keep
equipment;
(i) To operate effectively;
(ii) To maintain quality standard at all times;
(iii)To maintain the quantitative and cost standards of output.
The objectives of plant maintenance to include the following;
 To achieve minimum breakdown and to keep the plant in good working condition at the
lowest possible cost;
 To keep the machines and other facilities in operational level, and used act optimum
(profit making) capacity.
 To ensure the availability of the machines; buildings and services required by other
section, buildings and services required by other section of the factory for efficient
performance. The most important responsibility of plant engineering is that of
maintaining the plant facilities and equipment. It is only when the equipment is
adequately maintained that it can be expected to operate and perform properly, and
thereby yielding a high quality product at a reasonable cost.
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1.1.2 Evolution of maintenance

As a profession, maintenance isn’t just the domain of trades-people. It also includes engineers
and planners to manage maintenance practice. In world-class companies, maintenance is now
seen as an integral part of business operations because it can has a significant impact on
corporate profitability. Over the last decades the techniques for performing maintenance have
also significantly changed. While maintenance used to be reactive to breakdown, maintenance in
world-class companies is now an activity that is much more proactive. The early generation had
a focus on corrective maintenance with some basic routine maintenance such as lubrication.
From that starting line, subsequent generations of maintenance professionals have added more
and more proactive maintenance elements to their maintenance strategy. Here are some
characteristic features in which one differ from the generation.
1st Generation (before WWII)
 Industry not highly mechanized
 Equipment was simple and over designed
 Downtime is not matte much
 Failure prevention didn’t have high priority
 Failure corrected as they occur
2nd Generation (WWII – 1975)
 Numerous and complex machine
 Industry depend heavily depend on these machines
 Downtime start to matter
 Failed equipment maintenance came up
3rd Generation (1975 – to now)
 Maximizing life of equipment
 High plant availability and reliability
 Greater automation
 Quality, safety, and environment
 Cost of maintenance
 Greater expectation leads to new research
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It is expected that equipment of this century will be more computerized and reliable, in addition
to being vastly more complex. Further computerization of equipment will significantly increase
the importance of software maintenance, approaching, if not equal to, hardware maintenance.
This century will also see more emphasis on maintenance with respect to such areas as the
human factor, quality, safety, and cost effectiveness. New thinking and new strategies will be
required to realize potential benefits and turn them into profitability. All in all, profitable
operations will be the ones that have employed modern thinking to evolve an equipment
management strategy that takes effective advantage of new information, technology, and
methods.
1.2 Maintenance Management

Just like in any other area of technology, management plays an important role in maintenance
activity. Maintenance management is the function of providing policy guidance for all
maintenance-related activities, in addition to exercising appropriate technical and management
control of maintenance programs. The effectiveness of maintenance management depends on
many factors including the overall goal of the organization, the overall organizational set-up,
training and skill of the maintenance management personnel, and training and skill of the
personnel carrying out the maintenance activity. A major proportion of the total equipment life
cycle cost occurs during the maintenance phase. It has been estimated that the cost of
maintaining equipment in the industrial sector varies from 2 to 20 times the acquisition cost.
Maintenance cost is the cost that includes lost opportunities in up time, yield, rate, and quality
because of unsatisfactorily or non operating equipment, in addition to the cost associated with
equipment-related degradation of the safety of the environment, people, and property. So when
we talk about maintenance it is to mean that profitability through:
 Equipment output: it can be defined through Quality, quantity, unit cost, time
 Equipment running cost: in terms of Labor, maintenance cost, spare part
The level of maintenance activity required and maintenance management involved at the
equipment operation stage is affected by factors at other stages through which the equipment
passes.
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 Design stage: Performance, Reliability, maintainability, Support system

 Manufacturing and installation stage: Quality control, design fault detection,
maintainability,
 Commissioning stage: Primary design fault control, Technical performance test
 Operational stage: Design fault detection, maintenance optimization, mal-operation
avoidance
Fig 1.1 equipment life cyle

1.2.1 MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES
Six important principles of maintenance management are listed below:
 The customer service relationship is the basis of an effective maintenance organization.

Good maintenance service is very important for effectively maintaining facilities at an
expected level. The team approach fostered by the organizational structure is quite
important to consistent, active control of maintenance function.
 Maximum productivity occurs when each employee in an organization has a defined task
to carry out in a definitive fashion and a definite time. This principle was formulated by
Frederick Taylor in the late nineteenth century and it is still an important factor in
management.
 Measurement comes before control. When a person is assigned a task to be performed
using an effective method in a specified period of time, he or she becomes automatically
aware of management expectations. Control begins when management personnel
compare the results against set goals.
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 Job control depends on definite, individual responsibility for each task during a work
order’s life span. A maintenance department’s responsibility is to develop, implement,
and provide appropriate operating support for the planning and scheduling of
maintenance work. More specifically, it is the responsibility of management personnel to
ensure effective and complete use of the system within their sphere of control.
 Schedule all control points effectively. Schedule appropriate control points at intervals so
that all the problems are detected in time and the scheduled completion of the job is not
delayed.
 The optimal size of a crew is the minimum number that can carry out a given task in an
effective manner. Past experiences indicate that most tasks require just one person.
1.2.2 EFFECTIVE MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT ELEMENTS
The effectiveness of maintenance management depends on many elements. Some of these

elements shown in Figure 1are briefly discussed below:
 Maintenance policy: This is very important for a clear understanding of the maintenance
management program and for continuity of maintenance-related operations, regardless of
the size of a maintenance organization. Normally, maintenance organizations have
manuals that contain information on items such as policies, objectives, responsibilities,
programs, authority, reporting requirements, performance measurements, and useful
methods and techniques.
 Work order system: This is a useful tool to help management control costs and evaluate
job performance. A work order authorizes and directs individuals to carry out an assigned
task. Usually a work order contains information such as work description and associated
reasons, requested and planned completion dates, planned start date, work category (i.e.,
repair, preventive maintenance, installation, etc.), items to be affected, appropriate
approval signatures, and labor and material costs. A well-defined work order system
should cover all types of maintenance jobs requested and completed, whether one-time or
repetitive jobs.
 Material control: Effectiveness in material coordination is an important factor in
efficient utilization of maintenance personnel. Material related problems can result in
delays in job completion, excess travel time, and so on. Some of the steps that can help
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reduce material-related problems are job planning, coordinating with stores, coordinating
with purchasing, and reviewing the completed jobs. On average, material costs account
for about 30 to 40% of total direct maintenance costs.
FIGURE 1.2 Elements of effective maintenance management.
 Job planning: Job planning is an important element of effective maintenance

management because prior to starting a maintenance job there could be a need to perform
a number of tasks, for example, procurement of appropriate components, materials, and
tools; securing safety permits; coordination with other departments; and coordination and
delivery of parts, tools, and materials. Although the degree of planning needed may
depend on the craft involved and methods used, past experiences indicate that usually one
planner is required for every 20 craft persons. In most maintenance organizations 80 to
85% planning coverage can be attained.
 Job scheduling: Scheduling is as important as maintenance job planning and its
effectiveness depends on the reliability of the planning function. For large maintenance
jobs to assure effective overall control, the use of methods such as the critical path
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method (CPM) and the program evaluation and review technique (PERT) must be
considered.
 Backlog control: The amount of backlog within a maintenance organization plays an
important role in the effectiveness of maintenance management. Its identification is very
important for balancing workload and personnel needs. In addition, decisions on items
such as subcontracting maintenance work, overtime, shop assignments, and hiring are
basically based on backlog information. Usually, management uses various indexes in
making decisions concerning backlog.
 Equipment records: These are another important factor that plays an important role in
the efficiency of the maintenance organization. Generally, equipment records are
classified under four categories: inventory, maintenance cost, files, and maintenance
work performed. Equipment records are used in various areas including troubleshooting
breakdowns, investigating incidents, procuring new equipment to determine operating
performance trends, performing life cycle cost and design studies, conducting
replacement and modification studies, and conducting reliability and maintainability
studies.
 Performance measurement: Progressive maintenance organizations measure their
performance on a regular basis through various means. Performance analyses play an
important role in maintenance organization efficiency and are useful in revealing
equipment downtime, peculiarities in operational behavior of the organization, and so on.
Maintenance management makes use of various types of indexes to measure
performance.
 Priority system: In a maintenance organization, the determination of job priority is
absolutely essential since it is not possible to start every maintenance job the day it is
requested. In assigning job priorities, progressive maintenance management carefully
considers factors such as the type of maintenance required, the importance of the
equipment or item, required due dates, and the length of time the job awaiting scheduling
will take.
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1.3 Production process and maintenance process

Maintenance can be an invaluable production management tool. The data derived from a
comprehensive program can provide the information needed to increase production capacity,
product quality, and the overall effectiveness of the production function. Production efficiency is
directly dependent on a number of machine-related factors. Maintenance can provide the data
needed to achieve optimum, consistent reliability, capacity, and efficiency from critical
production systems. While these factors are viewed as maintenance responsibilities, many of the
factors that directly affect them are outside of the maintenance function. For example, standard
operating procedures or operator errors can directly influence these variables. Unless production
management uses regular evaluation methods, i.e., like predictive, preventive and reliability
centered maintenance, to determine the effects of these production influences, optimum
production performance cannot be achieved. Product quality and total production cost is another
area where those maintenance strategies can benefit production management. Regular evaluation
of critical production systems can anticipate potential problems that would result in reduced
product quality and an increase in overall production costs. While the only output of these
maintenances program is data, this information can be used to correct a myriad of production
problems that directly affect the effectiveness and efficiency of the production department.
Maintenance is a system whose activities are carried out in synergy with those of the production
systems. Figure 1.3 shows the relationship between different objectives relating to these
processes. Production systems usually convert inputs (raw materials, energy, workload, etc.) into
a product that satisfies customer needs. The maintenance system, as a mix of know-how, labor,
and spare parts, together with other resources aims to maintain equipment in a good working
order, i. e., able to provide the appropriate level of production capacity. In a maintenance system,
feedback control, planning, and organization activities are very critical and strategic issues.
Consequently, various actions must be taken to control production and maintenance activities
and to resolve breakdowns. Moreover, these activities must be planned in advance whenever
possible. Clearly the first aim of maintenance action in downtime periods, during an unexpected
breakdown, is to put the plant back into working order: the planning phase is skipped and the
maintenance work is carried out as soon as possible. This is breakdown/corrective maintenance.
In this situation the maintenance work must be completed quickly.
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Figure 1.3 Production and maintenance processes

Maintenance activities are so numerous and complex that they require effective
management and well structured organization. The starting point is the synchronized control of
the production system that not only involves monitoring equipment but also maintenance control,
planning, and organization, with a lot of sub-activities. This is illustrated in Figure1.4 and
summarized as follows:
 Plant control. Control of system performance reliability and collection of on field data for
breakdowns and repair processes are accomplished by the application of sensors or
human checks.
 Work control. The maintenance workload is influenced by the maintenance strategy
adopted and is supported by well designed control of the work load based on an effective
reporting system.
 Inventory control. This activity deals with spare parts management and with all the tools
and equipment used in maintenance work.
 Cost control. Maintenance usually consumes large amounts of money. There are two
fundamental cost factors: the direct cost of investment, i. e., investment in production
resources (e. g., plant, equipment, employees), and indirect costs caused by lack of
production. It is extremely important to have an effective and continuous cost control
process.
 Quality control. The main aim of quality assurance of a process or a product is to
measure several variables representing a range of specifications, as stated by the Six
Sigma quality strategies,
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Figure 1.4 Characteristics of the maintenance process
1.4 Maintenance function

1.4.1 Function of maintenance works
Earlier the objective of maintenance function was considered to optimize plant availability at
minimum cost. But, Today’s perspective is changed, it is being considered as "Maintenance
affects all aspects of business effectiveness and risk-safety, environmental integrity, energy
efficiency, product quality and customer service, not just plant availability and cost."
The maintenance department influences Plant availability directly through preventive and
corrective maintenance. The most basic definition of availability is:
Top
Availability 
Top  Tdown
Where Top = cumulative time of operation
Tdown = cumulative outage time
Down time = Repair time + Delays
Repair time = f(maintainability, management method, engineering techniques)

Delays = f(organization of maintenance resources and information)
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EQUIPMENT TIME
ACTIVE TIME INACTIVE TIME
UPTIME DOWNTIME
MAINTENANCE MODIFICATION DELAY
PM TIME CM TIME
PROCUREMENT FAULT
PREPARATION CLEANUP
TIME CORRECTION
TIME TIME
TIME
ISOLATION ADJUSTMENT CHECKING LOGGING AND

TIME CALIBERATION TIME RESTORATION
TIME TIME
REPAIR IN REMOVE REMOVE AND REPAIR

PLACE REPLACE-REPAIR WITH A LIKE ITEM
INSPECTION SERVICING REPLACING MINOR OVERHAUL MAJOR OVERHAUL

TIME TIME TIME TIME TIME
(aging units)
Fig classification of Equipment time activities involved
EQUIPMENT TIME
ACTIVE TIME INACTIVE TIME
UPTIME DOWNTIME
DOWNTIME
MAINTENANCE MODIFICATION DELAY
PM TIME CM TIME
CM PM DELAYS
(Repair Time) (Off-line Time)PROCUREMENT (Waiting for M)
FAULT
PREPARATION CLEANUP
TIME CORRECTION
TIME TIME
TIME
ISOLATION ADJUSTMENT CHECKING LOGGING AND

TIME CALIBERATION TIME RESTORATION
TIME TIME
REPAIR IN REMOVE REMOVE AND REPAIR

PLACERESOURCES INFORMATION
REPLACE-REPAIR WITH A LIKE ITEM
INSPECTION SERVICING REPLACING MINOR OVERHAUL MAJOR OVERHAUL

TIME TIME TIME TIME TIME
(aging units)
MAINTAINABILITY MANAGEMENT ENGINEERING TECHNIQUES

(Logical fault-finding: Diagnostics)
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Fig. Downtime and its constituents
1.4.2 Impacts of reliability in maintenance function
Best maintenance strategy and system reliability are taken as a tool for today’s world class
competitive manufacturing companies. Every manufacturing facility wants production systems
and equipment to operate in a reliable fashion in order to increase plant output and maximized
profitability. Unreliable production systems or processes are responsible for machine break
down, poor quality of products, inefficient operation. We want them to operate perfectly.
Unfortunately, we do not live in an ideal world; no physical asset operates flawlessly forever. In
most organizations, breakdowns are the norm. Quality and productivity losses are high. Even if
the reasons for these inherent problems are shared by all functional groups, maintenance related
problems magnify these issues. The only time anyone pays attention to maintenance is when
production demands that they “get it running again, and quickly!” The majority of work is done
on a reactive basis. Performing sustaining levels of maintenance is a fundamental requirement of
long-term survivability of all plants. Ignoring this requirement is a guarantee that the plant will
incur unacceptably, ever-increasing higher operating cost that will assure the loss of the ability to
compete in today’s world market. If the right systems, infrastructure, processes, and procedures
are in place and consistently executed well, losses can be minimized; the operation will become
stable; production output will be maximized; and consistently high product quality will become
the norm. We call this a state of maintenance excellence. Maintenance excellence is a subset of
reliability excellence and redefines the traditional roles and responsibilities, as well as the
maintenance processes that are necessary to assure asset reliability, maximum asset useful life
and best life cycle asset cost. Achieving high reliability in manufacturing and maintenance
operations minimizes waste, maximizes output, as well as minimizes cost. By redefining the role
of maintenance as part of total plant reliability program it provides improved output and lower
total cost of goods sold (COG). Some the benefits are:
a) LOWER PRODUCTION UNIT COST.
Production unit cost is one of the most critical variables impacting an organization’s profitability.
It is calculated simply as the sum of all manufacturing cost divided by the production volume.
Improved asset reliability impacts production unit costs in two ways by reducing the numerator
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and by increasing the denominator. Even if the additional volume is not needed to support the
business, eliminating losses enables an organization to reduce the operating schedule or reduce
the production asset base (operation time), which further reduces fixed cost.
b) REDUCED MAINTENANCE COSTS.
Improved reliability system and well maintenance strategy result in lower maintenance costs. If
the maintenance work can be performed in a planned and scheduled manner, which enables the
workforce to be at least twice as efficient, maintenance will be sharply decreased. Reducing
these losses will also result in requirement of; fewer spare parts, less overtime, fewer contractors.
It is not unusual for organizations to experience as much as a 50 percent reduction in
maintenance cost as a result of moving from a reactive style of management to a proactive
approach.
c) BETTER PROCESS STABILITY
Equipment breakdowns inevitably result in process upsets. It is difficult to have a stable,

optimized process when the production equipment is constantly failing. This inevitably results in
problems with final product quality. When reliability is improved, process variability is reduced,
and statistical process capability (CpK) is increased. This results in the capability to have a more
stable, predictable manufacturing process.
d) EXTENDED EQUIPMENT LIFE
Many organizations spend an excessive amount of capital funds to replace equipment that failed
far earlier than it should have therefore a small amount of investment in routine care can pay big
dividends in extended equipment life. This frees up capital to be used for more productive
purposes, such as expansion or to implement new technology.
e) REDUCED MAINTENANCE SPARE PARTS INVENTORY
All organizations require some level of spare parts inventory to ensure the right parts will be
available when needed. Reactive organizations typically find themselves carrying a large
quantity of inventory because they cannot predict when the parts will be needed. This ties up
working capital and results in excessive carrying costs. Organizations that take a proactive
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approach to reliability place a high value in knowing the condition of their assets. The need for
parts is much more predictable. There are fewer parts can be purchased on a just-in-time basis.
f) REDUCED OVERTIME
Reactive organizations can never predict when a critical equipment failure will occur. It will
invariably happen at the most inconvenient time and will require craft resources to be called into
the facility to correct the problem. To counter this reality, most reactive organizations have a
large percentage of the maintenance workforce spread across all operating shifts.
1.5 Classification of Maintenance

Depending on the nature of maintenance workload as related to time maintenance classified
into two:
Maintenance
Corrective
Preventive
(Breakdown)
(Scheduled)
Running Shutdown Running Shutdown

Maintenance Maintenance Maintenance Maintenance
Shutdown Shutdown
Care Service Inspection Repair
Maintenance Maintenance
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Preventive Maintenance: is the technique of minimizing untimely equipment breakdown and/or

an equipment’s condition falling below a required level of acceptability. It calls for taking
equipment off-line for repair at planned intervals or depending on the equipment condition. It is
important to help in prolonging the life of equipment by limiting component and system failure
rates and also ensures accuracy of equipment. Basic reasons for undertaking preventive
maintenance are:
• Increased automation
• Loss of profitability due to production delays
• Just-in-time manufacturing policy
• Production requirement for higher quality
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• Reduction in equipment redundancies

• Reduced cost of maintenance
The reduction of maintenance cost is achieved in many different ways:
• Reduced production downtime resulting in fewer machine breakdown
• Better prevention of equipment & increased useful life expectancy which eliminates
premature replacement of equipment/machinery
• Efficient use of maintenance labor achieved by working on schedule basis instead of

crash basis repair breakdown
• Timely routine repairs resulting in fewer large scale repairs
• Reduced cost of repairs by reducing secondary failures ; when parts fail in operation, they
usually damage other parts giving rise to secondary failures
• Reduced product rejects, rework and scrap due to better overall equipment condition
• Improved safety and quality conditions
• Identification of equipment with excessive maintenance costs indicating the need for
other measures to be taken like operator training, replacement of obsolete machinery,
adapting new & efficient technology.
The elements of preventive maintenance are :
• Care: Activities like cleaning, lubrication, etc..
• Servicing: Activities like filling in of oil and fuel, readjustment, re-setting, adjusting,
checking without instrument
• Inspection: Activities like checking, testing, measuring, examining. The activities carried
out during inspection are : i) checking of function (comparison with data), and ii)
gauging(use of measuring instruments)
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• Repair: Activities like replacement of damaged & destroyed parts of those nearing wear-
out, and reconditioning of components. Repair action normally require disassembling and
assembling components.
Corrective maintenance
• It is a maintenance which is carried out when equipments fails or falls bellow acceptable
condition while in operation.
• Basically it is an emergency maintenance carried out after breakdown, thus it’s a

shutdown activity.
• It is an off-schedule maintenance required by system in service failure or malfunction.
• System operation is restored by replacing, repairing or adjusting the component which

interrupted service.
1.6 Maintenance Objectives, Planning and Control

1.6.1 Maintenance Objectives: Maintenance purposes, functions and objectives are inter-
related and are overlapping to some extent. From the various aspects and paragraphs mentioned
earlier in this chapter, maintenance objectives for a big industry can be the followings:
1. To maintain plants and equipment at its maximum operating efficiency, reducing down
times and ensuring operational safety; ensure maximum availability of plant, equipment
and machinery for productive utilization through planned maintenance.
2. To safeguard investments by minimizing rate of deterioration and achieving this at
optimum cost through budgeting and controls; maintain plant equipment, and facilities at
an economic level of repairs at all times, to conserve these and increase their life-span.
3. To help management in taking decisions on replacements or new investments and
actively participate in specification preparation, equipment selection, its erection and
commissioning etc,
4. Help in implementation of suitable procedures for procurement, storage and consumption
of spares, tools and consumables etc (inventory control etc).
5. Standardization of spares and consumables, in conformity with plant, national and
international standards and help in adoption of these standards by all users in the plant.
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6. Running of centralized services like steam generation and distribution, water supply, air
supply and fuel etc.
7. Running of captive workshops for repairs and conditioning and also for making some
new spares; etc.
The economic factor has to be kept in mind by all the contributing departments of an
organization because, whatever be the objectives and aims of that organization, it cannot sustain
for long without earning profit. Since the ultimate objective is profit, the production
infrastructure and facilities have to be maintained at as minimum a cost as possible with
maximum efficiency and operational availability.
Generally, the proper maintenance objective is minimization of the sum of plant unavailability
and resource costs through the proper planning and control of maintenance work. Maintenance
is presented as the operation of a pool of resources (labor, spares and equipment) directed
towards controlling the level of plant availability. Resources are divided between preventive
maintenance and corrective maintenance.
Maintenance objective is minimization of the resource cost and unavailability cost.
Unavailability cost = loss of in-service material & production loss while in repair or,
undergoing preventive Maintenance.
Resource cost= corrective maintenance labor, preventive maintenance labor, maintenance
equipment costs, and spares usage and holding costs.
1.6.2 Maintenance Control
An established maintenance organization and plan needs to set-up a control system to ensure that
the plan and organization are continually updated. This control system performs three main
inter-related functions:
1. Work control: It is a function of the maintenance organization and its objective is to

match men, spares and equipment to the maintenance workload. This function includes:
• Location of plant failure,
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• Determination of the necessary corrective action,

• The setting of priorities,
• Co-ordination and control of resources.
2. Plant condition control: This is needed to achieve optimum plant performance in the
long term. Its function is to:
 Identify the most important problems,
 Diagnose causes,&
 Prescribe solutions.
In doing this the alternative actions are:
 modification of preventive maintenance policy,

 equipment re-design (in the early equipment life, especially),
 changes in production policy.
3. Maintenance cost control: Its functions are:
 To identify high cost areas of plant,
 To monitor the trend of maintenance effectiveness,
 To provide information for maintenance decision making &
 To facilitate maintenance budgeting. Repairs

Breakdown queue (time under repair cost)
(Waiting for repair cost)
Breakdown resources
( spares, equipment,
labour cost)
Maintenance Maintenance resources

Plan
Preventive resources
Cost Breakdown ( spares, equipment,
data data labour cost)
Preventive Maintenance
Plant out of production
( time under repair costs )
Fig General Model Maintenance System Preventive Maintenance Preventive Maintenance

(scheduled) (no production loss)
Manufacturing Plant
in
Breakdown Maintenance Production
- whole or part out of service
- random incidence
- possible causes
- poor maintenance
- incorrect operation
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- random causes
1.7 Types of maintenance strategies

There are some known worldwide strategies in which these make for many companies are being
at competitive edge. Broadly, we can classify as planned or non-planned maintenance and in turn
those major classes categorized different forms. The principal difference in these occurs at the
point when the repair or maintenance task is implemented. In breakdown maintenance, repairs do
not occur until the machine fails to function. Preventive maintenance tasks are implemented
before a problem is evident or occur and corrective tasks are scheduled to correct specific
problems that have been identified in plant systems. A comprehensive maintenance program
should use a combination of all three. However, most domestic plants rely almost exclusively on
breakdown maintenance to maintain their critical plant production systems.
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CHAPTER 2:
Fundamental of the Theory of Damages
2.1 Fundamental of the Theory of Damages

Damages are causes for the loss of functionality or workability of a means of production, if
proper action is not taken against them. Even with optimum design and operation conditions
damages are unavoidable. Thus damages are the reasons for the existence of a maintenance
organization therefore to deal with maintenance one need to know reasons for and forms of
damages
Classification of damages: The use-value of equipment or a means of production is affected by
two processes. These are technological processes and technical and economical processes.
Processes reducing
use-value
Technological
processes (Change of Technical-Economical
state) processes
or damage
Wear ( Corrosion , Others (fire, pest,

Overload (Obsolescence)
Fatigue, Aging wear) etc.)
Reasons for damage: Damage is influenced by environmental conditions and inappropriate use
of equipment. For proper maintenance work, it is necessary to make systematic analysis of
damages which includes discussions on reasons for damages and their consequences. The
conclusions obtained are feed back to designers, manufactures and operational maintenance
personnel..
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Behaviors of damages: The behavior of damages as related to time under the action of
damaging or operational conditions is either sudden or continuous. In sudden behavior, the use-
value of equipment diminishes instantly or sudden breakdown of equipment takes place. In
continuous behavior, the use value of equipment decreases with time due to wear. This is
degradation process that comes with time under loading conditions
2.2 Typical damages of equipment:

The changes of state or damages, as are commonly known, that result from technological
processes are basically classified into three. These are: corrosion, tear due to wear and fatigue.
Apart from these, the natural phenomenon of aging can also be taken as a damage process.
a) Corrosion is a natural process, which converts a refined metal to a more chemically-

stable form, such as its oxide, hydroxide, or sulfide. It is the gradual destruction of
materials (usually metals) by chemical and/or electrochemical reaction with their
environment. Corrosion can also occur in materials other than metals, such
as ceramics or polymers, although in this context, the term "degradation" is more
common. Corrosion degrades the useful properties of materials and structures including
strength, appearance and permeability to liquids and gases.
Many structural alloys corrode merely from exposure to moisture in air, but the process can be
strongly affected by exposure to certain substances. Corrosion can be concentrated locally to
form a pit or crack, or it can extend across a wide area more or less uniformly corroding the
surface. Because corrosion is a diffusion-controlled process, it occurs on exposed surfaces. As a
result, methods to reduce the activity of the exposed surface, chromate conversion and other
methods can increase a material's corrosion resistance. However, some corrosion mechanisms
are less visible and less predictable.
 Kinds of corrosion(manifestation)
 Galvanic corrosion or dissimilar metal corrosion occurs when two different metals are
located together in a corrosive electrolyte. A galvanic couple forms between the two
metals, where one metal becomes the anode and the other the cathode. The anode, or
sacrificial metal, corrodes and deteriorates faster than it would alone, while the cathode
deteriorates more slowly than it would otherwise.
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Three conditions must exist for galvanic corrosion to occur:
 Electrochemically dissimilar metals must be present

 The metals must be in electrical contact, and
 The metals must be exposed to an electrolyte
 Surface corrosion: results this could be happened when a protective layer of oxide on a
metal surface is dissolved or removed exposing the underlying metal to further corroding
and deteriorate.
 Pitting corrosion: Pitting results when a small hole, or cavity, forms in the metal, usually
as a result of depassivation of a small area. This area becomes anodic, while part of the
remaining metal becomes cathodic, producing a localized galvanic reaction. The
deterioration of this small area penetrates the metal and can lead to failure. This form of
corrosion is often difficult to detect due to the fact that it is usually relatively small and
may be covered and hidden by corrosion-produced compounds
 Inter-crystalline corrosion: Inter granular corrosion is a chemical or electrochemical
attack on the grain boundaries of a metal. It often occurs due to impurities in the metal,
which tend to be present in higher contents near grain boundaries. These boundaries can
be more vulnerable to corrosion than the bulk of the metal.
 Trans-crystalline corrosion: Trans-crystalline corrosion is a type of corrosion cracking
that can cause breakdown of alloys without residual or applied stress. In this, the cracking
may take place due to the combined action of hydrogen embrittlement. Thus, this
happens in the presence of corrosive environments and factors other than tensile stress.
Being able to control the causes of trans-crystalline corrosion can help industries prevent
the occurrence of cracking and other forms of corrosion patterns that can impact their
operations negatively.
 Methods of minimizing corrosion
Various treatments are used to slow corrosion damage to metallic objects which are exposed to
the weather, salt water, acids, or other hostile environments. Some unprotected metallic alloys
are extremely vulnerable to corrosion
 Coating (Zn, Sn, Pb)
 Painting
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 Metal passive (nitric acid, sulfuric acid)

Apart from these general applications, there are also some methods used for specific corrosion
application. To significantly reduce the effects of galvanic corrosion methods are:
 If coupling of dissimilar metals is necessary, choose two that are close together in the
galvanic series.
 Avoid an unfavorable anode-to-cathode surface area ratio; use an anode area as large
as possible.
 Electrically insulate dissimilar metals from each other.
 Electrically connect a third, anodic metal to the other two; this is a form of cathodic
protection,
For pitting corrosion we may apply
 Polish surfaces
 For stainless steel use 2% molybdenum
Stainless steels may be protected from inter-granular corrosion by
 Subjecting the sensitized material to a high-temperature heat treatment in which all the
chromium carbide particles are redissolved,
 Lowering the carbon content below 0.03 wt% C so that carbide formation is minimal,
 Alloying the stainless steel with another metal such as niobium or titanium, which has
a greater tendency to form carbides than chromium does so that the Cr remains in solid
solution.
b) Wear: Wear is related to interactions between surfaces and specifically the removal and
deformation of material on a surface as a result of mechanical action of the opposite
surface. In materials science, wear is erosion or sideways displacement of material from
its "derivative" and original position on a solid surface performed by the action of another
surface. Wear of metals occurs by the plastic displacement of surface and near-surface
material and by the detachment of particles that form wear debris. The size of the
23 | P a g e
generated particles may vary from millimeter range down to an ion range. This process
may occur by contact with other metals, nonmetallic solids, flowing liquids, or solid
particles or liquid droplets entrained in flowing gasses. Wear can also be defined as a
process where interaction between two surfaces or bounding faces of solids within the
working environment results in dimensional loss of one solid, with or without any actual
decoupling and loss of material. Aspects of the working environment which affect wear
include loads and features such as unidirectional sliding, reciprocating, rolling, and
impact loads, speed, temperature, but also different types of counter-bodies such as
solid, liquid or gas and type of contact ranging between single phase or multiphase, in
which the last multiphase may combine liquid with solid particles and gas bubbles
Conditions to be fulfilled
 Contacting basic and mating bodies
 Normal force
 Relative motion
 Other factors (temp, moist, chip, dust…)
Types of wear and tear: The study of the processes of wear is part of the discipline of tribology.
The complex nature of wear has delayed its investigations and resulted in isolated studies
towards specific wear mechanisms or processes. Some commonly referred to wear mechanisms
(or processes) include:
 Adhesive wear  Fretting wear
 Abrasive wear  Erosive wear
 Surface fatigue  Corrosion and oxidation wear
 Based on relative motion

(a) Kinematic wear (rolling, sliding, drilling, fretting)
(b) Static wear
(c) Impact wear
 Time behavior of wear
(a) Stationary
(b) Non-stationary
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Fig.2.1 time behavior wear

 Protection against wear
In many fields of industry, abrasion and erosion processes are dominant wear mechanisms that
reduce lifetime of costly machine parts. Wear resistance against abrasion and/or impact or the
ability to withstand other complex mechanical actions are often required. In order to quantify the
specific properties of material that are applied in such fields, several test methods are in use. In
most case to protect wear a suitable lube is applied and it is classified as depend on the purpose
and operational desire:
i. Oil
ii. Grease
iii. Solid
I. Oil: The importances of lubricating oils that are applied in machine parts are cooling,
protecting, cleaning. And the desired physical property for that oil is its viscosity.
Classification of oil:
1. Mineral oils (Hydro-Carbons) are organic. However, it is classified as "mineral oil" instead
of as "organic oil" because its organic origin is remote (and was unknown at the time of its
discovery), and because it is obtained in the vicinity of rocks, underground traps, and
sands. Mineral oil also refers to several specific distillates of crude oil. The important
properties which it possess:
 Anti-wear  Anti-foaming
 Anti-corrosion  Demulsibility
25 | P a g e
These necessary properties are affected by oxidation, thermal decomposition, and contamination.
Those contaminants may be Gaseous, Liquids, and Solids.
Additives and their functions: Lubricants are generally composed of a majority of base oil plus
a variety of additives to impart desirable characteristics. Although generally lubricants are based
on one type of base oil, mixtures of the base oils also are used to meet performance
requirements. And some of the additives:
 Acid neutralizers  Detergents
 Anti-foam  Dispersant’s
 Anti-oxidants  Viscosity index improvers
 Ant-rust  Pour-point depressants
 Anti-wear agent
2. Synthetic oil (Chemical Base and additives): Petroleum-derived lubricant can also be
produced using synthetic hydrocarbons (derived ultimately from petroleum). These oil
molecules are uniform in weight and shape and the important properties are:
 Added lubricity  Loss sludge or deposit
 Higher film strength formation
 Good engine starting  Good thermal properties
 Good resistance to thinning  Stability
 Improved energy efficiency  Good file resistant
II. Grease is a semi-solid lubricant which generally consists of soap emulsified with mineral or
vegetable oil. The characteristic feature of greases is that they possess a high initial viscosity,
which upon the application of shear, drops to give the effect of an oil-lubricated bearing of
approximately the same viscosity as the base oil used in the grease. This change in viscosity
is called shear thinning. Grease is sometimes used to describe lubricating materials that are
simply soft solids or high viscosity liquids, but these materials do not exhibit the shear-
thinning properties characteristic of the classical grease. For examples, petroleum jellies such
as Vaseline are not generally classified as greases.
Greases are applied only to mechanisms that can be lubricated infrequently and where
lubricating oil would not stay in position. They also act as sealants to prevent ingress of water
and incompressible materials. Grease-lubricated bearings have greater frictional characteristics
26 | P a g e
due to their high viscosity. Depend on degree of consistency we can classify soft, semi-fluid, and
stiff
- Advantages
 Convenience  Protection
 Persistence  Cleanliness
- Disadvantages
 Poor cooling properties
 Contamination
 Low speed of application
Dry lubricants or solid lubricants are materials which, despite being in the solid phase, are able
to reduce friction between two surfaces sliding against each other without the need for a liquid
oil medium. The two main dry lubricants are graphite and molybdenum disulfide. They offer
lubrication at temperatures higher than liquid and oil-based lubricants operate. Dry lubricants are
often used in applications such as locks or dry lubricated bearings. Such materials can operate up
to 350 °C (662 °F) in oxidizing environments and even higher in reducing / non-oxidizing
environments (molybdenum disulfide up to 1100 °C, 2012 °F). The low-friction characteristics
of most dry lubricants are attributed to a layered structure on the molecular level with weak
bonding between layers. Such layers are able to slide relative to each other with minimal applied
force, thus giving them their low friction properties.
However, a layered crystal structure alone is not necessarily sufficient for lubrication. In fact,
there are also some solids with non-lamellar structures that function well as dry lubricants in
some applications
1. Graphite. Used in air compressors, food industry, railway track joints, brass instrument
valves, open gear, ball bearings, machine-shop works, etc. It is also very common for
lubricating locks, since a liquid lubricant allows particles to get stuck in the lock
worsening the problem.
2. Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2). Used in CV joints and space vehicles. Does lubricate in
vacuum.
3. Hexagonal boron nitride. Used in space vehicles. Also called "white graphite."
27 | P a g e
4. Tungsten disulfide. Similar usage as molybdenum disulfide, but due to the high cost only
found in some dry lubricated bearings.
Graphite and molybdenum disulfide are the predominant materials used as dry lubricants.
Generally, they are available in the form of powder or thin film and the properties of solid
lubricant are:
 No cooling effect
 Immobile
 High temp, pressure resistant
c) Fatigue
Fatigue is the failure (or reduction in strength) of a material under fluctuating stresses, which are
repeated a very large number of times. Fatigue failure begins with a hair-line crack which
develops at a point of discontinuity in the material (notches, groves, fillets). Once a small crack
develops, it propagates under load to cause failure. Components subjected to fluctuating forces
must be designed for fatigue conditions.
Surface conditions, residual stresses due to metal working processes or metal treating processes,
stress concentration affect fatigue strength very much. Hence, they should be considered
properly at design stage. Fatigue strength (the endurance limit) of materials is greatly decreased
by the presence of a corroding medium. Alternating stresses tend to cause considerable damage
to any protective film formed in the normal course of action of a corrosive medium. Continual
damage to this film may be a source of the further development of cracks which accelerate
fatigue failure.
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Chapter 3:
Typical Damages of Machine Parts
All moving parts of the machine which move while the machine is working would have damage.
These motions can include reciprocating, rotating, and transverse moving parts, as well as feed
mechanisms and auxiliary parts of the machine. In most case damage will present in bearing,
clutch, shaft, gear, seal, belt, etc.
SLIDING BEARING: In general, the damage in sliding bearings is wear plus fatigue. Static
loads causes wear whereas dynamic loads cause wear plus fatigue. And lubricating substances
may contain corrosion stimulating agent.
 Factors influencing damages of slide bearings
 Bearing forces  Assembling condition
 Design of bearing, materials and  Service and operation condition
lubrication (temp, velocity, foreign substance)
 Manufacturing accuracy
 Typical slid bearing failure
 Scoring (erosion)  Fretting
 Wiping (melting)  Misalignment
 Fatigue  Corrosion
 Excessive interference  Seizures of bearing
 Damages of Sliding bearing can be eliminated by lubrication
a) Mineral oil
b) Grease
And the Important properties of lubricant which it possess is viscosity
 Low viscosity –low load carrying capacity of bearing
 High viscosity—high loss of power, high operating temp.
 Operating condition
- Mineral oils
 All condition of load and speed
 Wide range of viscosities
- Grease
29 | P a g e
 Low operating speed

GEAR DAMAGES: Damage of gears is basically categorized by two types; one is the damage to
the tooth surface, and the other is breakage of the gear tooth. In addition, there are other specific
damages, such as the deterioration of plastic material, the rim or web breakages. Damages occur
in various ways, for example, insufficient gear strength, failure in lubrication or mounting and
unexpected overloading. Therefore, it is not easy to figure out solutions to causes.
 Gear failure types

 Surface fatigue (pitting) overstress  Plastic deformation (overload)
 Scuffing (adhesive)  Tooth breakage
 Abrasive wear
In most case the cause of those failures is rooted at wear. To prevent premature wear we should
apply lube periodically on working gears.
The main Purpose of lubricants are:
 Keep moving parts apart  Transfer heat
 Reduce friction  Load
Gear lubricant selection criterion:
 Gear material and surface finish  Temperature
 Gear type, speed, speed reduction  Carry away contaminant and debris
ratio
DAMAGES OF FRICTION SURFACES: Some of the more common brake and clutch troubles
are pictorially presented in subsequent sections; although these faults can affect performance and
shorten the life of the components, only in exceptional circumstances do they result in complete
failure.
 Brakes damages : Metal surface (rotating part)
 Heat spotting: is Characteristics Friction material not sufficiently
small isolated discolored regions on conformable to the metal member; or
the friction surface. Often cracks are latter is distorted so that contact
formed in these regions owing to occurs only at small heavily loaded
structural changes in the metal, and areas.
may penetrate into the component.
Causes
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 Crazing is Characteristics Randomly orientated cracks on the rubbing surface of a

mating component, with main cracks approximately perpendicular to the direction of
rubbing. These can cause severe lining wear.
Causes Overheating and repeated stress cycling from compression to tension of the metal
component as it is continually heated and cooled.
 Scoring is characterized by Scratches on the rubbing path in the line of movement.
Causes: this would happen if the Metal too soft for the friction material; abrasive, debris
embedded in the lining material.
Friction lining (friction pad surface)
 Heating (Heat Spotting): is Characteristics Heavy gouging caused by hard proud spot
son drum resulting in high localized work rates giving rise to rapid lining wear.
Causes Material rubbing against a heat spotted metal member.
 Spotting crazing is Characteristics Randomly orientated cracks on the friction material,
resulting in a high rate of wear.
Causes: Overheating of the braking surface from overloading or by the brakes dragging.
 Fade Characteristics Material degrades at the friction surface, resulting in a decrease in
coefficient of friction and a loss in performance, which may recover.
Causes Overheating caused by excessive braking, or by brakes dragging.
 Metal Pick-up is Characteristics Metal plucked from the mating member and
embedded in the lining.
Causes: Unsuitable combination of materials.
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 Grab is Characteristics Linings contacting at ends only (‘heel and toe’ contact) giving
high servo effect and erratic performance. The brake is often noisy.
Causes: Incorrect radiusing of lining.
 Clutch damages: As with brakes, heat spotting, crazing and scoring can occur with clutches;
other clutch troubles are shown below.
 Dishing is Characteristics by Clutch plates distorted into a conical shape. The plates then
continually drag when the clutch is disengaged, and overheating occurs resulting in
thermal damage and failure. More likely in multi-disc clutches. Caused by Lack of
conformability. The temperature of the outer region of the plate is higher than the inner
region. On cooling the outside diameter shrinks and the inner area is forced outwards in
an axial direction causing dishing.
 Waviness or Buckling is Characteristics Clutch plates become buckled into a wavy
pattern. Preferential heating then giving rise to thermal damage and failure. More likely
in multidisc clutches. Caused by Lack of conformability. The inner area is hotter than the
outer area and on cooling the inner diameter contracts and compressive stresses occur in
the outer area giving rise to buckling.
 Materials transfer is Characteristics Friction material adhering to opposing plate, often
giving rise to excessive wear. Caused by Overheating and unsuitable friction material.
 Bond failure is Characteristics Material parting at the bond to the core plate causing loss
of performance and damage to components. Caused by Poor bonding or overheating, the
high temperatures affecting bonding agent
 Grooving is Characteristics Grooving of the facing material on the line of movement.
Causes Material transfer to opposing plate.
 Distortion is Characteristics Facings out of flatness after high operating temperatures
giving rise to erratic clutch engagement. Caused by Unsuitable friction material.
The action required to prevent these failures recurring is usually obvious when the causes, as
listed in this section, are known. Other difficulties can be experienced unless the correct choice
of friction material is made for the operating conditions. If the lining fitted has too low a
coefficient of friction the friction device will d e r loss of effectiveness. Oil and grease deposited
on dry linings and facings can have an even more marked reduction in performance by a factor
of up to 3. If the /I is too high or if a badly matched set of linings are fitted, the brake may grab
32 | P a g e
or squeal. The torque developed by the brake is also influenced by the way the linings are bedded
so that linings should be initially ground to the radius of the drum to ensure contact is made as
far as possible over their complete length. If after fitting, the brake is noisy the lining should be
checked for correct seating and the rivets checked for tightness. All bolts should be tightened and
checks made that the alignment is correct, that all shoes have been correctly adjusted and the
linings are as bedded as possible. Similarly, a clutch can behave erratically or judder if the
mechanism is not correctly aligned.
SEALS are a device that helps join systems or mechanisms together by preventing leakage (e.g.
in a plumbing system), containing pressure, or excluding contamination. The effectiveness of a
seal is dependent on adhesion in the case of sealants and compression in the case of gaskets.
Types of seal
 Dynamics seals: sealing takes place between surface in sliding contact or narrowly
separated surface
 Static seals: sealing takes place between surface which do not move relatively to each
other
 Pseudo-static seal: limited relative motion is possible at the sealing surface, or the seal
itself allows limited motion, e.g swivel coupling for pipes, flexible diaphragm
 Exclusive seal: devices to restrict access of dirt to a system often used in conjunction
with dynamic seal.
 characteristics of dynamics seals the basic characteristic of dynamic seal which are the main
sealing items in moving machinery, are represented as follows:
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 Seal Damages
Rubber seals of all types
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 O-rings, rectangular rubber rings, U-rings (damages)
 Lip seals types
SHAFT FAILURES: Shaft function in a wide ranging operation conditions which include
 Corrosive environment
 High and low temp
 Abrasive environment
Moreover, shaft are subjected to various types of loading condition and experience tension,
compression, bending, torsion, and combination or any combinations of these loading condition.
These loads can be stationary or may vary with time introducing. In addition, shafts are subjected
to vibratory stress conditions. With their service condition, these load conditions are source of
shaft failure. The basic causes of shaft failures are wear, fatigue, and misalignment.
35 | P a g e
 Failure due to wear and corrosion

- Common
- Due to abrasive wear (sand, dirt, metallic particles, lub. Contamination)
- Reduce shaft size and destroys
- Some times are areas of stress raisers and then fatigue
 Failure due to Fatigue condition: it is Common and Initiate at stress raisers
- Due to the presence of :-
 Cyclic stress  Plastic strain
 The stress is tensile in nature
 Process of fatigue
 Plastic stain----crack initiation  Final and sudden fracture
 Crack propagation
 Stress raisers
 Corners, fillets, notches  Welding defects
 Keyways, grooves, splines  Metallurgical defects (forging,
 Press or shrink-fits machining, heat treatment)
 Failure due to misalignment
 Mismatching of mating parts  Deflection or deformation of
 Original assembly error of supports
equipment  Deflection or deformation of shaft
 Maintenance-induced alignment itself
errors
 Remedies of shaft failures
Basic shaft failure can be prevented by identifying the cause that are responsible for the failure
and eliminating the condition that create these causes identify the cause and eliminate the
condition
Remedies
 Wear --- proper lubrication
 Misalignment ---proper assembly procedures
 Fatigue--- proper design of local area, avoid sharp corners
 Fretting---proper fit and toleranc
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Chapter 4:
Determination of State of Damage
4.1 Introduction
The state of damage of machinery or one of its elements is the undesired deviation from the
required state fixed in the design procedures. Knowledge of the state of damage in connection
with the determination of the survival probability is essential for setting the date and kind of
maintenance measures to be taken. Knowledge of the state of damage provides a collection of
data or information about the state of machinery, which in turn can be used for setting
meaningful maintenance routines.
 The state of damage of an equipment depends on:
 kind and Conditions of damage, and
 Duration of Operation of Equipment
Determination of the state of damage is the part of Technical Diagnostics and Maintenance
Technique. Technical diagnostics is the determination of the technical state or state of damage of
equipment, evaluation of the state and collection of information for deciding the date and kind of
maintenance. This is normally done without disassembling while the equipment is in operation.
Conclusions arrived at about the state of damage of an equipment are probabilistic, and the
accuracy of results obtained depends on the accuracy of the method of investigation used,
sampling techniques and measuring techniques.
Figure 4.1 Schematic representation of technical diagnostics
37 | P a g e
Measuring Values for the State of Damage may be achieved through:
a) Direct measured quantities
 The direct measuring technique determines the difference between the initial state and the
state after wear process.
 The measurements taken can be direct linear, volumetric or mass quantities.
 These measured quantities can be absolute or related to duration of operation.
 Absolute measurement gives the amount of wear as an average worn out thickness.
 Related measurement gives amount of wear per unit time of operation.
 Direct measurement gives dimensions of parts. If the wear is not constant over a surface,
the measurement should be done in different planes with different orientations.
 Direct measurement is usually done after disassembly. But it can also be made without
disassembling provided there is easy access to the measured quantities
b) Indirect measuring quantities
 During the operation of a machine or parts of it, certain signals are produced which are
related to the state of operation of the machine.
 These signals, which are known as the diagnostic parameters, if properly analyzed
provide some information regarding the state of the machine.
 It should be noted that influence from the environment introduces errors in the measured
results
4.2 Condition monitoring techniques
Depending on how the monitoring is done, the techniques can be classified as:
A. On-load monitoring techniques: mostly carried out without interruption of operation
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 visual, aural, tactile inspection of  leak detection

accessible components
 vibration/sound monitoring
 temperature monitoring
 corrosion monitoring
 lubricant monitoring
B. Off-load monitoring Techniques:
Off-load monitoring techniques require shutdown of the unit. These include:
 visual, aural and tactile  leak detection;

inspection of normally
 vibration testing ;
 inaccessible or moving parts;
 Corrosion monitoring.
 crack detection;
Most failures give some warning before they occur. This warning is called potential failure. It is
also defined as an identifiable physical condition which indicates that a functional failure is
either about to occur or it is in the process of occurring. A functional failure is defined as the
inability of equipment in meeting a specified performance standard. Techniques of detecting
potential failures are known as on-condition maintenance tasks. This is so because equipment
is left in service on the condition that they meet specified performance standards
4.3 Potential Failures and On-condition Maintenance:
If evidence can be found that some component/equipment is in the final stage of failure, it may
be possible to take action to prevent complete failure and/or its consequences. The P-F curve is
employed to show what happens in the final stages of failures.
The P-F curve shows:
 where failure in the equipment starts to occurs;
 where equipment condition deteriorates to the point at which the failure can be detected;
and finally,
39 | P a g e
 Where the equipment has failed indicating functional failure.
P is the point at which, it is possible to detect whether failure is or it is about to occur is known
as potential failure. F point where failure has taken place – functional failure
Fig 4.4 the P-F Diagram
Between points P and F it may be possible to take action to prevent functional failure or to avoid
consequences of functional failure. Therefore, tasks designed to detect potential failures are
known as on-condition tasks. These on-condition tasks entail checking for potential failures so
that action can be taken to prevent functional failure or to avoid the consequences of the
functional failure. This is known as predictive maintenance or condition-based maintenance.
On-condition tasks are carried out at intervals less than the P-F interval, where the P-F interval is
the interval between the occurrence of a potential failure and its deterioration into functional
failure. The P-F interval is the interval between the occurrence of a potential failure and its
deterioration into functional failure
40 | P a g e
The P-F interval is the warning period, or the lead time to failure, or the failure development
period. Therefore the on-condition task is done at intervals which are less than the P-F interval,
usually at a frequency equal to half the P-F interval. This ensures that the inspection will detect
the potential failure before functional failure takes place. In applying the P-F curve to condition
monitoring, the sooner a potential failure can be detected, the longer the P-F interval would be.
Longer P-F interval would entail that the frequency interval for inspection would be done less
often. Hence there would be more time to take appropriate actions to avoid the consequence of
failure.
4.4 Categories of Condition Monitoring Techniques:
Condition monitoring techniques are designed to detect specific symptoms which are related to
the state of damage of the equipment.
1. Dynamic Monitoring
Dynamic monitoring detects potential failures which cause emission of abnormal energy in the
form of waves such as vibration and noise. Equipment which contains moving parts that vibrate
is monitored dynamically. This is done by measuring how much the system vibrates.
41 | P a g e
Techniques employed:
 Broad band vibration analysis (changes in vibration characteristics are monitored)
 Constant bandwidth analysis (changes in vibration characteristics are monitored by using

accelerometers)
 Real time analysis (measurement of vibrational signals; shock analysis)
 Ultrasonic analysis (changes in sound pattern are monitored)
2. Particle Monitoring
Particle monitoring detects potential failures which cause particles of different sizes and shapes
to be released into the environment in which the component is operating. These include wear
particles and corrosion particles. Examples of Techniques employed in particle monitoring are:
 Ferrography (Wear and corrosion  Real time ferromagnetic sensors

particles are monitored by taking a
 Graded filtration
representative sample of oil)
 Sedimentation
3. Chemical Monitoring
Chemical monitoring detects potential failures which cause traceable quantities of chemical
elements to be released in to the environment. This technique is used to detect elements in the
lubricating oil which indicate occurrence of potential failure elsewhere in the system. They are
employed to detect wear, corrosion, leakage. Some of the techniques are:
 Atomic emission spectroscopy  Electro-chemical corrosion

monitoring
 X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy
 Exhaust emission analyzers
 Infrared spectroscopy
 Color indicator.
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4. Physical Effects Monitoring
Physical effects monitoring includes changes in the physical appearance or structure of

equipment which can be detected directly. The monitoring techniques involved to detect
potential failures in the form of cracks, wear, corrosion, etc. Some of the techniques employed
are:
 Liquid dye penetrants  Light probes
 Magnetic particle inspection  Deep-probe endoscope
 Ultrasonic techniques  Oil odor
 X-ray radiography  Strain gauge
 Viscosity monitoring
5. Temperature Monitoring
These techniques look for potential failures which cause rise in temperature of equipment itself.
Monitoring techniques included in here, among others, are:
 Infrared scanning  Temperature indicating painting
6. Electrical Effects Monitoring
These techniques look for changes in resistance, conductivity, etc. The techniques include the
following.
 Electrical resistance  Power factor testing

monitoring
 Breaker timing testing
 Potential monitoring
2.3.5 General Purpose Monitoring Techniques
Thermal, lubricant and vibration monitoring techniques are considered to be general purpose
monitoring techniques. In each of these three techniques, the parameter being monitored contains
information that has been transmitted through the machine.
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a) Lubricant monitoring
The oil which circulates through a machine carries with it evidence of the condition of parts
encountered. Examination of the oil and any particles it has carried with it allows monitoring of
the machine on-load or at shut-down. Lubricant examination covers
 debris deposited,
 debris in suspension, and
 Condition of oil.
Examination of debris collected: Debris deposited are the larger particles carried along by the
lubricant which can be collected by filters or magnetic collectors. Examination of the debris
under the microscope to establish size and shape provides good information regarding the state
of damage of the machine.
Debris in suspension are the smaller particles collected by the lubricant which remain in
suspension. Examination of the debris in suspension gives the earliest warning of component
damage. A change in the rate of debris collection indicates the change in the condition of the
machine as related to wearing out.
 Shape of debris collected carries information as to the wear mechanism taking place.
 Normal shape of wear particles tends to be flat;
 cutting or abrasive wear results in spiral shaped debris;
 Surface fatigue failures produce larger angular particles.
Condition of oil used: Condition of used oil itself can be examined for indication of other
malfunctions.
 foaming of oil: cause is excessive churning or passage under pressure through restrict
 Darkened color of oil: caused by oxidation of oil, excess temperature, combustion or

other chemical products reacting with the oil used.
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 Malfunctions that can be detected by lub monitoring
 Damages of transmission components like gears, shafts, bearings, etc.
 Blockage of ducts, pipes, etc.
b) Thermal monitoring
Monitoring the temperature of a component in a machine is undertaken for one of three

purposes:
I. To enable temperature control of a process
II. To detect increase in heat generation due to some malfunction such as damage of
bearings
III. To detect changes in the heat transmitted through and out of the body of the machine
caused by a change in some component such as failed coolant circulation or ash build-up
in boilers, etc.
 Temperature monitoring can be carried out
I. at a point within the body of the plant (eg. measurement of water temperature in a
boiler),
II. or at the surface of a component (eg. bearing housing).
 Temperature monitoring devices are diverse and can be classified as:
I. contact sensors, and
II. non-contact sensors (pyrometers)
Some of malfunctions practices are monitored thermally and possible areas where thermal
monitoring can be applied:
 Bearing damages which result in heat generation and heating of the bearing unit and other
units that come in contact with the bearing unit.
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 Failure of coolant or lubrication can be detected by a temperature rise of appropriate

bodies; such failures could result from pump failure, drive fault, blockage in piping,
valves or filter, or damaged heat exchanger.
 Incorrect heat generation like in internal combustion engines.
 Build-up of unwanted materials such as sediment in pipes, ash in boilers or ducts, etc.
 Damage of insulating materials.
 Faults of electric components.
c) Vibration/noise monitoring
Changes in vibration characteristics are indicative of trouble. The causes of vibration are
 unbalanced rotating and reciprocating parts,
 looseness in the fit between components,
 deflection of load carrying members,
 misalignment,
 Damages in transmission components, etc.
The equipment employed for vibration monitoring are vibro-meters and accelerometers of wide
variety. Possible faults that can be detected by vibration monitoring include:
 wear or failure of bearings;
 presence of unbalance in moving parts;
 changes in clearances;
 Cracks in shafts and other moving components subjected to cyclic loads.
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Chapter 5:
Elements of Maintenance Technology

Broadly speaking, the elements in a maintenance technology can be classified as: attendance
(operation), servicing and repair.
1. Attendance
Attendance is the right way of avoiding mal-operation which influences the damages and
indirectly the maintenance.
Fundamentals in the right use:
- Proper use of operating instructions provided in operators manuals;
- Proper use of service instructions given in service instructions; and
-Following proper maintenance procedures and instructions as outlined in maintenance manuals
Knowledge of these instructions is essential is attending the machine. In this respect qualification
of operators, maintenance personnel and management is a requirement. Proper attendance avoids
subjective damages and minimizes objective damages.
2. Servicing
Operations required periodically to keep an item in proper operating condition, i.e., to clean
(includes decontaminate, when required), to preserve, to drain, to paint, or to replenish fuel,
lubricants, chemical fluids, or gases. Lubrication is introduction of any of various substances
between sliding surfaces to reduce wear and friction;
- cleaning
- lubricating
- Inspection: To determine the serviceability of an item by comparing its physical,
mechanical, and/or electrical characteristics with established standards through examinations.
Testing: To verify serviceability by measuring the mechanical or electrical characteristics of an
item and compare those characteristics with prescribed standards.
- Adjusting: To maintain, within prescribed limits, by bringing into proper or exact position, or
by setting the operating characteristics to specified parameters.
- Align: To adjust specified variable elements of an item to bring about optimum or desired
performance.
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3. Repair
Repair is the totality of measures of restoration with the aim of determined final state, or quality,
or condition of equipment.
Classification of repair activities is based on various considerations. These considerations are:

- Time related to breakdown,
- Number of elements involved in the repair task,
- Nature of repair activity,
- Territorial, or
- Labor involved
Replace: To remove an unserviceable item and install a serviceable counterpart in its place.
- Repair: The application of maintenance actions, including fault location/troubleshooting,
removal, installation, and disassembly/assembly procedures, and maintenance actions to identify
troubles and restore serviceability to an item by correcting specific damage, fault, malfunction,
or failure in a part, sub-assembly, module (component or assembly), end item, or system.
- Overhaul: Maintenance effort /action prescribed to restore an item to a completely
serviceable/operational condition as required by maintenance standards in appropriate technical
publications. Overhaul is normally the highest degree of maintenance performed by the industry.
Overhaul does not normally return an item to like new condition.
Rebuild: consists of those actions necessary for the restoration of unserviceable equipment to a
new-like condition in accordance with original manufacturing standards. Rebuild is the highest
degree of material maintenance applied to any equipment.
Rebuild operation includes the act of returning to zero those age measurements (hours/km, etc.)
considered in classifying equipment/components. Reconditioning, renovation or others such
terms are also used for rebuild.
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Maintenance policies
The major maintenance policies which can be classified as corrective and preventive are the
following:
1. Fixed-time maintenance: (repair prior to failure)
This policy is effective where the failure of the item is clearly time dependent and where the
total costs of such replacement are substantially less than those of failure replacement-repair.
The item is expected to wear-out within the life of unit. Difficulty of collecting statistical data
should be seriously considered in adopting this policy.
2. Condition-based maintenance
Condition performance monitoring techniques which are costly in time and instrumentation form
the basis for condition-based maintenance. The proper time for performing preventive
maintenance is determined by monitoring condition/performance if some parameters that can be
monitored are isolated.
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3. Opportunity maintenance :
This term opportunity maintenance is used for maintenance actions directed at items other than
those that are the primary cause of the repair. This policy is most appropriate for complex-
replaceable or continuously operating items of high shut-down or unavailability costs.
4. Operate-to-failure and corrective maintenance
In adopting this policy, no predetermined action is taken to prevent failure. Corrective
maintenance arises not only when an item fails but also when indicated by condition-based
criteria. The basic task is establishing the most economical way of restoring a unit to an
acceptable condition. Cost of unavailability, time of repair with that of replacement (and source
of cost) influences the repair-replace choice.
5. Design-out maintenance
The design-out maintenance aims at minimizing and eliminating the causes of maintenance. This
requires engineering action rather than maintenance action. This policy is for areas of high
maintenance costs which exist because of poor design or equipment usage outside its design
specifications.
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CHAPTER 6: DECISION MAKING

6.1 Introduction
Maintenance management decisions, directed at every part of the maintenance function, are
inter-departmental and require information from different sources. Such decisions range in
importance from a major equipment replacement to minor repair option. Decision making is
directed at the objectives, organizational structure and actions of the maintenance function.
A decision problem exists when:
 There is a desired objective,

 At least two courses of action are available,
 There is uncertainty as to which course is the best, and
 External factors are present which can affect the outcome and which are outside the
control of the decision maker.
Influencing factors in maintenance decision making and in identification of the most suitable
action are the following:
 Cause of failure
 Failure incidence with respect to time
 Costs of maintenance or re-design
 Maintainability
In decision making, in place of forwarding decision rules it is always of primary importance to

keep the maintenance objective clear, and information systems clearly designed and understood.
This is so, because maintenance tasks that require decisions at various levels are diverse in
nature, and each task may have many alternatives.
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Fig 6.1 Decision Making Procedure
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In applying a decision making procedure in maintenance, there are a few important questions
that need to be answered.
 In what ways does each failure matter?

 What can be done to prevent each failure?
 What should be done if a suitable preventive task cannot be found?
In answering these questions, a maintenance decision procedure should take the following
issues into consideration:
 Nature of failure: whether the failure is hidden or evident to operating crew under
normal operational conditions;
 Safety consequences: whether the failure affects health of operators, or even may
kill someone;
 Environmental consequences: whether the failure can affect the environment and
whether it could result in violation of environmental standards and regulations
 Operational consequences: the effect of failure on operational capabilities
Engineering Economic Decision Making Process
Every size and type of organization needs cost estimates to make intelligent decisions. Some
organizations employ persons skilled in the area of cost estimating whose primary function is developing
estimates. But employees in most functional areas should understand good cost-estimating techniques.
With concurrent engineering practices, teamwork philosophies, and total employee involvement, more
people need cost-estimating knowledge and skills. Cost-estimating procedures must be performed quickly
and accurately because of tough customer demands and global competition. Listed below are several
types of cost estimates that organizations routinely make.
 From the organization’s point of view, efficient and effective functioning of the organization
would certainly help it to provide goods/services at a lower cost which in turn will enable it to fix
a lower price for its goods or services.
 Engineering economics deals with the methods that enable one to take economic decisions
towards minimizing costs and/or maximizing benefits to business organizations.
 It deals with the concepts and techniques of analysis useful in evaluating the worth of systems,
products, and services in relation to their costs.
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 Economists, engineering managers, project managers, and indeed any person involved in decision
making must be able to analyze the financial outcome of his or her decision.
 The decision is based on analyzing and evaluating the activities involved in producing the
outcome of the project.
 These activities have either a cost or a benefit. Financial analysis gives us the tools to perform this
evaluation. Often the decision to make is to proceed or not to proceed with a project.
Some of the models used in engineering economics are:
 Present Worth Analysis

 Future Worth Analysis
 Annual Worth Analysis
 Rate of Return Analysis
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CHAPTER 7: RELIABILITY MAINTAINABILITY AND AVAILABILITY

7.1 Introduction
Reliability is the probability that an item will perform its specified mission satisfactorily for the
stated time when used according to the specified conditions. It is increasingly becoming
important during the design of engineering systems, as our daily lives and schedules are more
dependent than ever before on the satisfactory functioning of these systems. Some of the specific
factors that are playing a key role in increasing the importance of reliability in designed systems
include system complexity and sophistication, competition, increasing number of
reliability/safety/ quality related lawsuits, public pressures, high acquisition cost, the past well
publicized system failures, and loss of prestige. The importance of quality in business and
industry is increasing rapidly because of factors such as competition, growing demand from
customers for better quality, increasing number of quality-related lawsuits, and the global
economy.
Failure: “non conformance to some defined performance criterion”.
Quality: “conformance to specification”.
Maintainability: the probability that a failed item will be restored to operational effectiveness
within a given period of time when the repair actions is performed in accordance with
prescribed procedures. Or, it is the probability of repair in a given time.
Why do we need to talk of reliability and maintainability?
a. Reliability is important to:

 Determines frequency of repair;
 Fixes spares requirements;
 Determines loss of revenue.
b. Maintainability also important to:
 Affects training, test equipment
 Determines downtime, manpower requirement
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7.1.1 Reasons for interest in the concepts of Reliability and Maintainability
a. Complexity: The more complex a machinery is the more intrinsic the failures are. Hence
failures are more difficult to diagnose, and are less likely to be foreseen by the designer.
b. Mass Production: It requires very high degree of control over material procurement,
manufacture and assembly, engineering changes etc. Along with the labour involved, these items
require sophisticated systems of control and good quality assurance techniques to prevent
manufacturing-related failures.
c. Cost and Tolerances: A product is designed to meet a production cost objective which puts a
sever restriction. This in turn leads to the calculation of tolerance margins which satisfy the
requirement. Thus the probability of tolerance related failure in the field is increased.
d. Maintenance: Field diagnosis and repair costs are much greater than those incurred in the
factory. As a result reductions in failure rate and repair time justify a reasonable investment.
These major reasons put together make reliability and maintainability factors which have to be
considered properly during the design, manufacture and operation time
7.1.2 Activities involved achieving good R and M
a) Design: In the design stage very many parameters have to be assembled together so as to
introduce the reliability and maintainability of the system at this stages. During the design stage
the following have to be considered adequately.
 Reduction in complexity
 Use of standard proven methods
 Duplication of modules to increase fault tolerance
 De-rating practice of using components of higher stress rating than minimum requirement
 Prototype Testing
 Subsequent feedback of information in to the design
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b. Manufacture: The following considerations have direct effect on failure rate and should be
well accounted for during manufacture.
 Control of materials, methods etc.

 Control of work standards
c. Field service Operation: During operation the following items should be observed carefully.
 Following adequate operating and maintenance instructions,

 Use of preventive maintenance
 Feedback of accurate failure information to design and manufacture
Fig.7.1 Activity involved achieving good reliability and maintainability
7.1.3 Inter dependence of Reliability and Maintainability
Reliability and Maintainability are interdependent for three basic reasons.
 Design and assurance activities required to achieve R and M, in many cases are the same.
 Maintainability is a parameter that greatly contributes to the reliability of a system. For
example, a system whose reliability is partly dependent on a degree of duplication,
(redundancy) is more reliable if the repair time (maintainability) of the failed redundant
unit is improved.
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 Both R and M contribute to the overall availability of the system. Availability is achieved
by a combination of the two parameters and a trade-off between them.
Interdependence of activities during design, manufacturing and operation periods
Fig 7.2 Inter dependence of Reliability and Maintainability
7.2 Reliability
Reliability is defined as the probability that a device will perform its intended function for a
specified period of time under stated conditions. The terms used in this definition need some
attention.
 The term “intended function” used to describe equipment performance, makes it possible
to identify what constitutes non-performance (failure) of the equipment.
 “Performance under stated conditions” refers to operational and environmental
conditions or stresses that the equipment may experience during its useful lifetime.
Operational conditions vary from one piece of equipment to another, so it is important
that these conditions be fully specified.
The definition of reliability involves a time constraint which is not unusual. No product lasts
forever; therefore, its reliability under fully specified conditions of use should be defined in
terms of time. Careful considerations of reliability and maintainability factors at the design stage
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help in predicting the expected life of a plant, the availability of a plant, and the expected
maintenance work load.
7.2.1 Failure and Failure Mode:
To discuss and fully explain the meaning of reliability/quality, it is essential to define fully the
word failure. A comprehensive defination of failure is “non-comformance to some defined
performance criterion”. What may consitute non-conformance in one case may not be considered
as failure in another situation. Hence, the need for careful consideration of failure.
In contractual agreement word like defect, malufanction, fault, failure, reject should be well
defined. The defination of these terms include and exclude failures by type, cause, degree or use.
Given a specific defination of failure, there is no ambiguity in the definations of quality and
reliability. The classifications of failures are indicated in the table below.
By Cause - Production-related failures

- Stress related failures
- Misuse failure
- Interest weakness failure
- Wear out failure
- Maintenance-induced failure
By Suddenness - Immediate failure
- Gradual degradation failure
By Degree - Catastrophic failure

- Intermediate failure
- Partial failure
By Result
- Critical failure
- Major failure
- Minor failure
By Definition
- Applicable to the specification
- Not applicable
7.2.2 Functional failure:
Any equipment must fulfill all the functions as set by the user and must also satisfy the
performance standards. The function can be split into two categories: primary and secondary
functions.
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a) Primary functions: This category includes the functions such as speed, output, product
quality, etc. which are the functions why the equipment was procured. The primary functions are
the main reason for the existence of the equipment.
b) Secondary functions: This category includes such functions like safety, control, operational
efficiency, compliance to environmental regulations, etc. These are the functions which the
equipment is expected to fulfill in addition to the primary functions. The occurrence which is
likely to stop the equipment from performing to standard all the functions expected is some kind
of failure. The failed state of equipment is known as functional failure, and this occurs when
the equipment is unable to fulfill a function to a standard of operation which is set by the user.
The performance standard used to define a functional failure is set by the user.
Example: Leakage problem
Fig 7.3 Equipment performance standard determination
The following are important points to be considered in setting performance standards.
1. Performance standards must be clearly established before the failure occurs.

2. Performance standards used to define failure must be set by operations (production) and
maintenance people working together.
3. The performance standard defines the proactive maintenance required to avoid failure.
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7.2.3 Failure Mode:
A failure mode is defined as any event which is likely to cause a functional failure of equipment.
Failure modes are classified in to three groups.
a) Falling capacity: when the initial capability of the equipment falls below the desired
performance, we have falling capacity of the equipment.
The main causes for reduced capability are:
- Deterioration due to wear & tear

- Lubricant failure, dirt, disassembly(falling apart),
- human error
Fig.7.4 falling capacity
b) Increase in desired performance: when desired performance rises above initial

capability of the equipment, there is failure of equipment. The reasons for increase in
desired performance are:
- sustained, deliberate overloading,
- sustained, unintentional overloading,
- sudden, unintentional overloading,
- Incorrect process materials which are out of specifications.
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Fig. 7.5 Increased desired performance
c) Initial Incapability: when the equipment is not capable of doing what it is expected to
do from the outset we have initial incapability and the equipment is unfit for operation.
Fig. 7.6 low initial incapability
5.2.4 Failure Effects:
Failure effects describe what happens when a failure mode occurs. In describing failure effects
the following must be noted.
a) Evidence of failure:
- Is the failure evident to operating crew?
- Is the failure accompanied by obvious physical effects?
- Does the equipment/machine stop functioning as a result of the failure?
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b) Safety and environment hazards:

- Is it possible that someone could get hurt?
- Are environmental regulations and standards breached?
c) Production effects:
- Is process stoppage caused?
- How is production affected?
- How long is the downtime associated with the failure?
d) Secondary effects:
- How is product quality affected?
- Is customer service and satisfaction affected?
- What is the increase in the operating cost?
- What secondary damages are caused?
e) Production effects:
- Is process stoppage caused?
- How is production affected?
- How long is the downtime associated with the failure?
f) Secondary effects:
- How is product quality affected?
- Is customer service and satisfaction affected?
- What is the increase in the operating cost?
- What secondary damages are caused?
g) Corrective action:
- What must be done to repair the failure?
- What resources are required for the repair?
To make a comprehensive failure mode and effects analysis one needs to have information about
the modes and the effects which are obtained from various sources including:
- The manufacturer/supplier of the equipment,

- Other users of the equipment,
- The people who operate on and maintain the equipment.
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7.2.5 The Whole-life Equipment Failure Profile (The Bathtub Curve)
The whole-life of equipment (failure) may be divided into three major distinct periods:
a. infant mortality period, or early failure

b. useful life period
c. wear-out period
The failure rate curve, commonly known as the bathtub curve, is the sum of three separate over-
lapping failure rate distributions known as burn-in (early failure), random failure, and wear-out
failure.
- The decreasing failure rate known as early failures, or infant mortality, or burn-in, is
usually related to manufacture and quality assurance.
- The constant failure rate known as useful life or random failure is stress related.
- The increasing failure rate known as wear-out is due to damages caused by wear
processes.
Fig. 7.7 The bath curve
During the infant mortality period the failure rate is high owing to the presence of weak and
substandard components. As these components drop out one by one, the failure rate keeps
decreasing until a relatively low more or less constant level is obtained at time t1. Time t1 is the
beginning of the useful life period. For the time interval between t1 and t2, which is known as the
useful life period, only random failures occur which are unpredictable and cannot be prevented.
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The wear-out period, beginning with time t2, is characterized by a rapidly rising failure rate as
more and more components breakdown.
a. Reasons for burn-in failures

- inadequate quality control - wrong startup & installation
- inadequate manufacturing methods - inadequate processes and human
- substandard materials & error
workmanship - inadequate handling methods
b. Reasons for useful life failures

- unexplainable causes - low safety factors
- human error, abuse, natural failures - higher random stress than expected.
- undetectable failures
c. Causes for wear-out failures
- inadequate maintenance
- wear due to friction
- wear due to aging
- wrong overhaul practices
- corrosion failure
Effect of PM on equipment failure rate
burn-in useful life wearout

failure
rate overall failure curve
(bathtub curve)
wearout failure
effect of PM in elongating
useful equipment time
random failure
early failure
t1 t2 time
Figure 7.8 Failure Rate of Equipment
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7.2.6 Failure Rate & Mean Time between Failures
Failure Rate : Assume a batch of N items out of which a number k have failed at time t.
The total cumulative time T can be evaluated in one of the following ways.
i. If it is assumed that each failure is replaced as it occurs, the cumulative time is
T  Nt
ii. If items are not replaced as they fail, for non-replacement condition the cumulative time
is given by
T  t1  t 2    t k  N  k t
For a stated period in the life of an item, the ratio of the total number of failures to the total
cumulative observed time is defined as the observed failure rate.
total number of failures
observed failure rate 
total cumulative observed time
k
ˆ  , ˆ is the failure rate of N items observed
T
Units of :
- percentage failures per 1000 h,
- failures /h
- failures /106 h
1) Observed Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF)
For a stated period in the life of an item, the mean value of the length of time between
consecutive failures, computed as the ratio of the total cumulative observed time to the total
number of failures is defined as the MTBF.
T 1
MTBF  ˆ  , or, ˆ 
k ˆ
2) Observed Mean Time to Fail (MTTF)
For a stated period in the life of an item, the ratio of cumulative time to the total number of
failures is defined as MTTF.
T
MTTF 
k
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The difference between MTBF and MTTF
 MTTF is applied to items that are not repairable (e.g. Bearings)

 MTBF is applied to items that are repairable.
 MTBF excludes downtime. Therefore it is the mean up-time between failures.
3) Mean Life
Mean life is defined as the mean of the times to failure where each item is allowed to fail. MTBF
and MTTF can be calculated over any period of time. Mean life must include the failure of
every item.
Example 1: determine the failure rate in %/1000h for the following test for no-replacement case.
Test duration: t=1000h Unit No. Time to failure
(h)
Number of units tested: n=12 2 620
3 390
Number of failed unit: k=5
4 780
8 860
9 950
The failure history for the test is given in the above table.
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Example: 2
7.2.7 Reliability Function
Consider the probability of an item failing in the interval between t and t+dt. Given the failure
rate (t), the probability that the item may fail in the interval t to t+dt, provided it has survived
until time t, is given by the conditional probability.
PE2   t dt
E1
where E1 is survival up to time ‘t’ with the survival probability given by the reliability And, E2 is
item failing between time‘t’ and ‘t+dt’.
Rt   PE1
The probability of failure in the interval t to t+dt unconditionally is f(t)dt where f(t) is the failure
probability density function. This probability is obtained by the multiplication theorem which
states that.
f t dt  PE1  E2
Note that PE1  E2  PE1  PE1
E2
f t dt  PE1  PE1  Rt   t dt

E2
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f t 
 t  
Rt 
Thus, the failure rate is obtained to be
The probability that an item may fail between running times 0 and t is:
F t    f t dt  1  R t 
t
Differentiating this equation,

 dRt 
f t  
dt
Substituting for f(t) in the equation for l(t),
1 dRt 
 t   
Rt  dt
Integrating both sides gives:
dRt  R t 
   t dt  
t
0 1 Rt 
this gives the reliability function:
Rt   exp   t dt 

t
 0 
Rt   exp  dt 
t
Assuming constant failure rate ,  0 
Rt   e t
To determine MTBF,
Consider the (N-k) items that survived at t. Let (N-k) be Ns(t). Then
N s t 
R t  
N
In each time interval dt, the time accumulated is: N s t dt

At time t   the total time accumulated is:  N s t dt
0
MTBF is then given by

  N s t dt
N s t dt  
1
MTBF 
N 0 0 N

  Rt dt
0
For the case of constant ,
 
MTBF   R t dt   e t dt 
1
0 0 
69 | P a g e
Example:3
Example: 4
70 | P a g e
7.2.8 System Reliability with Weibull Failure Probability Distribution
In Weibull probability distribution of failure, the failure rate varies with time. The failure rate
and reliability function are given by, respectively.

 t   
t  t0  1

  t  t  
Rt   exp  0
 
    
Beta is the shape parameter.
For   1 failure rate increases with time resulting in decreasing reliability with time.
Example
71 | P a g e
7.3 Maintainability
Maintainability is a characteristic of design and installation which is expressed as the probability
that an item will conform to specified conditions within a given period of time, when
maintenance action is performed in accordance with prescribed procedures and resources. The
objective of a maintainability program should be to influence equipment design to assure that
maintenance of the equipment can be accomplished efficiently and safely. Maintainability
requirements are usually contractual, and in such cases it is essential that the test method and the
conditions under which it is to be carried out are carefully defined. Achievement of specified
Mean Time to Repair is rather expensive.
Maintainability design features include:
- access to replaceable assemblies

- clear markings for convenience and safety
- maximum use of interchangeability
- elimination of unnecessary adjustments
- clearly written maintenance instructions
- adequate use of test points for fault isolation
These allow rapid restoration of service by minimizing downtime.
72 | P a g e
7.3.1 Maintainability Function
The time-to-restore probability density function g(t) for the exponential times-to-restore
distribution is: g t    e   t
Where, is equipment corrective repair, replacement or restoration rate, Given , the

mean time to correctively repair, replace or restore the equipment to satisfactory operation is
given by: 1
MTTR 

Hence, the time-to-restore probability density function is given by:
t

g t  
1
e MTTR
MTTR
The maintainability function for the exponential time to restore distribution is
M t1   Pt  t1    g t dt

t1
M t1    e  t dt
t1
M t1   1  e  t1
t
M t1   1  e MTTR
1
M t1  is the probability that a repair will be completed successfully in time t1 when the time starts
at t=0,& is the repair, replacement or restoration rate for which M(t1) is to be determined.
- If the time t1=MTTR, an equipment with an exponential times-to-restore pdf has

probability of being restored in the given time
M t1  MTTR   1  e 1  0.632
- Maintainability probability of 90% is obtained for
t1  2.3026MTTR
- The 50% probability of accomplishing any repair is obtained in time
t1  0.69315MTTR
t1 is called the median time to restore
73 | P a g e
7.3.2 Determination of Mean Time To Repair MTTR
For exponential case, the mean to repair is given by:

1
MTTR 
 , where is the repair rate.
In many practical applications, determination of MTTR is not easy.
MTTR is the mean of the distribution of equipment repair time and can be estimated from
 T i i
MTTR  i 1
n

i 1
i
Where,
- Ti is the time needed to repair the equipment when the i th part fails
- is the constant failure rate of the i th repairable part of the equipment

- n is the number of repairable parts in the equipment.
Example:
74 | P a g e
5.3.3 A-priori and a-posteriori maintainability determination
i. The a-priori maintainability function M(ti) is predicted from
M t1   Pt  t1    g t dt

t1
Where, t1 is the restoration time for which M(ti) is to be predicted
To use a-posteriori maintainability function M(ti), the times-to –restore distribution g(t) should
be known ahead of time
ii. The a-posteriori maintainability M(ti) is determined from actual data collected and is
given by:
N t  t1 
M t1  
NT
Where: N t  t1  number of maintenance actions which were successfully completed in time t1

or less NT is the total number of maintenance actions undertaken out of which N t  t1  were
completed successfully in time t1 or less.
7.4 Availability
A. Steady State Availability (inherent availability): Availability is the available up-time of
equipment. This is the probability that equipment, when used under stated conditions and
ideal support environments, will operate satisfactorily at any given time.

Ass 

Where Ass = steady state availability
= system constant repair rate
= system constant failure rate
Substituting for 𝜇 and 𝜆, steady state availability is

MTBF
Ass 
MTBF  MTTR
75 | P a g e
In the calculations of Ass, preventive maintenance down time, supply down time, queuing
downtime, administrative down time are excluded.
Ass is useful to designers.
b) Operational Availability: This can be defined as the probability that an equipment, when used
under stated conditions in an actual environment, will operate satisfactorily at any time.
MTBM
Ao 
MTBM  MDT
Where: MTBM = Mean Time Between Maintenance actions
MDT = Mean Down Time; sum of the mean corrective and preventive maintenance time
intervals including supply down time, administrative down time, etc.
Chapter 8: Reliability and Maintainability Prediction
Reliability prediction:
It is the process of calculating the anticipated system reliability from assumed component failure
rates. Reliability calculation is an imprecise calculation, but provides a quantitative measure of
how close a design comes to meeting design objectives and permits comparisons to be made
between different design proposals.
Reliability prediction is important for the following reasons:
- It provides an early indication of a system’s potential to meet the design reliability

requirements.
- It enables an assessment of life cycle costs to be carried out.
- It enables establishment of areas which contribute major part system unreliability.
- It enables the achievement of a given availability.
- It provides prior knowledge as to the magnitude of expected maintenance work load.
For the purpose of analysis, a large and complex plant is regarded as a hierarchy of parts ranked
according to their function and replace ability.
The figure below shows how a plant can be divided to its basic components.
76 | P a g e
Hierarchy of parts of a plant
Block Diagram Analysis
Block diagrams are logic diagrams which show the functional relationship among the system
elements. To be able to predict reliability of a system, the system is represented as a number of
functional blocks that are interconnected according to effect. The interconnection of blocks can
be one of the possible three types: Series, Parallel, and Composite. However, there are cases
when these interconnections may not represent a system. The approach to block diagram analysis
requires establishment of failure criteria. Moreover, in defining the blocks, the following rules
should be kept in mind among others.
- Each block should represent the maximum number of components in order to simplify the
diagram.
- The function of each block should be easily identified.
- Blocks should be mutually independent in that failure in one block should not affect the
probability of failure in other blocks.
- There should be only one environment within a block.
77 | P a g e
Block interconnections
a) Series-connected components
For such a system to work all components must work. For a system of two blocks failure of
either block prevents operation of the system.
Reliability of a series-connected system is
Rsy t   R1 t  R2 t  Rn t 
Reliability of a component is
Ri t   exp  i t dt 
t
 0 
System reliability is
 n t   t n 
Rsy t   exp   i t dt   exp   i t dt 
 i 1 0   0 i 1 
For constant failure rate l, system reliability is
Rsy t   exp 1  2  n t 
For constant failure rates, system MTBF is
 n 
MTBF   Rt dt   exp  i t  dt 
t t 1
n
 i 1 

0 0
i
i 1
b) Parallel-connected components
For such a system, system failure constitutes failure of all components. The system of two
blocks fails if both blocks fail.
78 | P a g e
Parallel connections can be in:

- Full active redundancy,
- Partial active redundancy, or
- Standby.
All systems activated (full active redundancy)
In this type of parallel connection all components are functioning simultaneously.
For the system of two subsystems A and B, there are three possible ways in which the system is
able to operate:
- Both subsystems A and B are working;

- Subsystem A is working, B has failed; or
- Subsystem A has failed, B is working
The system fails if only both subsystems fail.
Assuming the failure probabilities of components A and B to be FA t  and FB t , respectively,
the probability that the system fails is given by
Fsy t   FA t  FB t 
The survival probability is then
Rsy t  1  Fsy t 
If survival probabilities of the components are RA t  and RB t  , the system reliability is given
by
Rsy t   RA t   RB t   RA t  RB t 
79 | P a g e
For full active redundancy and constant failure rate l for each component, system MTBF is
t
0
t
0

MTBF   Rsy t dt   1  1  e t   dt
n
n
1 1
 
 i i 1
ii) Partial Active Redundancy
Partial active redundancy is also known as r-out-of-m unit network. At least r units out of m
active units must function successfully for the system success. The system reliability is given by
 m
  
m
Rsy     e t 1  et
i m i
i r  r 
 m m!
  
 r  i!m  i !
The MTBF of partially active redundant systems, with constant failure rate, is given by
t  m  m m i 
 
MTBF      e t 1  e t
i
 dt 
 i r  r  
0
m
1 1
 
 i r i
iii) Parallel Redundant System in Standby
In the standby configuration one or more subsystems are ready to take over operation upon
failure of the basic unit. The standby units are not operative until a failure-sensing device senses
the failure of the basic unit and turns on and connects the standby unit.
In parallel systems in standby, the following assumptions are initially made.

 The means of sensing that failure has occurred and for switching from the defective to the
standby is assumed to be failure free.
 The standby subsystems are assumed to have identical, constant failure rates to the main
subsystem.
80 | P a g e
 The standby subsystems are assumed not to fail while in the idle state.
 Defective subsystems are assumed to remain so. No repair is affected until the system
has failed.
For a system with n-1 standby units, system reliability is

Rsy  e t  Rsw   t  
t 2    t n1  e t
 2! n  1! 
MTBF of a system with n-1 standby units is
MTBF   Rt dt

t
t
  1  t 
t 2

t n 
n  1!
dt
 2!
0
For a constant failure rate of all units, the reliability is

n
MTBF 

c) Composite connection
This is a combination of series and parallel connections. For the system shown, the system fails
if block A fails or if both blocks B and C fail. Failure of B or C alone is not sufficient to cause
system failure.
d) Neither Series Nor Parallel Connections
These are cases in which the system configuration cannot be reduced to simple series and
parallel models, nor any combination of these.
81 | P a g e
For such situations where uncertainty exists s to the configuration of the system, Baye’s theorem
can be helpful to determine the system reliability. The use of Baye’s theorem is demonstrated as
follows. Consider the block diagram shown above. The connection of the blocks in this case is
neither parallel nor series. To ensure the reliability of the system, i.e. for the system to operate
successfully, at least on of the paths AA’ or BB’ should function. However, since neither A nor
B is fully reliable, a third element C is added to supply either A’ or B’. Hence four paths are
possible: AA’, BB’, CA’ or CB’.
System reliability is determined as follows:
System success requires that at least one of the paths AA’, BB’, CA’ or CB’ be successful.
With C working successfully,

Rsy Cs  1  1  RA' 1  RB' RC
With C unsuccessful,
Rsy Cus  1  1  RA RA' 1  RB RB' 1  RC 
Hence, system reliability is given by the sum of the above reliability terms
Rsy  Rsy Cs  Rsy Cus
Substituting and simplifying yields

Rsy  1  RC 1  RA' 1  RB '  
1  RC 1  RA RA' 1  RB RB' 
b) Maintainability prediction
In assigning any maintenance workload, it is important to specify the time during which the job
has to be accomplished. Doing this will help optimize the resource allocation and will help
eliminating idle man-hour, idle machine time and so on. Hence, maintenance engineers should
engage themselves in determining the time which a specific maintenance job is going to take.
This is done by determining the maximum repair time, the median repair time and the
maintainability probability. To this end determining the maintainability function plays an
important role.
82 | P a g e
Maximum Repair Time
Maximum repair time is the maintenance (restoration, replacement) time which should not be
exceeded or exceeded only with a small probability. Determination of maximum repair time
depends on the probability of repair wanted.
Example: For a maintainability probability of 0.9,
t max  2.3026 MTTR
The maintainability probability function for maximum time is

 tM 
 max 

M t M max  1  e   MTTR 
In general,
 tM 
  max 
 
M t M max  1    1  e  MTTR 
This yields
t M max
ln   
MTTR
Given 
M tM max  and knowing the MTTR of an
equipment, the maximum time required for a maintenance task is

tM max  MTTR  ln 
where
  1  M tM max

Case of  t  not constant
For such cases, the time-to-restore pdf is

  t dt
t
g t    t  e 0
And the maintainability probability is
  t dt
t
M t     t  e 0
t
dt
0
83 | P a g e
Let ,
   t dt  v    t dt  dv
t
The maintainability probability function is
M t    e v dv  e v |t0
t
Upon simplification,
t
  t dt
M t   1  e 0
Given M t  and g t  , the repair rate can be determined from
g t 
 t  
1  M t 
For times-to-restore probability distribution is given by Weibull pdf,
 t  
 1 
M t1   1  e   
The maximum repair time can be obtained from logarithmic transformation

1
 t  
 ln1  M t1    1 
  
From which t1 can be obtained as
t1      ln1  M t1 

1
Chapter 9: Maintenance Planning
Maintenance Planning
Maintenance plan is needed to:

 Lay down a rational basis for formulating a programme of preventive maintenance, and
 Provide guidelines for corrective maintenance by the adoption of the proper maintenance
policies for the constituent items and components. Any rational maintenance plan should
be related to the production programme of the plant.
84 | P a g e
Production-maintenance interrelation
Reasons for introducing a maintenance planning
1. Proper maintenance planning

- Protects investment on machinery, plant and buildings through adequate maintenance,
- Thereby maximizing plant utilization with minimum downtime and
elongating the useful life of equipment.
2) Maintenance planning
- minimizes waste of spares and materials;
- ensures proper use of tools; and
- maximizes labour utilization.
Thus, enables good control of maintenance costs.
3) Good maintenance planning
- ensures right distribution of technical information; and
- can help in establishing proper safety system.
- facilitates plant control; and
- expedites evaluation of plant performance.
Division of responsibility is obligatory because replacement strategy for units (or the main plant
itself) is influenced by:
- External factors (obsolescence, sales, capital cost) and
- Internal factors, mostly short term such as maintenance cost, operating cost.
- Replacement strategy at this level is considered as a part of the corporate strategy.
85 | P a g e
In the lower level, repair/replacement strategy is the responsibility of maintenance management.

Proper maintenance planning has some benefits, even in the simpler plants. These benefits are
obtained as:
- Reduction in downtime,
- Efficient and optimal resource utilization,
- Prolonged machine life, and
- Good maintenance cost control.
Maintenance Policies
The major maintenance policies which can be classified as corrective an preventive are the
following:
i) Fixed time maintenance (PM)
ii) Condition-based maintenance (PM)
iii) Operate to failure (CM)
iv) Opportunity maintenance
v) Design-out maintenance
vi) Total Productive Maintenance
vii) Contract maintenance
In maintenance planning, the following guidelines should be considered in setting a reasonable
and appropriate maintenance policy.
A fixed-time replacement policy is usually most suitable for low-cost simple-replaceable items.
A condition-based policy is usually most effective for high-cost complex-replaceable items.
All high cost maintenance items, replaceable or non-replaceable, should be considered for
designing out. Where no preventive maintenance or design-out action is effective or desirable,
the item is operated-to-failure.
86 | P a g e
Chapter 10: Spares Inventory Control
10.1 The objective of spares inventory control
The objective of spares inventory control is the minimization of the sum of the associated costs which
can be classified as direct and indirect. The interrelation of these costs is a complex one. Direct costs
could be reduced to zero by totally eliminating spares holding. The consequence in availability is obvious
and hence affecting the indirect costs. On the other hand, plant availability would be greatly increased
iflarge numbers of every spare item were always held, rut then direct costs would be enormous. Thus
seeking the optimum level of spares handling, and economically maintaining it are the basic objectives of
spares inventory control.
10.2 Complicating Factors
Inventory control is complicated by many factors. These factors arise from:
 complexity of the very many items

 these have widely ranging costs
 different usage rates, and
 different failure rates
 variable delivery dates
 deterioration in stock
10.3 Classification of Spares Inventory
Spares inventory can be divided in to three groups.
10.3.1 Insurance inventory

Items which are unlikely ever to be used, but which are bought as an insurance against failure
10.3.2 Manually controlled inventory
Items of low usage rate which are not predictable with large percentage of variation to which no
mathematical approach could be made.
10.3.3 Automatically controlled inventory:
Items of high usage rate with small percentage variation and good predictability to which
mathematical forecasting techniques can apply.
10.4 Inventory Control Theory
Inventory control theory attempts to determine those procedures which will minimize the sum of
the costs of:
1. Running out of stock (production loss due 10 stoppage)
87 | P a g e
2. Replenishing stock (cost of items)

3. Holding stock (interest on capital, insurance, depreciation)
Inhere, two basic theories are discussed. The first is based on the determination of the number of
expected failures for a given period in the life of the equipment for which a spares holding is to
be determined; and the second is the Economic Order Quantity.
10.5 Spares Provisioning for a Desired Confidence Level
The number of spare parts required for a particular component for a specified period of time can be
determined from the expected number of failures of the component for that period. The expected number
of failures is determined from the failure rate of the component. The expected number of failures during
the period from t1 to t2, Nf(t2 – t1), is given by the equation,
This equation applies to any type of failure rate for which the number os spare parts IS to be
determined.
88 | P a g e
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Maintenance and Installation of Machinery (MEng 5231) Module, 2012 E.

DEBRE TABOR UNIVERSITY

Maintenance and Installation of Machinery /MEng 5231/

Prepared by: Berhe Syum (MSc.)

DEBRE TABOR, ETHIOPIA

P.O. BOX: 272

Debre Tabor University Faculty Of Technology Department Of Mechanical Engineering

CHAPTER 1: MAINTENANCE AND MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT

Debre Tabor University Faculty Of Technology Department Of Mechanical Engineering

1.1.1 DEFINITION OF MAINTENANCE

1.1.2 Evolution of maintenance

1.2 Maintenance Management

 Design stage: Performance, Reliability, maintainability, Support system

Fig 1.1 equipment life cyle

Six important principles of maintenance management are listed below:

 The customer service relationship is the basis of an effective maintenance organization.

The effectiveness of maintenance management depends on many elements. Some of these

FIGURE 1.2 Elements of effective maintenance management.

 Job planning: Job planning is an important element of effective maintenance

1.3 Production process and maintenance process

Figure 1.3 Production and maintenance processes

Figure 1.4 Characteristics of the maintenance process

1.4 Maintenance function

Tdown = cumulative outage time

Down time = Repair time + Delays

Repair time = f(maintainability, management method, engineering techniques)

ACTIVE TIME INACTIVE TIME

MAINTENANCE MODIFICATION DELAY

ISOLATION ADJUSTMENT CHECKING LOGGING AND

REPAIR IN REMOVE REMOVE AND REPAIR

INSPECTION SERVICING REPLACING MINOR OVERHAUL MAJOR OVERHAUL

Fig classification of Equipment time activities involved

ACTIVE TIME INACTIVE TIME

ISOLATION ADJUSTMENT CHECKING LOGGING AND

REPAIR IN REMOVE REMOVE AND REPAIR

INSPECTION SERVICING REPLACING MINOR OVERHAUL MAJOR OVERHAUL

MAINTAINABILITY MANAGEMENT ENGINEERING TECHNIQUES

Fig. Downtime and its constituents

1.4.2 Impacts of reliability in maintenance function

a) LOWER PRODUCTION UNIT COST.

b) REDUCED MAINTENANCE COSTS.

c) BETTER PROCESS STABILITY

Equipment breakdowns inevitably result in process upsets. It is difficult to have a stable,

d) EXTENDED EQUIPMENT LIFE

e) REDUCED MAINTENANCE SPARE PARTS INVENTORY

1.5 Classification of Maintenance

Running Shutdown Running Shutdown

Preventive Maintenance: is the technique of minimizing untimely equipment breakdown and/or

• Reduction in equipment redundancies

• Efficient use of maintenance labor achieved by working on schedule basis instead of

• Timely routine repairs resulting in fewer large scale repairs

• Improved safety and quality conditions

The elements of preventive maintenance are :

• Care: Activities like cleaning, lubrication, etc..

• Basically it is an emergency maintenance carried out after breakdown, thus it’s a

• It is an off-schedule maintenance required by system in service failure or malfunction.

• System operation is restored by replacing, repairing or adjusting the component which